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THE 



UNIYERSAL ASSISTiOT, 

AND 

COMPLETE MECHANIC. 



CONTAINING OVER 



ONE MILLION INDUSTRIAL FACTS, 

CALCULATIONS, RECEIPTS, PROCESSES, TRADE SECRETS, RULES, 

BUSINESS FORMS, LEGAL ITEMS, ETC., IN EVERY 

OCCUPATION, FROM THE 

HOUSEHOLD TO THE MANUFACTORY, 

BY R. MOORE. 




\ JVo.Mi^-/^- 




1879. -^o■*^ 



Illustrated with 500 Engravings, ''f v'v.»\^^ 



'*Let us have Facts, real, certain, unmistakable Facts, there can be 
no Science without them."— ROBERT DICK. 



Price in Cloth Binding, $2.50 ; in Leather Binding, $3.50. Free by Mail to any 
Address in the United States, Canada, or Great Britain, by remitting the price to 
R. Moore, No. 20 Cooper Institute, New York, U. S. A. Parties will save Ex- 
press charges by ordering single copies sent by Mail, instead of by Express, C.O.D. 
Agents wanted. See next page. 

laebj Yovt : 

R. MOORE, No. 20 COOPER INSTITUTE. 

WM. DUNHAM, EDITOR OF ''THE MILLER," 69 MARK LANE, 

LONDON, ENGLAND. JAMES SPIERS, 

36 BLOOMSBURY STREET, W. C, LONDON 

1879. 



f>N. 



Alaska. 7 23 a.m. 



Albany, 12 13 p.m. 
Atlanta, 11 30 a.m. 



Auensta. Ga.. 11 3Q a.m. 



Baltimore, Md., 12 02 p.m. 



Bangor, Me., 12 33 p.m. 



Bath, Me., 12 29 p.m. 



Boston, Mass., 12 24 p.m. 



Buffalo. N. Y., II 52 a.m. 



Camb'ge, Mass., 12 24 p.m. 



Charlest'n, S.C., 11 43 a.m. 



Chicago, 111., II 17 A.M. 



Cincinnati, O., 11 30 a.m. 



Cleveland, O., 11 41 A.M. 



Columbia, S.C., 11 44 a. m, 



Columbus. O., II 36 a.m. 



Danville, Va.. 11 50 A.M. 



Denver, Col. , 10 08 a.m. 
Detroit, Mich., 11 36 a.m. 



Dubuque. la.. 11 05 a.m. 



(ialveston,Tex., 1049 A.M. 



Halifax, N. S., 12 54 p.m. 



Hamilton, Ont., 11 49 a.m. 



Hannibal, Mo., 11 07 a.m. 



Hartford, Ct., 12 17 p.m. 



Havana, Cuba, 11 38 a.m. 



Houston, Tex., 10 44 a.m. 



Indianap's. Ind., 11 24 A.M. 



Jacksonv'e, 111., 11 07 a.m. 
JefTn City, Mo., xo 59 a.m. 



Kalama, W. T.. 8 58 a.m. 



Kansas City, Mo. 1049 A. M 



Knoxv'e, Tenn., 11 32 a.m 



I,aramie. Wy T., 10 12 a.m. 



Louisville, Ky., 11 26 a.m. 



Lincoln, Neb., 10 41 A.M. 



Little Rock,Ak., 1059 a.m 
London, Eng., 5 08 P.m. 



Macon. Ga., 11 37 a.m. 



Memp's, Tenn., 11 o3 a.m 



Meridian. Miss.. 11 14 a.m 



Mexico, 10 32 a.m. 



Milwau'e, Wis., 11 16 a.m 



Minneapolis, 10 55 a.m. 



Mobile, Ala., 11 16 a.m. 



FOR MEASUREMENT OF TIME 
SEE PAGE 773. 

Table Showing the Time in 

Various Parts of the World 

when it is Noon at 

WASHINGTON, D. C. 



Moncton, N. B., 12 48 p.m. 



COPYRIGHT, 

1879, 

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. 




M 


ontreal. Can 


, 12 


'4 


P 


M. 


Nashv'e Tenn. 


, II 


21 


A 


M. 


N 


Haven, 


Ct. 


12 


16 P.M. 


N. 


London 


, Ct 


, 12 


20 


P 


M, 


New York, 


II 


12 p. 


M. 


• 




N. 


Orleans 


,La 


, II 


08 


A 


M. 


Omaha, Neb.. 


ID 44 A 


.N 


. 



Ottawa, Can., 12 05 p.m. 



Paducah, Ky., 11 16 a.m. 



Panama, 11 50 A.M. 



Paris, France, 5 17 p.m. 



Pensacola, Fla.. 11 19 p.m. 
Philada., Pa., 12 07 p.m. 
Pittsburg, Pa., 11 48 a.m. 
Port Hope, Can., 11 54 A.M. 



Rome, Ga., 11 32 a.m. 
St. John, N. B., 12 44 P.M. 



Pt. Huron, Mch., 11 34 a.m- 
Portland, Me., 12 27 p.m. 



Portsm'th, Va., 12 03 p.m. 



Provide'ce, R.I., 12 22 I'.M* 



Quebec, Can., 12 23 p.m. 



Quincy, 111., 11 07 a.m. 



Richmond, Va., 11 58 a.m. 



St. Johns, N. F., i 37 p.m. 



St. Joseph, Mo., 10 50 A.M. 



St. Louis, Mo., II 07 a.m. 



St. Paul, Minn., to i;^ a. 



St. Step'n, N,B., 1239 A.rt 
Salt Lake City, 9 40 a.m. 



Santa Fe, 10 04 a.m. 



San Francisco, 8.58 a.m. 



Sauk St. Marie, 11.31 a.m. 



Savannah, Ga., 11 44 a.m. 



Selma, Ala., 11 20 a.m. 



Shreveport, La., 10 57 a.m. 



Sioux Citj', la.. 10 42 a.m. 



Terre Haute, 11 18 a.m. 



Toronto, Can., 11 51 a.m. 



Vincennes, Ind. 11 17 .A..M. 



Vera Cruz, 10 43 a.m. 



Vicksb'g, Miss., 11 05 a.m. 
Wilming'n, NC, n 58 a.m. 



<^V 



Active Agents furnished with permanent and profitable employment selling 

uoonE's mimi miim m comfleie mum, 

everywhere throughout the United States and Canada. An Agent wanted in 
every County. For Contents Pamphlet and Terms, address, 

R. MOORE, 20 Cooper Institute, N. Y. 



PREFACE. 



This work is issued with the^ design of supplying very 
important omissions in the author's antecedent writings and 
compilations. His most fervid acknowledgments are due 
for the great encouragement accorded to his previous efforts, 
and the favorable opinions expressed regarding them. The 
result has been that, stimulated by the experience of the 
past, he has in the present work, made special exertions to 
present an immense array of rare and most valuable infor- 
mation relating to Commerce and the Industrial Arts. The 
vital concerns of health, home, domestic felicity, and other 
all-important interests, have also received due attention, 
and to make the information more comprehensive and com- 
plete, he has quoted largely from his previously published 
works, wherever he judged it necessary to do so. These 
extracts include a few items for machinists use, and the 
diagrams for saw-filing, selected from the " Boston Machin- 
ist " and Halley's work " On Saw-filing," by permission of 
the publishers, John AViley & Son, of New York, together 



GENERAL INDEX. 

PAG^ 

( 414-418 

Portraits and Notices of Eminent Engineers, &c •< 430-440 

( 473-474 

Smelting of Metals, &c 583-584-586 

Useful Items for Daily Remembrance 587 

Interest Table at and 7 per cent 597 

Ready Reckoner for Coal, Hay, «fec,, at any rate per ton 298-299 

Ready Reckoner for Pounds, Yards, Bushels, <fec., at sight.... 600-604 

Expectancy of Life, Weight, Stature, &c., of Man 605 

Weights of Cast Iron Pipe from 1 to 22 ins. diam 606 

Weights of Brass, Copper, Steel, Lead, Plate Iron, Flab Cast 

Iron, Wrought Iron Pipe, Planting Table, &c 607 

Torsional Strength of Metals, Capacities, Size and Weight of 

Coppers, Weight of Square and Round Cast Iron 608 

Weights of Round, Square, and Flat Cast Iron, Flat Steel, 

Moulders' and Pattern Makers* Tables 609 

Strength of Iron Columns, Capacities of Cisterns, Weights of 

Cordwood, Arithmetical Signs and their Signification 610 

Ready Reckoner Table for Board, Wages, Rent, &c.. Weight of 

Lead Pipe, Different Sizes, Capacities of Cribs, Boxes, <fcc.... 595-611 

Diameters, Circumferences and Areas of Circles 612-615 

Diameter, &c., of Circles, Contents of Vessels in Gallons, Area 

in Feet - 616 

Scantling and Timber Measurement Tables 617-618 

Lumber Measurement at Sight, 1 inch board measure 619 

Lumber and Log Measurement, Net Proceeds of Logs, &c 620 

Cubical Contents of Round Logs. Masts, Spars, &c f,21 

Cordwood and Bark Measurement at Sight 622 

Miscellaneous Tables for Mechanics 623-634 

Rules Tables, &c., for Engineers and Mill-owners, &c 635-687 

Facts, Calculations, &c. , for Agriculturists, &c 688-7^ 

Geological Facts, with Diagram , 728-735 

Age, Origin, and Ultimate Duration of the Earth 735-746 

Tables, Estimates, &c., for Printers and Publishers ,746-760 

Information Concerning Patents 760-762 

Facts Relating to Human Life, Population of the Griobe* High- 
est Mountains, Longest Rivers, &c 762-772 

Measurement of Time, the Circle, Zones, &c . .*.*.*. V. '..* .... '. '. .'.'.'. 773-775 

On Telegraphy, Photography, &o .'....".'...!*.!'..**.!*.'.". 776-784 

On Hunting and Trapping 1 .!..*!!. . 785-791 

Directions, Tables, &c. , for Merchants and Book-keepers! ! '. * '.*. '. 791-803 

Business Forms for Merchants, Mechanics and Farmers 803-825 

Special Laws of 49 States, Territories and Provinces 828-923 

Pacts, Tables and Processes Relating to Metallurgy, Gold and 

Silver Mining, Treatment of Ores, &c 924-95 1 

Quartz Machinery, Stamp Battery, &c 954-955 

Metallurgy of Gold— full details, Illustrated '....'.'.. 957-9H0 

Metallurgy of Silver— complete details, Illustrated 960-981 

Description of Furnaces used in Roasting Ores 982-991 

Blowpipe Assay, Fluxes, Hydrostatic Weighing, Cupellation... 991-993 
To Identify and Test Metallic Ores, Chemistry, Geognostic 

Situation. &c., of Metals , 995-1008 

Dry and Humid Assay of Ores, Reduction of Photographic 

Wastes, &c 1009^1013 

Valuable Processes in Various Trades, . , .,..,,..,,...,., 1013-lOlQ 





BAKING AND COOKING DEPARTMENT. 

Note. — The observant tradesman will notice that the following 
formulse may be adapted for smaller qnautities, or for household use, 
in any desired instance, by a i^roportionate subdivision of the ma- 
terials used. 

Hop Yeast. — Boil 9 ozs. of hops with 3 pails of water ; put 9 lbs. 
of good flour in a tub, and strain enough of the hop-water over it to 
make it into a stiff paste ; beat it up thoroughly ; strain in the rest of 
the hop-water iuto the paste ; let it stand until lukewarm ; then add 
4.^ qts. stock yeast. It will rise 1 to 3 inches, but do not disturb it 
until it drops. 

Stock or Malt Yeast. — Boil 12 ozs. of good hops with 4 pails of 
water for about 5 miuutes; then strain off enough of the liquid 
among 8 lbs; of good sifted flour in a tub, to render it into a stiff 
paste, working it up thoroughly with a clean stick ; then add the rest 
of the liquid to the paste; let it stand till lukewarm, and pulverize 
any remaining lumps with your fingers. Now add about 8 lbs. malt 
and 6 qts. stock yeast ; allow it to work in a warm place till it rises 
and falls again, which will occupy from 8 to 12 hours ; strain through 
a hair sieve and stand in a cool place. In warm weather 4 gals, cold 
water might be added to the above, previous to stocking it away. 

Compressed Yeast. — This yeast, so extensively used in Europe, 
is obtained by straining the common yeast in breweries and distil- 
leries until a moist mass is obtained, which is then placed in hair 
bags, and the rest of the water pressed out until the mass is nearly 
dry. It is then sewed up in strong linen bags for transportation. It 
will keep a long time, and is very highly esteemed by bakers. See 
Vienna Bread. 

Ferment. — Boil 2 pecks of good potatoes, strain, and place them 
in a ferment tub; add 8 or 9 lbs. flour, and, with a masher, intermix 
all thoroughly together and turn in, say, 6 or 8 gals, water, or enough 
to make it milkwarm ; add 2 gals, stock yeast, set it in a warm place, 
allowing it to rise and fall, not letting it stand very long after it falls, 
as it is liable to sour in warm weather; strain, and all is ready. 

Note. — Good yeast for the purpose of renewing your old stock 
may be made by boiling a peck of clean potatoes in 4 pails of water ; 
when about done, add 12 ozs. hops, and boil the potatoes until soft; 
put 12 lbs. flour into a clean tub; make into a stiff paste with part of 
the hop- water;' next add the whole, including potatoes and hops, 
rubbing the potatoes through a coarse sieve, letting it stand till luke- 

9 



10 BAKING AND COOKING RECEIPTS. 

warm; theu stock away. This is for renewing your old malt or boi* 
yeast when the latter rims out, and not for general use; or it may be 
substituted by yeast from another shop. 

Setting Sponge. — For a quantity of, say, 3 barrels of flour, put it 
in the trough; sift it ; add 4^ pails of ferment, and about 4^ of water 
(cold water during warm weather, and warm water duriug cold); m- 
termix and work it up smooth, allowing it to rise and fall, when it is 
ready. A delay in the process, for the space of 30 minutes or so, 
may be effected, if desired, by the addition of a handful of salt when 
the sponge is being set. Tlie sponge being ready, 9 lbs. of salt, in- 
cluding the last mentioned, are now weighed, dissolved, and turned 
into the sponge, together with 9 pails of water (of 2| gals, to each 
pail); mix all thoroughly and knead the dough, letting it get a good 
proof, when it will be ready to mix up into loaves. A good method 
for warm weather to work flour that is new and soft, is to make your 
dough right up, straining in all your ferment, salt and water, with- 
out setting any sponge. When the dough rises well, work it down, 
turning up the sides, and allow it to rise once more previous to 
throwing it out of the trough, adding alum if desired. With flour 
that works soft and clammy, requiring 9 lbs. of salt to the batch, 
omit 4| pounds, and substitute 2^ lbs. alum, 1 lb. of alum being 
equivalent to 2 lbs. salt. Alum assists inferior flour in making wliite 
bread. The rule here laid down is 8 ozs. salt to each pail of water, 
but a little more might be used occasionally with benefit. 

London White Bread. — The common proportions used by the 
London bakers, are: Flour, 1 sack; common salt, 4^ lbs.; alum, 5 
ozs. ; yeast, 4 pts. ; warm water for the sponge, about 3 gals. The 
alum is used for the purpose of lohiteninc; the bread, but Liebig has 
demonstrated that this purpose may be better subserved by the use 
of clear lime loater in mixing up the dough. 

It is the commendable ambition in the English bakers to impart 
that peculiar tint so higlily prized by connoisseurs, and so success- 
fully produced at Vienna and Paris. At Vienna, it has long been 
known that if the hearth of an oven be cleaned with a moistened 
wisp of straw, the crust of bread baked in it immediately after pre- 
sents a rich yellow tint; the theory is that the aqueous vapor retained 
in the oven has a beneficial effect. 

The proper temperature of the oven is between 200° and 225° 
Centigrade, equivalent to 424° and 480° Fahr., and may be known 
by the emission of sparks from a piece of wood rubbed on the oven. 

The dough loses about l-7th of its weight if baked in batches, but 
fully J if baked in small loaves and placed in the oven separately. 
The best bread contains about ll-16ths ox its weight of added water, 
and common bread often much more than ^. The proportion of wa- 
ter in the London bread has greatly increased of late years, owing 
to the use of the fraudulent method of making the dough ■with rice 
jelly or moss jelly, in which Iceland moss, Irish moss, or other moss- 
es are used, by boiling 7 lbs. of moss in 10 gals, of water, and using 
the resultant jelly in making 70 lbs. of flour into dough, which is 
then fermented and baked in the usual way. It is said that flour 
treated in this way will yield fully double its weight of good bread. 
According to Heern, 100 lbs. of wh eaten flour will yield at least 125 
to 12(5 lbs. of bread — some say 135 lbs. ; 100 lbs. of rye meal, 131 lbs. 
of bread. A | oz. carbonate of magnesia, added to the flour for a 



BAKING AND COOKING RECEIPTS. 11 

4-lb. loaf, materially improves the quality of the bread eveu when 
made from the very worst seconds flour. 

Paris Baker's White Bread. — Ou 80 lbs. of the dough left 
from the previous day's baking, as much luke-warm water is poured 
as will make 320 lbs. flour into a rather thm dough. As soon as thia 
has risen, 80 lbs. are taken out and reserved in a warm place for next 
day's baking. One pound of dnj yeast dissolved in loarm icater is 
then added to the remaining portion, and the whole lightly kneaded. 
As soon as it is sufiiciently " risen," it is then made into loaves, and 
shortly afterwards baked, the loaves being placed in the oven with- 
out touching each other, so that they may be " crusted" all round. 

The Secrets of Vienna Bread, — The proportions of Vienna 
bread, confessedly inferior to none in the world, are : Flour 100 lbs. ; 
water and milk, 9 gals. ; salt, 6 lbs. 4 ozs. ; pressed yeast, 18 lbs. 12 
ozs. According to Prof. Horsford, good fresh middlings flour will 
compare favorably with the average Hungarian flour used in Vienna. 
The fresh pressed yeast is obtained by skimming the froth from beer 
mash in active fermentation. This contains the upper yeast, which 
must be repeatedly washed with cold water until only the pure white 
yeast settles clear from the water. This soft, tenacious mass, after 
the water has been drawn off, is gathered into bags and subjected to 
hydraulic pressure, until there remains a semi-solid, somewhat brit- 
tle, dough-like substance, still containing considerable water. This 
is the pressed yeast, which will keep for eighty days in summer, and 
much longer ou ice. For use it should be fresh and sweet. 

The mixing is commenced by emptying the flour sacks into a zinc- 
lined trough about 2^ feet wide and 8 feet long, half round in form. 
Then with a pail holding about 5 gals., equal parts of milk and wa- 
ter are poured, and left to stand until the mixture attains the temper- 
ature of the room, between 70° and 80° Fahr. It is then poured into 
one end of the trough and mixed with the bare hand with a small 
portion of the flour to form a thin emulsion. The pressed yeast is 
next crumbled finely in the hands, and added in the proportion of 3^ 
ozs. to every 3 qts. of liquid, and then 1 oz. of salt in same- propor- 
tion is intermingled through the mass. The trough is now covered 
and left undisturbed for | of an hour, and after this the rest of the 
flour is incorporated with the mass in the above-named proportions. 
The mass of dough, being allowed to rest for 2^ hours, becomes a 
smooth, tenacious, puffed mass of yellowish color, which yields to 
indentation without rupture and is elastic. It is now weighed into 
pound masses, and each lump is cut by machinery into 12 small 
pieces, each f inch in thickness. Of each one of these, the corners 
are brought together in the centre and pinched to secure them. Then 
the lump is reversed and placed on a long dough board for further 
fermentation, until the whole batch is ready for the oven. Before 
being introduced into the latter, the rolls are again reversed and re- 
stored to their original position, having considerably increased in 
volume, to be still farther enlarged in the oven to at least twice the 
size of the original dough. In the oven they do not touch each other, 
and the baking occupies about 15 minutes. To glaze the surface they 
are touched in the process of baking with a sponge dipped in milk, 
which besides imparting to them a smooth surface, increases the 
brilliancy of the slightly reddish cinnamon color and adds to the 
grateful aroma of the crust. 



12 BAKING AND COOKING RECEIPTS. 

Aerated Bread. — Tlie water used in forming the dough is placed 
in a vessel capable of withstanding a high pressure, and carbonic acid 
gas 10 forced into it to the extent 10 or 12 atmospheres. The watei 
will absorb and retain it whatever may be its density, in quantities 
equal to its own bullr, so long as it is retained in a close vessel under 
pressure. The flour and salt, of which the dough is to be formed, is 
next placed in another poAverful vessel of a spheroidal form, con- 
structed with a simple kneading apparatus working from without 
and operating through a closely packed stuffing-box. Into this ves- 
sel is forced a pressure equivalent to that in the aerated water vessel, 
then by means of a pipe connecting the two vessels, the aerated 
water is drawn into the flour and the kneading apparatus is operated 
at the same time, the water acting simply as limpid water among the 
flour, forming a pasty mass of the requisite tenacity. The pressure is 
now withdrawn, and the gas escapes from the water, and in doing so, 
raises the dough in a beautiful and rapid manner, the intermixture being 
thorough and complete. The mixing vessel may have, say, an inter- 
nal capacity of 10 bushels ; to fill this with the Inflated bread dough 
only 3^ bushels of flour are required. In the intermixture of water 
with flour the pasty mass measures rather less than half the bulk of 
the original dry flour, or about 1^ bushels instead of 3^, the expand- 
ed dough represents nearly 5 parte gaseous to one solid. The subse- 
quent baking expands it to a much greater extent, making the 
proportions of gaseous to solid in all about 10 to 1. It must be self- 
evident that this bread is very pure, nothing but flour, water, and 
salt, being used, and reliable experiments have demonstrated that 
118 loaves can be made from the same weight of flour which by fer- 
mentation will make only 105 or 106, the loss in the latter being 
caused by the emission of carbonic acid gas through the dough dur- 
ing the process of fermentation and manufacture. In baldng this 
bread, it has been found necessary to have the heat admitted through 
the bottom of the oven, with means of regulating the heat of the top, 
so that the bread is cooked through the bottom, and the heat subse- 
quently admitted above towards the last, in order to perfect the toji 
crust. These precautions are taken owing to the low temperature of 
the dough when placed in the oven, caused by the use, of cold water 
in the baking process, and the sudden expansion on rising inducing 
a temperature of 40° Fahr., lower than ordinary fermented dougli". 
This in connection with its slow springing imtU it reaches the boiling 
point, renders it desirable to delay the formation of the top crust 
until the last moment 

ANOTHER Aerated Bread. — 1, Dissolve 1 oz. of sesqui-carbon- 
ate of ammonia in water, sufficient to make 7 lbs. of flour mto a dougli , 
which must be formed into loaves, and baked immediately. 2 
Divide 3 lbs. flour into two portions : mix up the first with water, 
holding m solution 2 ozs. bicarbonate of soda ; then mix the second 
portion of flour with water, to which 1 oz. of muriatic acid has been 
added ; knead each mass of the dough thoroughly. When this is 
done, mix both portions together as rapidly and perfectly as possible. 
form the mass into loaves and bake immediately. This bread con- 
tains no yeast, and is very wholesome. Note. — Carbonate of mag- 
nesia and muriatic acid chemically combined, form common salt. 

Healthy Mixed Bread. — Boil 3 lbs. of rice to a soft pulp in 
water; pare and cook by steam 6 lbs. of your best potatoes, mash 
your potatoes and rub them up with rice pulp ; add to the whole G 



BAKING AND COOKING KECEIPTS. 13 

• 

lbs. flour , make all into a dough with water, ferment with j-east, let 
it stand a proper length of time,- and then place it in the oven to bake. 

Anoi'her excellent Bread. — Knead 21 lbs. flour with 9 lbs ot 
pared and mashed potatoes, from which the water has been weli 
steamed off previous to mashing : mix together while the potatoes are 
warm, adding about 3 or 4 spoonfuls of salt. Then add about 3 
qts. milk-warm water, with 9 large spoonfuls of yeast gradually to 
the potatoes and flour ; knead and work it well into a smooth dough, 
and let it stand 4 hours before putting into the oven. 

French Bread. — Tuke nice rice, | lb. ; tie it up in a thick linen 
bag, givuig it enough room for it to swell : boil from three to four 
hours till it becomes a perfect paste ; mix while warm with 7 lbs. 
flour ; adding the usual quantities of yeast, salt, and water. Allow 
the dough to work a proper time near the fire, then divide into loaves, 
dust them in, and knead vigorously. 

Dyspepsia Bread. — ^The followmg receipt for making bread has 
proved highly salutary to persons afflicted with dyspepsia, viz. : — 3 
quarts unbolted wheat meal ; 1 quart soft water, warm but not hot ; 
1 gill of fresh yeast ; 1 gill molasses, or not, as may suit the taste ; 1 
teaspoonf ul of saleratus. 

For the sake of the mdustrious house-wife, and not for bakers, as 
they are supposed to know already, it may be well to state that 30 
minutes' baldng will suffice for 1 lb. loaves and cakes ; and 15 minutes 
additional for every lb. after the first for larger ones. Thus a 1 lb. 
loaf requires § hour, a 2 lb. loaf f hour, and a 4 lb. loaf Ij hour. 

Superior Bread from Buckwheat Meal. — To 2 qts. of sifted 
buckwheat meal, add hot water enough to wet the same, when suf- 
ficiently cooled, add 1 teaspoonf ul or more of salt, half a pint of 
yeast, and half a teaspoonful of molasses ; then add wheat flour 
enough to make it into loaves (it should be kneaded well) ; and when 
risen light, bake or steam it three or more hours. If this should get 
sour while rising, add a teaspoonful of sugar and a little saleratus, 
dissolved in water. For bread from Indian meal proceed in the same 
way, using it instead of buckwheat meal. 

Corn-Meal Bread, No. 1. — Take 2 qts. of corn meal, with about 
a pint of (thin) bread sponge, and water enough to wet it ; mix in 
about a half a pint of wheat flour, and a tablesix)onf ul of salt ; let it 
rise and then knead well the second time ; bake I5 hours. 

Corn-Meal Bread No. 2. — Mix 2 qts. of new corn^meal with 
three pints of warm • water ; add 1 tabiespoonf ul of salt, 2 table- 
spoonfuls of sugar and one large tabiespoonf ul of hop yeast : let it 
stand in a warm place five hours to rise ; then add 1| teacupfuls of 
wheat flour, and a half pint of warm water. Let it rise again 1^ 
hours, then pour into a pan well greased NVith sweet lard, and let it 
rise a few minutes. Then bake in a moderately hot oven, 1^ hours. 

Corn-Meal Bread, No 3. — Take 2 qts. of white corn-meal, 1 
tablespoonful of lard, 1 ]m\t of hot water ; mix the lard in water , 
stir it well that it may get heated thoroughly, and add one-half pint 
of cold water. When the mixture is cool enough, add two well- 
beaten eggs, and two tablespoon fuls of home-made yeast. Bake 
1 hour in a moderately heated oven. If for breakfast make over 
night. 

Best Boston Brown Bread.— Take 100 lbs. of Indian meal ; 50 
lbs. rye meal ; and 10 lbs. flour ; sift and intermix together in the 
trough ; strain in four gals, molasses ; 2 gals, ferment or yeast; dissolve 1 



14 BAKING AND COOKING RECEIPTS. 

lb. soda and 4 lbs. salt in water and add that. Now add wateJ 
enough to mix all rather stiff, mixing well and breaking all lumps. 
Mow mix in water enough to form a batter sufficiently thin to remain 
even on top : allow it to stand 2 or 3 hours after mixing, before put- 
ting it into the pans and oven, then bake from 6 to 10 hours in a 
slow oven. 

Boston, or Soft Crackers.— First sift in 4 bairels csf flour into 
the trougli, add 2 pails of stock-yeast, and about 9 pails of water ; 
mix all into a sponge and allow it to stand until it rises and falls 
twice. The sponge will require about 6 or 8 hours to become ready, 
if it sours a little, so much the better. Usually it is set about noon 
for the work next day, and if set warm, for using stock yeast instead 
of ferment, it will come less rai)idly. The sponge being ready, add 
to it from 8 to 10 pails more water ; mix and break the sponge up 
weU, making a stiff dough, and let it stand until next morning. It is 
requisite that the dough should be sour, to ensure good crackers. 
When ready, remove a sample of it sufficient for one ovenful of 
crackers ; take it to another part of the trough, and add to it from 5 
to 6 lbs. of butter or lard, the proportion to be added to be estimated 
by the dimensions of the piece so separated ; soda in solution is now 
to be added, made by dissolving soda, 1 lb. in cold water, 1 qt., and 
the detached piece of dough may be intermixed with 1 pt. of the 
liquid, representing 8 ozs. of soda, but the exact quantity required 
must be ascertained by the acidity or age of the dough, and the judg- 
ment of an experienced practitioner. Mix the soda and butter 
thoroughly into the dough, and put it through the rollers repeatedly 
or until smooth. Place a sample of this dough in the oven to deter- 
mine whether or not it contains the proper quantity of soda. When 
baked, too much soda will induce a yellow appearance, and more 
dough without soda must be added ; a deficiency of soda wiU be in- 
dicated by a sour smell, and in that case more soda must be added. 
When all is right, the dough is put through the machine, and the 
succeeding batch of crackers is commenced by selecting another 
piece of dough and proceeding as above, adding the butter and soda 
in the required proportion, each batch requiring more soda on ac- 
count of the increasing acidity acquired by long exposure to the air. 
Another way. — Set the sponge on the previous night, and the 
next day instead of making dough of it, select a portion of the sponge, 
adding it to the butter and soda as above directed, working them well 
Into it, and adding flour enough to make a stiff dough, and it is ready 
for the break. When you detach part of the sponge to make the 
batch, add water enough to the sponge, and stir it^ up with more 
flour, thus continuing to renew the sponge as fast as it is used. 

Soda Crackers are made by the same process, of the same dough ; 
after using the scraps, add a little more butter, rolling them thinner 
and cutting them square. 

Oyster Crackers are made of the same dough, using the scraps 
also. Butter, Sugar, and other crackers are made the same way, 
adding respectively butter and sugar. 

Cream Crackers.— Rub together 14 lbs. flour and 1 lb. butter ; 
then add 1 lb. pounded sugar, 48 eggs, and flavor ; mix thoroughly, 
and work it quite stiff and'smooth ; roll out quite thin ; cut them with a 
cutter in the form of a oak leaf ; put them into boiling water and 
boil till they float ; remove with a skimmer and dry them on cloths,- 
and bake on clean pans without being buttered, in a warm oven 



BAKING AND COOKING RECEIPTS. 15 

Cheap Lady Cake. — Break up 2 lbs. butter, mix in 3 lbs. sugar, 
rubbing well together for 5 or 10 minutes, add 2 pts. whites of eggs, 
a third at a time, beat all up light, then add 4 lbs. flour, and 1 oz. soda, 
dissolved in 2 pts. milk, and 2 ozs. cream tartar ; intermix all well to- 
gether, bake in pans about 1| ins. deep, in loaves that will weigh from 
2 to 3 lbs., when baked, tiike out of the pans and frost on the under 
side. Mark in slices | of an inch thick. 

Frost Cakes. — Beat 2 lbs. butter and 3 lbs. sugar together until 
quite light, add 30 eggs, 10 at a time, beating after each addition, then 
a little ext. lemon, add 3 lbs. flour, stir just enough to mix ; put in flat, 
square pans, greased, and bake in a slow oven, when done, frost on 
the under side and mark in squares. 

Cii'ron Frost Cake is made similar to the above, with the addi- 
tion of sliced citron when the flour is added, or preferably put the 
citron on the batter after it is in the pans. Bake as the last. 

Shrewsbury Cake. — Rub 2 lbs. butter, and 2 lbs. of sugar to- 
gether, add 24 eggs, 6 at a time, beating them in, dissolve and add 
twice as much soda as will lie on a dime in a little water, mix in 4 lbs. 
flour, roll and cut out with any plain or fancy shaped cutter, put on 
buttered tins, and bake in a moderate oven. 

Lemon Cake. — Rub together 6 lbs. of light brown sugar, and 
2 lbs. of lard or butter, add 16 eggs, 12 qts. of milk with 2 ozs. of soda 
dissolved therein, 2 ozs. ammonia, a few drops extract of lemon for 
flavor, and flour sufficient to make a stiff batter; drop them either 
with the hand or with a spoon, into scalloped pans, and sprinkle a few 
currants on the top of each, and bake in a moderate oven. 

Rock Cake. — Rub together 4 lbs. sugar, and 8 lbs. of flour, make a 
hollow in the middle, and add 6 eggs, IJ pts. milk, 1 lb. 8 oz. of but- 
ter, and 2 oz. ammonia, mix all together, roll out and cut out with a 
plain cutter, rather tliick, put on pans, and with a fork scratch the top 
of each until it is quite rough. Bake in a moderate oven. 

Cup Cake. — Break up 2 lbs. butter, add 3 lbs. sugar, and 16 eggs, 
a third at a time, beat up light, add 5 lbs. flour, 2 pts. milk, and 
ammonia 2 ozs., make aU smooth by thorough mixing. Bake in 
small pans in a moderate oven. 

Wedding Cake. — Rub 4 lbs. butter and 4 lbs. light brown sugar 
well together, adding 40 eggs, one quarter at a time, beating well, then 
add 2 pts. molasses, 2 pts. good brandy, 1 oz. each of mace, nutmeg, 
cassia, and cloves, all well blended in and mixed with the mass, then 
add 5 lbs. flour, 8 lbs. currants, 9 lbs. stoned raisins, and 3 lbs. citron, 
intermix all thoroughly, put it in pans, spread smooth on top, and it is 
ready for the oven. These materials will make 4 loaves of 9 lbs. each, 
and will require careful baking for from 4 to 6 hours in a cool oven, 
otherwise it will be bunit on the outside. To frost this amount of 
cake beat up the whites of 10 eggs in a bowl, with sufficient pulverized 
sugar to render the mixture stiff enough to spread on the cake, 
using a wooden spoon (probably 2^ lbs. will be required), beat all to- 
gether for 15 or 20 minutes ; spread it on the cake, after the latter 
becomes cool, and set it away until the next day, when another coat 
of the frosting composition must be applied, and the cake set away 
until the day following to await the final ornamenting. This is ef- 
fected with the assistance of ornamenting tubes, &c., together with a 
frosting composition of a much stiff er consistence than that previously 
used. Note. — One-half, or even one-quarter of the above quantity oi 
cake will be found amply sufficient for most occasions. 



16 BAKING AND COOKING RECEIPTS. 

Another Wedding Cake. — Use 2 lbs. sugar, 3 lbs. flour, 8 nut- 
megs, 18 eggs, 1 oz. allspice, 1 oz. cloves, 3 lbs. currants, 2 lbs. citron, 
3 lbs. sultana raisins, a little ammonia, and 1 gill brandy. Proceed 
with the mixture as directed in the foregoing, and bake in a slow oven. 

CocoANUT Cakes. — To each lb. of grated cocoanuts add 1 lb. of 
powdered sugar and the whites of 4 eggs, piit all in a kettle 
and cook on the fire for about 30 minutes, stirring well all the 
time, and avoid burning, cook to a soft and mushy consistence, turn 
it out and add to each lb. of cocoanut as previously weighed 2 ozs. of 
flour, working it well into the mixture. Now put it in well greased 
pans, selecting a small piece in your hands, rolling it round and lay- 
ing it on the pans, i)utting them about 1 inch apart, to allow for spread- 
ing, and bake in a cool oven. 

Queen Cake. — Rub together 2 lbs . sugar and 2 lbs. butter, next 
add 16 eggs, 1 pt. milk, 1 oz. of ammonia, stir all well together, then 
add the flour ; bake in square pans with a few currants on top. 

Drop Cake. — Rub together 3 lbs. sugar and 1^ lbs. of butter, add 
13 eggs, in 3 different lots, 3 pts. of sour milk, 1^ ozs. soda, 1^ ozs. of 
ammonia, flavor with ext. lemon, stir all well together, add flour sufll- 
cient to make a stiff batter, drop on buttered pans, bake in a quick oven. 

Molasses Pound Cake. —Mix together 1 gal. molasses, 3 lbs. but- 
ter, 8 eggs, 2 qts. water, 8 ozs. of soda, and add sifted flour sufficient 
to make a stiff batter. Bake in small scalloped pans, in a cool oven. 

Cross Buns. — Work 24 lbs. dough, 2 lbs. sugar, 2 lbs. butter, 12 
eggs and a little cimiamon into the dough, and set away to rise; then 
pinch them off in about 2 oz. pieces; mould them up; pin out; put 
on pans, and mark them across with a knife, or cross them with 
strips of dough. 

Gold Cake. — Rub together 2 lbs. butter, and 2^ lbs. brown sugar ; 
add the yolks of 30 eggs, a few at a time, beating all well up ; add 
1 qt. milk with 1 oz. soda dissolved in it, stir well up ; and add 4 lbs. 
flour ; 1 oz. cream tartar ; a little lemon extract ; mix all up lightly, 
and bake in small pans in a warm oven. 

New York Sponge Cake. — Beat 16 eggs and 2 lbs. sugar together 
about 5 minutes ; next add 2 ozs. ammonia, 1 pt. milk, and flavor ; mix 
all ; add the flour, stirring carefully, but sufficient to mix. Bake in 
little round pans, in a warm oven. 

Lady Cake. — ^Rub 2 lbs. butter and 4 lbs. sugar together until it is 
quite light; then add the whites of 60 eggs, one-foiirth at a time, 
beatmgwell; next flavor with a little oil of almonds; stir slightly; 
then add 2 lbs. flour and 1 lb. corn starch, and stir up lightly. Bake 
in a slow oven and turn over and frost on the under side. 

Ground-rice Cakes.— Rub together 2 lbs. butter and 4 lbs. sugar; 
add 16 eggs; beat up thoroughly; add 2 pts. milk, 4 ozs. ammonia, 
and flavor with lemon ; stir all up ; add 4 lbs. of rice flour, and mix 
thoroughly; drop on buttered pans about the size of an egg, and bake. 

Cream Cakes. — Take 1 qt. water, and 1 lb. dark coarse-grained 
lard ; boil together in a kettle, and then stir in 17 ozs. of best quality 
flour; boil all 4 or 5 minutes, or mitil it is quite smooth; then turn it 
out on a board, and scrape the kettle with a knife; now put your 
paste in the kettle again, with 10 eggs ; stir well together until all is 
smooth; then add 18 or 20 more eggs, or until the batter is of the 
right thickness; next dissolve J oz. soda in a little water, and mix in 
thoroughly; drop on pans slightly greased; wash them on top with 



BAKING AND COOKING RECEIPTS. 17 

eg.^, and bake in a quick oven. They will require 16 to 18 minutes 
to bake with a proper heat. When baked, remove from the fire ; split 
them through the centre and fill them with the following cream: 
Place on the fire 1 qt. milk m a kettle, mix 4 oz. flour, 8 oz. white 
sugar, 4 eggs, and a little salt in another vessel; when the milk boils, 
turn in the mixture, stirring briskly ; when it boils, remove from the 
fire, and flavor with lemon or vanilla as desired. 

Rock Cakes. — Rub well together 6 lbs. flour, and 2 lbs. butter, 
making a cavity in the middle; put in 2 lbs. sugar, 2 lbs. currants, 8 
eggs, dissolved soda, 1 oz., and a little ess. lemon, with milk sufficieut 
to mix up stiff; now take a four-pronged fork and work of pieces of 
dough the size of walnuts ; place on pans, and bake m a cool oven. 

Snow Cakes. — ^Rub 2 lbs. butter and 2 lbs. sugar well together; 
then add the whites of 24 eggs, 3 at a time; beat up well; add 12 ozs. 
flour, 2^ lbs. of arrowroot ; add the flavor and mix lightly. Make 6 
loaves of this quantitj^, either round or square ; put lemon peel on 
top, and bake m a cool oven. 

Moss Cake. — Rub 6 lbs. of flour and 3 lbs. of butter well together ; 
then add 2 lbs. sugar, 8 eggs, and flavor with ess. of lemon ; mix well 
together imtil smooth and stiif . Now take a piece the size of an egg, 
push it through a sieve, and form it in bunches to resemble moss ; 
put on buttered pans, and bake very carefully in a moderate oven to 
a delicate brown color. 

New York Lunch Cake. — ^Rub together 14 lbs. flour, 2 lbs. but- 
ter; then add 3 qts. milk, 1 oz. soda, 1 oz. tartaric acid, and 8 ozs. ar- 
rowroot; mix all quite stiff, break it well, and snap them off about as 
big as walnuts; pin them out; dock them full of holes, and bake ou 
clean pans in a warm oven. 

Tea Cake. — ^Rub 12 lbs. of flour and 6 lbs. of butter together; add 
6 lbs. sugar, 24 eggs, 2 ozs. of soda, 4 ozs. cream tartar; flavor and 
add milk sufiicient to make a nice, soft dough ; mix up lightly, roll 
out, and cut with any fancy-shaped cutters, bake in a warm oven. 

Fancy Cake. — Rub together 4 lbs. sugar and 3 lbs. butter; add 
40 eggs in 4 different lots; add 1 oz. soda dissolved in a little mUk; 
mix well; then stir in 4 lbs. of flour; 1 oz. cream tatar; a little ex- 
tract of lemon; mixing all well together, bake in. a moderate oven. 

Raisin Cake. — Rub together 1 lb. butter and 1^ lbs. powdered 
sugar ; add 18 eggs, one third at a time, beatmg well in ; add J oz. 
dissolved soda, stirring well in ; add a little ext. lemon ; 2 lbs. 2 ozs. of 
flour; 1 lb. 1 oz. sultana raisins; and mix all well together. Bake in 
a slow oven in pans about 1^ inches deep. 

Pound Cake. — Break up and well mix 1 lb. of fresh butter 
with 1 lb. of powdered sugar; add 10 eggs, a few at a time, beating 
up lightly; add lib. of flour ; a very little soda ; mix all so as to make 
the flour smooth ; bake in a slow oven. 

Selver Cake. — Rub together 2 lbs. butter and 4 lbs. powdered 
sugar; add the whites of 30 eggs, in 3 lots at a time; beat up well; 
add 2 pts. milk with 1 oz. soda; 6 lbs. flour, 1 oz. cream tartar; with 
a little vanilla flavor; mix up lightly and bake as the last. 

Ginger Snaps. — Put 2 qts. molasses; 1^ lbs. of lard; 3 ozs. of 
ground ginger; 2 ozs. of soda, and 1 pt. water, into a bowL Mix all 
together; add flour enough to make a stiff dough: then work in 2 
lbs. sugar; roll thm; cut in long strips in rolls on the table ; cut them 
off with a knife or cutter the desired size; put on buttered tins; 
flatten them down a little with the hand, and bake iu a slow oven 

2 



18 BAKING AND COOKING RECEIPTS. 

GiKGER Cake. — Put 12 eggs and 2 pts. cream ou the fire in a cop- 
per or tin disli; stir until warm; then add 2 lbs. butter; 2 lbs. sugar; 
10 ozs. giujjer; allow it to stay ou a slow fire and continue stirring till 
the butter is melted; then set off; when cold add 8 lbs. flour; mix up 
smooth; roll out thin, and cut with a circular cutter; place on paper, 
and bake in a hot oven. 

Cinnamon Cakes.— Put 12 eggs and 6 dessert spoonfuls of rose 
water into a bowl ; whisk together, and add 2 lbs. nne sugar, and 1 
oz. of ground cinnamon and flour sufficient to make a nice stiff paste; 
roll them out; cut iuto any desired shape, and bake them on paper, 
in a slow oven. 

Seed Cakes. — ^Rub together 1 lb. butter and 2 lbs. flour; then into 
a hollow in the centre; put 4 lbs. sugar; 2 qts. milk; 4 ozs. caraway 
seeds, and a little ammonia ; mix up, but do not work it much; roll 
out; cut with a small cutter, and bake in a warm oven. 

Spice Cake. — Mix together 3 lbs. sugar and 1^ lbs. butter ; add 1^ 
pts. milk; 15 eggs, a few at a time; | oz. ammonia; one nutmeg 
and a half; gib. currants; 5 lbs. flour. Mix up well and bake in 
deep, square pans in a slow oven. 

New York Fancy Cake. — Rub together 2 lbs. sugar and 1 lb. 
butter; add 12 eggs a few at a time, beat all up well; add | qt. of 
sour milk; 3| lbs. flour; f oz. soda; § oz. cream tartar, and extract 
of lemon for flavor. Mix up smooth and bake in scalloped ])ans. 

Machine Jumbles. — Rub together 3 lbs. sugar and 2 lb. 4 ozs. 
butter ; add 12 eggs a few at a time, beat all up well ; | oz. of ammo- 
nia; l| pts. milk; a little ext. lemon, and 5 lbs. 4 ozs. of flour; aud 
stir sulflciently to mix. 

Champagne Biscuits. — Work up 2 lbs. butter in a basin to a 
thick cream; add 2 lbs. of sugar; 2 lbs. flour; 36 yolks of eggs; 1 oz. 
caraway seeds ; a little salt; whisk up the whites of the 36 eggs and 
add them ; get a sheet of strong paper ; fold it in reversed plaits like a 
fan, to form trenches about 1 inch deep; fill a biscuit forcer with part 
of the batter ; force out some finger-like biscuits into the trenches 
about 3 inches long; sifting sugar over them, and bake them of a 
light-fawn color in a moderate oven. 

Cream Tartar Biscuit. — Work in 3 lbs. sifted flour with 2 ozs. 
butter; add 2 ozs. cream tartar; dish the middle and pour in 1 pt. 
milk and 1 pt, water, previously adding 1 oz. soda to the milk ; mix 
all up briskly, but don't make it too stiff. Flatten it out; cut with a 
biscuit cutter; place them on buttered tins close together and bake in 
a quick oven. 

AVashington Cake. — ^Rub together 4 lbs. sugar and 2 lbs. 8 ozs. 
of butter ; 16 eggs ; 2 pts. water aud 2 ozs. of ammonia ; with flour 
sufficient to make a suitable dough to roll ; cut out with a scalloped 
cutter, aud bake in a warm oven. 

Brandy Snaps. — Mix up 1| pounds flour, ^ lb. butter, ^ lb. sugar, 
3 oz. gloves, and h pint molasses. Mix all together and bake. 

Washington Pie. — Rub together 1 lb. butter, and 1^ lbs. powder- 
ed sugar, add 1 pt. of eggs, a little at a time, beat up well, add ^ oz. 
soda dissolved in ^ pt. milk ; flavor with ext. lemon, stir up, and'add 
2 lbs. flour and 1 oz. cream tartar ; mix together, put on pans one- 
eighth of an inch thick aud bake in a quick oven. 

Another. — ^Rub together 2 lbs. lard, 3 lbs. powdered sugar, and 
add 1 qt. eggs, a little at a time, 1 oz. soda dissolved in 1 qt. milk, 2 



BAKING AND COOKING RECEIPTS. 19 

ozs. cream-tartar, a little lemon extract and 4^ lbs. flour ; mix all 
together and bake as above. 

Filling for the above Pies. — Add to stewed and strained dried 
apples, I lb. of su£;ar to each lb. of apples, boil all together for | hour 
stirring well ; fiUwith this, or use cranberry jelly or currant jelly or 
raspberry jam, or the latter intermixed with stewed dried apples, or 
apple filling alone is very good. A good filling for sliced apple pies is 
made by slicing sour apples, bottom your plates add the sliced apples 
with enough powdered sugar to sweeten, adding cinnamon, salt and 
a little butter, with water until the plate is two-thirds full, then cover 
with puff-paste, and trim it round in proper style with a knife. 

Lemon Pies. — Rub together 1 lb. butter and 1^ lbs. flour with cold 
water sufficient to make a good stiff dough to bottom your plates with, 
rimming them aroimd with puff-paste, and fill with the following 
mixture : put into a bowl the juice of 3 lemons, the grated rind of 1 
with 1^ lbs. of finely powdered sugar and 9 eggs. Mix thoroughly, 
and fill your plates with the mixture ; bake in-a moderate oven . 

Another filling. -^d lemons, G eggs, | lb. sugar, ^ pt. milk, with salt 
and nutmeg. Mix as the last. 

Another icithout lemons. — 1 lb. sugar, ^ lb. flour, 10 eggs,^pt. milk, 
^ oz. tartaric acid, a little lemon essence and salt. 

Frosting for Lemon Pies. — iozs. pulverized sugar, whites cff 6 eggs 
beaten to a stiff froth and the sugar gradually added to it, intermix 
thorouglily, cover the pies, top them off with this frosting, run them 
into a moderate oven and bake them to a nice brown. 

Short Puff Paste for Pies. — Mix together 4 lbs. flour, IJ lbs. 
butter, add 4 eggs, a little salt and 1 pt. water or a little more, work 
all to a smooth paste, spread out with the hand, j)ut l^lbs. more 
butter in the middle, fold the dough over the butter, so as to cover it, 
let it stand .5 minutes, sift flour over the paste and on the slab, roll 
out to the length of 7 feet and 3 feet wide (for half this quantity one 
half of these dimensions will be required). Fold it over and turn so 
that the sides will face you, repeating the rolling twice, when the 
paste will be fit for use. 

Common Paste for Pies.— Rub together 4 lbs. flour, and 4 lbs. of 
lard with salt sufficient ; add just water enough to mix the dough ; it 
may be better to put flour on the bench, make a set of it, adding the 
salt, lard, water, and stirring together. 

Paste to cover Pies. — Mix togother 1| lbs. of lard or butter 
with 2 lbs. flour witli sufficient salt and water to mix. Cranberry 
pies should have strips of puff paste across the top, the edges wet, and 
a strip of puff paste placed around the rim, keeping this strip ^ inch 
outside of the edge of the plate, as it will contract while baking. 

Custard for Pies.— Put 12 eggs, ^ lb. sugar, ^ oz. salt, and a little 
ext. lemon into a bowl, beat well together, add 2 qts. milk and strain. 

Filling for Squash Pies. — Thoroughly clean 5 lbs. of squash, slice 
it up and stew it ; when thoroughly cooked drain off the water, rub 
to a mush through a strainer, then add 1| lbs. sugar, 6 eggs, 2 qts. 
milk, I oz. ginger, a little ext. lemon, and salt sufficient. 

Filling for Mince Pies.— Boil 3 lbs. of chopped meat, clear of 
bones and tough pieces, chop fuie; peel, core and chop 9 lbs. of good 
apples, add 4^ lbs. brown sugar, 3^ qts. molasses, 3 ozs. each of nut- 
meg, cassia, cloves and allspice, 3 lbs. raisms, 1^ lbs. currants. 1| pts. 
brandy, 1 gill cider, | lb. salt. Mix all the ingredients together in a 
vessel, omitting the apples and brandy, intermix well together; tlien 



20 BAKING AND COOKING RECEIPTS. 

add them and reduce to the proper consistency with water- Cover 
with a cloth, t^ing it down tightly to prevent evaporation and set away 
in a cool place for use. 

Ice Cream Manufacture. — Beat the required quantity of ice very 
fine m a stout bag or by any other means, and add fine salt in ratio 
of one part of salt to four parts of ice, mixing thoroughly with a stick. 
Pack the compound neatly in the freezer around the cylinder to the 
top, then put in the cream (which should be cool) you wish to freeze, 
and, after covering, proceed to turn the crank back and forth alter- 
nately 10 or 12 times each way until the cream is sufficiently thick to 
beat, which will be known by the opposition to the beater, then turn 
forward quite briskly for a short space in order to impart an even and 
good appearance to the cream ; make thorough work of the beating, 
then remove the beater, fill the pail with ice and salt, and set away to 
harden. It will not do to introduce additional ice or salt, or allow it 
to grow stiff while beating, or beat it too much, or to retard the freez- 
ing process by pouring off water from the melted ice. The right time 
to beat it is when it is dense enough to rise, or about the thickness 
of light batter, if beaten when rigid the product will not be so 
satisfactory. As the cream expands in freezing, the cylinder should 
be filled | full and no more. 

Strawbemy and Raspberry Cream Ice. — 1. Pass 3 lbs. of picked 
strawberries or raspberries through a coarse hair-sieve, add 1^ qts. 
double cream, 2^ lbs. sifted sugar, mix well together, freeze as above, 
and mould it. If a deep red is desired, it may be imparted by a few 
drops of cochineal. 

2. Ice cream, Best Quality. — Beat well together 9 eggs with 1^ 
lbs. sugar ; boil 3 qts. good cream, set it off for a short space to cook, 
til en add the sugar and eggs, flavor vidth vanilla, etc. , to suit the taste. 
Let it cool, place in the freezer and proceed as above. 

3. Substitute for cream. — Boil 1 qt. of good milk with 1^ ozs. of 
arrowroot, having first brought the milk to the boiling point and 
mixed the arrowroot smooth with a little cold milk, remove from the 
fire ; add 2 fresh eggs, 8 ozs. of powdered sugar, stir weU, allow it to 
cool and flavor previous to putting in the freezer. 

4. Chocolate Cream Ice. — Grate f lb. of the best French choco- 
late into 1^ qts. of boiling milk, allow it to boil till thick, adding | lb. 
sugar ; add when cool, 1^ qts. cream, stirring well, and empty into 
the freezer. The addition of 8 eggs and lemon flavor to the above 
will gTeatly improve it. 

5. Ginger Ice Cream.— 'Boil together 1 qt. milk, 1 lb. sugar, 8 ozs. 
pulverized ginger, and 4 yolks of eggs, until it commences to thicken. 

6. Orange Cream Ice. — Mix together in a stew-pan, Iqt. milk or 
cream, 1 lb. sugar, the juice of 8 oranges, the rinds of 4 oranges rub- 
bed on the sugar, and 4 yolks of eggs, until the compoimd begins to 
thicken ; stir briskly, and strain, freezing when cool, as above. 

7. Fine Apple Cream Ice. — Put on the fire in a copper or tin vessel 
lib. of strained pine apple pulp, 12 ozs. sugar, 1^ pts. milk or cream, 
and 3 j'olks of eggs ; beat sufficiently to thicken, not to boil the 
cream, strain the mixture into a vessel and set aside to cool previous 
to freezing. See other formulae for ice cream under the Grocers' Dept. 

Cream Tartar Biscuit. — Use 2 qts. flour, 2 teaspoonf uls of soda, 
2 ditto cream tartar, 2 pts. milk. Mix, and follow the ditrectons foj 
cream-tartar biscuit given above, and bake in a warm oven. 



B.VKING AND COOKING RECEIPTS. 21 

CocoANTTT Drops. — 1 lb, grated cocoanut, ^ lb. white sugar, the 
whites of 6 eggSj cut to a stiff froth. You must have enough whites 
of egg to wet the whole mixture. Drop on buttered plates, iu pieces 
the size of an egg. 

French Rolls. — 1 ounce of butter, 1 lb. of flour, 1 gill of home- 
made yeast, 1 egg, mUk enough to make a dough. Rub the butter 
through tlie flour, beat the egg and stir in, then add the yeast, milk, 
and a little salt. Knead the dough ; when it is light, mould it out 
into large biscuits, and bake them on tins. 

Muffins. — A quart of milk, 2 eggs, 2 spoonfuls of yeast, 2 lbs. of 
flour, a lump of butter size of an egg — which is to be melted in the 
milk — ^and a little salt ; the milk is to be warmed, and the ingredients 
added. Let it rise, and then turn the mixture into buttered pans, 
and bake to a light brown. 

Bath Cakes. — Mix well together, 1 lb. fioiir, | lb. butter, 5 eggs 
and a cupful of yeast, set the whole before the fire to rise ; after it 
rises, add ^ lb. white sugar, and 1 omice caraway seeds well mixed 
in, and roll the paste into little cakes, bake them on this. 

No. 1 Crackers. — Butter, 1 cup ; salt, 1 teaspoon ; flour, 2 qts. 
Rub thoroughly together witli the hand, and wet up with water ; 
beat well, and beat in flour to make quite brittle and hard ; tlieu 
pinch off pieces and roll out each cracker by itself. 

Sugar Crackers. — Flour, 4 lbs. ; loaf sugar and butter, of each 
^ lb. ; water, 1| pts. ; make as above. 

Naples Biscuit. — White sugar, eggs, and flour, of each 4 lbs. 

Lemon Biscuit.— Take 3^ lbs. Avhite sugar, 4 lbs. flour, J 
ounce saleratus, ^ lb. suet, a little milk to wet the dough, cut 
them out about the size of marbles, put them on pans a little greased, 
and bake them in a hot oven and flavor them with essence of lemon. 

Abernethy Biscuit.— Take 8 lbs. of flour, IJ lb. of butter, 1 quart 
of sweet milk, 12 ounces of sugar, 1 ounce of caraway seeds, G eggs ; 
mix dough of the above, break them in pieces of about two ounces, 
mould them off, roll them out, prick them and bake them in a 
moderate oven. 

Savoy Biscuit.— Take of sugar the weight of 14 eggs, of flour 
the weight of 6 eggs, beat the yolks and whites of 12 egg^, separate, 
gi-ate in the rind of a lemon ; after being in the oven a few minutes 
gi-ate on some sugar. You may add peach-water, or lemon juice, 
or any flavoring extract. 

Ginger Snaps.— Take 7 lbs. of flour, 1 qt. of molasses, 1 lb. of 
brown sugar, 1 lb. butter, 2 ounces ground ginger, and then 
take 1 gill of water, ^ of an ounce of saleratus ; mix them all into 
dough, and cut them out something larger than marbles, and bake 
them in a "moderate oven. 

York Biscuit. — 3 lbs. flour, ^ lb. butter, | lbs. sugar; wet up, and 
raise with sour milk and saleratus. 

Traveller's Biscuit.— 2 lbs. of flour, | of a poimd of sugar, J lb, 
butter, 1 teaspoonful of dissolved saleratus, milk sufficient to form 
a dough. Cut up the butter in the flour, add the sugar, and put 
in the saleratus and milk together, so as to form dough. Knead 
it till it becomes perfectly smooth and light. Roll it in sheets about 
J of an inch thick, cut the cake» witli a cutter or the toj) of a 
tumbler. Bake in a moderate oven. 



22 BAKING AND COOKING RECEIPTS. 

Bakixg Powder for Biscuit. — Bicarbonate of soda 4 lbs., cream 
of tartar 8 lbs. These ingredients should be thoroughly dried and 
well mixed, and put up proof against dampness. Use about 3 tea- 
spoonfuls to each quart of flour, mix up with cold water or milk, 
and put it into the oven at once. 

Brown Bread for Biscuits. — Com meal 4 qts.,Tye flourSqts., 
Avheat flour 1 qt., molasses 2 tablespoonfuls, yeast 6 tablespoon- 
f uls, soda 2 teaspoonfuls. Mix during the evening for breakfast. 

Mince Pies — Meat 1 lb., suet 3|lbs., currants, raisins and plums 
2 lbs., one glass brandy or wine, allspice, cimiamou and cloves to 
your taste, sugar sufficient to sweeten. Baked in a short crust. 

Fruit Pies. — For all kinds of fruit pies have your fruit sweet- 
ened to your taste, and then put in a sliort crust. Bake in a hot 
oven. 

Pumpkin Pie. — Stew the pumpkin dry, and make it like squash 
pie, only season rather higher. In the country, where this real 
Yankee pie is prepared in perfection, ginger is almost always used, 
with other spices. There, too, part cream, instead of milk, is mixed 
with the pumpkin, which gives a richer flavor. 

Lemon Pie.— 1 lemon grated, 2 eggs, ^ cup of sugar, 1 cup of mo- 
■ lasses, 1 of water, and 3 tablespoonfuls of flour. This makes 3 pies. 

Lemon Pie with three crusts. — A layer of crust, a layer of le- 
mon, sliced fine, a little sugar, layer of crust again, and sugar and 
lemon again, then the upper crust. 

Another Way. — 1 cup of sugar, 1 cup sweet milk, 1 egg, 1^ 
lemon the grated peel and juice, 1 tablespoonful of flour; then 
after baking, tlie white of an egg beaten, sweetened, and put on 
the top ; then set in the oven and browned. 

Crumb Pie. — Mince any cold meat very finely, season it to taste, 
and put it into a pie-dish ; have some finely-grated bread crumbs, 
with a little salt, pep])er, and nutmeg, and pour into the dish any 
nice gravy that may be at hand ; then cover it over with a thick 
layer of the bread crumbs, and put small pieces of butter over the 
top. Place it in the oven till quite hot. 

Washington Pie. — 1 cup of sugar, third of a cup of butter, half 
a cup of sweet milk, 1 and a third cup of flour, 1 egg, half a tea- 
spoonful of soda, 1 of cream of tartar, lemon flavor. Grease 2 
round tins, and put in the above. Bake until done. Then put it 
on a dinner plate, spread with nice apple-sauce, or sauce of any 
kind ; then another layer of cake on top. It is nice without sauce, 
but sauce improves it. 

Fruit Pie. — 1 cup of sugar, 1 of water, tablespoonful of flour, tea- 
spoonful of lemon essence (or lemon grated), 1 teaspoonful of cream 
of tartar, half a teaspoonful of soda, half a cup of dvied currants : 
mix and boil, stirring to prevent the flour from settling. 

Chicken Pie. — Take one pair of good young chickens, cut in small 
pieces, season with pepper and salt and small strips of salt pork, put 
\ in saucepan with water to cover it, boil for half an hour, add flour 
j and butter to thicken the gravy, have ready a large dish, served 
I with paste, put all in the dish covered with a good rich paste. Bake 
I for half an hour. 

Veal Pot Pie. — ^Take 2 pounds of best veal, cut in small 
pieces, half pound of salt pork, sliced thin, four quarts of cold 



BAKING AND COOKING KECEIPTS. 23 

water ; pcpiicr and salt all, pnt on tho fire ; after boiling for 1 
liour have 3 jioiinds of light bread dough, pick small pieces, say- 
one ounce pieces, put in saucepan, with the veiil and pork, and let 
it boil for twenty minutes. Serve as soon as tiikeu from the 
fire. 

Plum ruDDi>'G. — Pound 6 crackers, and soak them oven night in 
milk enough to cover them, then add 3 ]nnts of milk, 4 or 5 eggs, 
raisins ^ lb., spice with nutmeg and sweeten with sugar and 
molasses. Bake about 2 hours. 

Tapioca Puddlng. — Pick and mash a coffee cup full of tapioca, 
and pour upon it 1 puit boiling milk ; after standing ^ an hour, add 
another pmt of cold milk, with sugar and raisins if you desire. 

Bakkd Pudding. — 5 tablcspoonfuls of corn starch to 1 quart of 
milk, dissolve the starch m a part of the milk, heat tlie remainder 
of the milk to nearly boUiug, having salted it a little, then add 
the dissolved starch to the milk, boil 3 minutes, stirring it briskly ; 
allow it to cool, and then thoroughly mix with it 3 eggs, well beat- 
en, with 3 tablcspoonfuls of sugar ; flavor to taste and bako 
it ^ an hour. This puddbig ranks second to none. 

Oran'Ge Podding. — Take 1 lb. of butter, 1 lb. of sugar, 10 eggs, 
the juice of 2 oranges, boil the peel, then pound it fine and mix it 
with the juice. Add the juice of 1 lemon, a wincglassful of 
brandy, wiue and rose-water. If you do not have the fruit add 
the extracts. 

CocoANTJT Pudding. To a large grated cocoanut add the wliites 
of 6 eggs, ^ lb of sugar, G ounces of butter, ^ a wineglassful of 
rose-water, and baked in or out of paste. 

Rice Pudding. — Take 1 lb. of rice, boiled well with rich milk, 
stirring well imtil it is soft, and then add ^ lb. butter, 12 eggs, well 
beaten, and spice to your taste, and bake it. 

IIard Toies Pudding. — | pint of molasses or syrup, ^ pint water, 
2 teaspoonfuls of soda, 1 teaspoonful of salt, flour enough to 
make a batter ; boil in a bag 3 hours. Eat it with sauce. 

Baked Apple Pudding. — Pare and quarter four large apples, boil 
them tender with the rind of a lemon in so little water that when 
done no water may remain, beat them quite fine in a mortar, add 
the crumb of a small roll, ^ lb. butter melted, the yolks of 5 and 
whites of 3 eggs, juice of | lemon, sugar to your taste, beat all 
well together, all in paste. 

Ground Rice, or Sago Pudding. — Boil a large spoonful of it, 
heaped, in 1 pint milk with lemon peel and cinnamon; Avhen cold, 
add sugar, and nutmegs, and 4 eggs well beaten. 

Custard Pudding.— Take 1 pint milk, 4 spoonfuls flour, G eggs, 
spice to your taste and bake. 

Winter Pudding.— Take the crust of baker's loaf of bread, and 
fill it with plums, boil it in milk and water. 

Baked Potato Pudding. — Baked potatoes skimmed and mashed, 
12 oz., suet 1 oz., cheese, grated fine, 1 oz., milk 1 gUl. Mix tho 
potatoes, suet, milk, cheese and all together, if not of a proper 
consistence, add a little water. Bake in an earthen pot. 

College Pudding.— | lb. of stale bread, grated ; the same quan- 
tity of beef suet, chopped very fine ; 1 lb. of currants, ^ nutmeg, a 
few cloves, a glass of brandy, 2 or 3 eggSj 2 spoonfuls of cream or 



24 BAKING AND COOKING RECEIPTS. 

milk; mix these well toj^ether, and make into a paste in the shape 
of eggs. Fry them gently over a clear fire, in ^ lb. of butter ; let 
them be of nice brown color all over. You may add blanched 
almonds and sweetmeats. Serve them up with wine. 

Family Puddixg.— 1 quart of sweet mUk, 1 pint of bread crumbs 
soaked in the milk, 3 eggs well beaten, 1 teacupful of sugar, little 
mace, 6 good tart apples, pared, cores durf out, and stand them 
in the pudding, and steam until the apples are well done. An hour 
will suffice. 

Cottage Pudding.— 1 g^, 1 cup of sugar, 1 of sweet milk, 
1 teaspoonful of soda, 2 of cream of taitar, 1 pint of flour, and a 
little salt. To be eaten with milk and sugar. 

Green Gooseberries make a nice pudding by stirring a pint of 
them into a pint of batter, and either baking or boiling. 

Lemon Pudding. — Melt G oz. of butter, pour it over the samo 
quantity of powdered loaf sugar, stirring it weU till cold, tlien 
grate the rind of a large lemon, and add it with 8 eggs well beaten 
and the juice of 2 lemons ; stir the whole till it is completely 
mixed together, and bake the pudding with a paste round the 
divsh. 

Sauces and Creams for Puddings. — 1. Take equal quantities 
of sugar and molasses, boil them together, and stir in a little 
flour. 2. Take the juice of an orange, a cup of sugar and the same 
of good cream. 3. Good sour cream made very sweet with sugar, 
with or without seasoning, makes a good sauce. 4. Beat 2 eggs 
well, then add a cup of stewed apples and a cup of sugar. 

Beef Steak with Onions, — Prepare a rump steak by pounding 
it till quite tender, season with salt, pepper and fresh butter, put 
in the steak and fry it, when brown on one side turn over, do not 
let it scorcli, when nicely done take it up, put a little flour over 
the steak, then add gradually a cup of hot water, seasoned with 
more salt and pepper, if necessary ; then put the Avater over the 
lire and boil again, and pour over the steak. 

Peel 2 dozen onions, put them on to boil with alx)ut 2 quarts 
of water an hour before the steak is put on to fry. When the steak 
is done, cut them up, put them in the frying pan, season well with 
salt, pepper, and butter, sprinkle with flour, stir all well together, 
place over the fire, stir often to prevent scorching ; when they are 
a little brown and soft, turn them over the steak. 

Seasoning for Stuffing. — 1 lb. of salt, dried and sifted ; half 
an oimce of ground white pepper ; two ounces- of dried thyme ; 
1 oz. of dried marjoram ; and one oz. of nutmeg. When this 
seasoning is used, parsley only is required to bo chopped in sufh- 
cieut quantity to make the stuffing green. The proportions are— 
\ ]iound of bread crumbs ; 3 eggs ; ^ lb. of suet ; ^ oz. of sea- 
soning ; and the peel of half a lemon, grated. 

I'iCONOMiCAii Soup. — Put into a saucepan one-pound pieces of 
stale bread, tlixee large onions sliced, a small cabbage cut fine, 
a carrot and turnip, and a smaU head of celery- (or the remains of 
any cold vegetables ), a tablespoonf ul of salt, .a tablespoonf ul of 
])e])per, a bunch of parsley, a sprig of marjoram and thyme. 
Put these into two quarts of any weak stock, (the liquor in 
which mutton has been boiled will do,) and let them boil for 



BAKING AND COOKING KECEirXS. 25 

two hours ; rub through a fino hair-sicvc, add a pint of new 
luilk, boil up, and serve at ouce. 

Vegetable Sour. — Take a shin of a beef, 3 large carrots, 3 Large 
yoUow onions, C turnips, ^ lb, of rice or barley; parsley, leeks, 
summer savory ; put all into a soup-kettle, and let it boil four 
hours ; add pepper and salt to taste ; serve altogether. It makes 
a good family soup. 

Pea Soup. — Beef 5 lbs., water 5 qts., G large carrots, 6 good 
turnips, 3 large onions, salt sufficient, put it on a good slow 
fire, let it boil 3 hours, then strain all the broth from meat and 
vegetables, and then add 3 lbs. of split peas to the broth ; set it on 
a slow fire for 2 hours, stirring often, so that all the i)eas wUl dis- 
solve ; take 1 lb. fresh sausage meat, fried to a crisp and fried bread 
crumbs ; put altogether, add a few fine herbs, and serve hot. 

FiucASSEE CniCKEKs. — Take 2 large young chickens, cut in small 
pieces, put in cold water for 1 hour to take all the blood out, tlien 
put in saucepan to parboil for half an hour, then take from sauce- 
pan drained well, have jeady 1 qt. good fresh cream, 2 oz. good 
butter, 1 oz. of flour, all well mixed together ; put in saucepan 
with the chickens ; put on the fire to boU tender ; season with 
pepper and salt ; served with toast bread in the bottom of the 
dish. 

liAicED Tomatoes. — Wash the tomatoes, take out the seed, malvo 
a dressing of crumbs of bread and onions chopped fine ; add 
salt, butter and pepper. Bake and serve hot. 

Stewed Tomatoes. — Scald the tomatoes with hot water, take 
off the skins, put them in an earthen vessel, strain off the water, 
and add butter, salt and pepper to tiste. 

Mashed Turnips. — ^Wash turnips, boil well, take them up in tlie 
colander, press out all the water, mash very fine ; season with salt, 
butter and sugar. Serve hot with trimmings. 

Hashed Meat. — Take 2 lbs. of fat corned beef, well boiled and 
cold ; 1 lb. of well boiled potatoes, cold ; 1 large white onion ; 
put in choppmg tmy, mince it fine, put all in saucepan together, 
add 2 ozs. butter ; pepper and salt to taste ; add boiling water to 
make it soft ; set it on a slow fire, stirring it often. When well stewed, 
Bcrve hot. It makes a fine relish for breakfast. 

Lobster Salad. — ^Take uiside of large lobster, mince fino, take 
yolk of 2 eggs boiled hard and mashed fine, with four tablespoon- 
fuls of sweet oil; pepper, salt, vinegar, and mustard to taste; mix 
well; add celery or lettuce to taste; then when serving, garnish 
with hard-boiled eggs. 

Succotash, — ^Take 1 doz. ears of com, cut the grains from the 
cob, add 1 qt. of Lima beans, and mix -with the corn; put it on to 
boil in 3 qts, of water with 1 lb. of pork cut ; add black pepper and 
salt to taste. When the water has boiled away to ^ the original 
quantity, serve in a tureen as soup. 

Maocahoni Soup.--4 lbs. of lean beef, 4 qte, of water, carrot, 
turnip, onions ; set it for 4 hours tni all mix together ; strain it all 
through a sieve ; have 2 lbs. of maccaroni broken into pieces of one 
inch long ; put all into a saucepan together, and let it boil for 10 
minutes, .and serve it hot. 

liojw:o CtJSTARD, OR MocK Cjjeaji.— Tako 3 tablespoonfiOs corn 



26 BAKING AND COOKING RECEIPTS. 

starch, 1 qt. of milk, 2 or 3 eggs, ^ a teaspoonful of salt and a small 
piece of butter ; heat the railk tiirnearly boiling and add the starch, 
previously dissolved in 1 qt. of milk, then add the eggs, well beaten, 
Avith 4 tablespoonfuls of powdered sugar ; let it boil up once or 
twice, stirring it briskly, and it is done. Flavor with lemon or 
vanilla, or raspberry, or to suit your taste. 

Lemon Cream. — Take a pint of thick cream and put to it the 
yolks of two eggs, well beaten, 4 oz. of fine sugar and the thin 
rind of a lemon. , boil it up, then stir till almost cold ; put the juice 
of a lemon in a dish or bowl and pour the cream upon it, stirring 
till quite cold. 

FRUIT Ckeajvis. — Take ^ oz. of isinglass dissolved in a little 
water, then put 1 pt. of good cream, sweetened to the taste ; boil 
it. "When nearly cold lay some apricot or raspberry jam on the 
bottom of a glass dish and pour it over. This is most excellent. 

Raspberry Cream. — Put 6 ozs. of raspberry jam to 1 qt. of 
cream, pulp it through a lawn sieve, add to it the juice of a lemon 
and a httle sugar, and whisk it till thick. Serve it in a dish or 
' glasses. 

To roast fowls the fire must be quick and clear. If smoky it 
will spoil both their taste and looks. Baste frequently, and keep 
a white paper pinned on the breast till it is near done. 

Turkey. — A good sized turkey should be roasted 2^ hoars op 
3 hours — ^very slowly at first If you wish to make plain stuffing, 
pomid a cracker or crumble some bread very fine, chop some 
raw salt pork very fine, sift some sage, (and summer savory, or 
sweet marjoram, if you have them in the house, and fant;y 
them,) and mould them all together, seasoned with a little pepper. 
An egg worked in makes the stuffing cut better. 

Boiled Turkey. — Clean the turkey, fill the crop with stuffing, 
and sew it up. Put it over the fire in water enough to cover it, 
let it boU slowly — ^take off all the scum. When this is done, it 
should only simmer till it is done. Put a little salt into the water, 
and dredge the turkey in flour before boiling. 

Roast Ducks and Geese. — ^Take sage, wash and pick it, and an 
onion ; chop them fine, with pepper and salt, and put them in the 
belly ; let the goose be clean picked, and wiped dry with a cloth, 
inside and out ; put it down to the fire, and roast it brown. Duck 
are dressed in the same way. For wild ducks, teal, pigeons, and 
other wild fowls, use only pepper and salt, with gravy in the dish. 

Roast Chicken. — Chickens should be managed in roasting the 
same as turkeys, only that they require less time. From an hour 
to an hour and a half is long enough. 

Boiled Chicken. — A chicken should be boiled the same as a 
turkey, only it will take less time — about 35 minutes is suffi- 
cient Use the same stuffing, if any, and serve it up with parsley, 
or egg-sauce. 

Broiled Chicken. — Slit them down the back and season with 
pepper and salt ; lay them on a clear fire of coals, the inside next 
the fire till half done, then turn and broil to a fine brown color. 
Broil about 35 minutes. 

Boiled Pigeons. — Boil them about 15 minutes by themselves ; then 
boil a piece of bacon ; eerve with slices of bacou'jmd melted butter. 



BAKING AND COOKING RECEIPTS. 27 

Fish CnowDER. — Fry a fe-w slices of salt i)ork, dress and cut the 
fish in small pieces, pare and slice the pofcitoes and onions, then 
place them in the kettle, a layer of fish, then of the fried pork, 
jiotatoes, onions, &c., seasoning each layer with salt and pepper. 
Stew over a slow fire 30 minutes. 

Roast Beef. — The sirloin is considered the best for roasting. 
Spit the meat, pepper the top, and baste it well while roasting 
with its own dripping, and throw ou a handful of salt. When tlic 
smoke draws to the fire, it is near enough ; keep the firo bright 
and clear. • From 15 to 20 minutes to the lb. is the rule for roast- 
ing. 

Beef Boiled. — Tlie round is the best boiling piece. Put the 
meat in the pot, with water enough to cover it ; let it boil very 
slow at first— this is the great secret of making it tender — take oif 
the scum as it rises. From 2 to 3 hours, according to size, la the 
rule for boiling. 

Beef Steak. — ^Tlie inside of the sirloin makes the best steak ; 
cut about I of an inch tliick — have the gridiron hot, put on the meat 
and set. it over a good fire of coals — turn them often. From 8 to 10 
minutes is the rule for broiling. 

Roast Pork. — Take a leg of pork and wash it clean — cut tho 
skin in squares — make a stuffing of grated bread, sage, onion, 
pepper and salt, moistened with the yolk of an egg. Put this 
under the skin of the knuckle, and sprinkle a little powdered sago 
into the rind where it is cut ; rub the whole surface of the skin 
over with a feather dipped in sweet oiL 8 lbs. will require about 
three hours to roast it. 

^^ The Shoulder, Loin, or Chine, and Spare-Rib are roasted 
in the same mamier. 

Roast Veal. — Pursue about the same course as in roasting pork. 
Roast before a brisk fire till it comes to a brown color ; then you lay 
it dovra, baste it well with good butter, and when near done, with a 
little flour. 

Roast Mutton. — The loin, haunch, and saddle of mutton and 
lamb must be done the same as beef. All other parts must be roast- 
ed with a quick, clear fire ; baste it when you put it down, and 
dredge it with a little flour, just before you take it up. A leg of mut- 
ton of six pounds will require 1 hour to roast before a quick fire. 

To Boil Eggs. — In 3 minutes an egg will boil soft, in 4 the whito 
part is completely cooked, in 10, it is fit for a salad. Try their fresh- 
ness in cold water, those that sinlc the soonest are the freshest. 

Sausage Meat. — ^Take 2 lbs. lean meat, 1 lb. fat pork, chop fine, 
and mix with 2 tablespoonf uls black pepper, 1 of cloves, 7 of powder- 
ed sage, and 5 of salt. 

Apple Custard. — Take apples, pared, cored, and slightly stewed, 
sufficient to cover the dish, 8 eggs, 1 qt. of milk ; spice to your taste ; 
bake it J of an hour. 

New-England Apple-sauce or Butter. — Boil 2 brls. of new 
cider down to ^ a brl. Pare, core, and slice up 3 bushels of apples 
(sweet apples are preferable), and put them into the cider thus re- 
duced, and still kept boiling briskly. Stir tho whole mass constantly, to 
])r6vent burning, tiU of the consistence of soft butter. A small quan- 
tity of pulverized all^spicc, added during tho boiling, is an improve- 



28 BAKING AND COOKING RECEIPTS. 

mcnt. Boil in a brass kettle, and, when done, put it into a "wooden 
firkin, or a small cask, and it will keep for years. 

Apple Bxjtteix, {Pennsylvania Method). — Boil new cider down to ^. 
Pare, cut, and core equal quantities of sweet and sour apples. Put 
the sweet apj^les in a large kettle to soften a little first, as they are 
the hardest. Add enough boiled cider to cook them. After boiling h 
an hour, stirring often, put in the sour apples, and add more boiled 
cider, with molasses enough to sweeten moderately. Boil until ten- 
der, stirring to prevent burning. Pack in firkins or stoiie pots for 
winter use. 

Irish Stew. — ^Take 4 lbs. good breast of fat mutton, cut in small 
pieces ; 2 large white onions ; 10 large potatoes, well peeled and 
sliced ; put all in saucepan together, with fine herbs, pepper and 
salt to suit ; a little salt pork is a good addition ; ^ lb. of flour ; 
I lb. good fresh butter, well rubbed together, and let it boil for one 
hour, and have it well cooked. 

Apple Dumplings. — 6 eggs, 1^ lbs. of flour, some butter to your 
taste, and tablespoonful of yeast, and sufficient milk to make a 
dough to roll out ; when raised, cut in small pieces, put in the apples, 
and cook for f of an hour ; serve with wliite sugar or wine sauce. 

Boiled Poultry, — ^Take large chickens, well cleaned with cold 
water, put in saucepan with water to cover, boil 1 hour ; served 
with sauce. 

Hashed Turkey.— Take meat from boiled fowls, chop fine, put in 
saucepan, with seasonings to suit taste. Served on toast. 

Boiled Maccaroni. — Take 2 lbs,, break in small pieces, put in 
warm water to steep 1 hour, drain off, put in saucepan with 2 qts. 
fresh cream, with grated cheese ; seasoned with red pepper. 

Strasburg Potted Meat, — ^Take 1^ lbs. of the rump of beef, cut 
into dice, put it in an earthen jar, with J lb. of butter, tie the jar 
close up with paper, and set over a pot to boil ; when nearly done, 
add cloves, mace, allspice, nutmeg, salt, and cayenne pepper to 
taste, then boil till tender, and let it get cold, pound the meat, 
with 4 anchovies mashed and boned, add J lb. of oQed butter, 
work it well together with the gravy, warm a little, and add 
cochuieal to, color then press into snail pots, and pour melted 
mutton suet over the top of each. 

Bologna Sausages. — ^Take equal quantities of bacon fat and lean 
beef, veal, pork and beef suet ; choi) them small, season with pep- 
jier, salt, &c,, with sweet herbs and sage rubbed fine. Have well 
washed intestines, fill, and prick them ; boil gently for an hour, 
and lay on straw to dry. 

Rich Sausages. — ^Take 30 lbs. of chopped meat, 8 oz. fine salt, 
2^ oz. pepper, 2 teacups of sage, and Ih cups of sweet marjoram, 
passed tlirough a fine sieve, or, if preferred, thyme and summer 
savory can be substituted for the latter. 

How to save your Ice Bill. — Get a quantity of empty barrels or 
boxes during the coldest time in the winter, and put a few inches 
of water in each ; the evening when the cold is most intense is the 
best time to do this. After the water is frozen solid, fiU up again, 
repeat the process until the barrels are full of solid ice, then roll 
them into your cellar, cover them up with plenty of sawdust 
or straw, anil your ice crop is safely harvested, 



BAKING AND COOKING RECEIPTS. 29 

Chaklotte Russe. — Take 1 pt. milk, dissolve with heat, 3 oz. 
isinglass and 1 lb. sugar; add, after it is cool, 1 qt. beaten cream 
and flour, suit your taste and line out some mould with sponge 
cake, and put the cream in it and cool. 

Wine Jelly, — Take 1 pt. water and 3 oz. isinglass, IJ lb. sugar, 
the juice of 2 lemons, and dissolve that and let it come to a boil, 
then add wine, brandy and spice to your taste, and strain it through 
a cotton or flannel cloth and put it in moulds to cool. 

To Make Apple Molasses. — ^Take new sweet cider just from tlie 
press, made from sweet apples, and boil it do^\^l as thick as West 
India molasses. It should be boiled in brass, and not burned, 
as that would injure the flavor. It will keep in the cellar, and ia 
said to be as good, and for many purposes better, than West India 
molasses. 

^^Acid fruits should be cooked in bright tin, brass, or bell 
metal, and poured out as soon as they are done. Brown earthen 
vessels should never be used, as they are glazed with white lead, 
a poison which very readily unites with an acid. 

Jellies. — Lemon Jelly. — ^Isinglass, 2 oz. ; water, 1 qt. ; boil ; add 
sugar, 1 lb. ; clarify ; and, when nearly cold, add the juice of 5 
lemons, and the grated yellow rinds of 2 oranges and 2 lemons ; 
mix well, strain off the peel, and put it into glasses or bottles ; 
Hartshorn Jelly. — Hartshorn, 1 lb. ; water 1 gal. ; peel off 2 lemons ; 
boil over a gentle lire till sufficiently thick ; strain and add loaf 
sugar, \ lb. ; whites of 10 eggs beaten to a froth ; juice of C lemons ; 
mix well together, then bottle. Isinc/lass Jelly. — Put 4 oz. isinglass 
and 2 oz. cloves into 1 gal. water ; boil it down to half a gal. ; strain it 
upon 4 lbs. of loaf sugar ; add, while cooling a little wine ; then bot- 
tle. Apply Jelly from Cider. — Take of apple juice, strained, 4 lbs. ; 
sugar, 2 lbs. ; boil to a jelly, and bottle. Gooseberry Jelly. — Sugar, 
4 lbs. ; water, ilbs. ; boil together ; it wiU be nearly solid when cold ; 
to this syrup, add an equal weight of gooseberry juice ; give it a short 
boil, cool, then pot it. Currant Jelly. — Take the juice of red cur- 
rants, and loaf sugar, equal quantities ; boil and stir gently for three 
hours ; put it into glasses ; and in three days it will concentrate into 
a firm jelly. Tapioca Jelly. — Wash 8 oz. of tapioca well ; then soak 
it in 1 gal. fresh Avater, 5 or 6 hours ; add the peels of 8 lemons, and 
set all on to heat ; simmer till clear ; add the juice of the 8 lemons 
with wine and sugar to taste ; then bottle. 

Blackberry Jelly. — This preparation of the blackberry is more 
agreeable than the jam, as the seeds, though very wholesome, are 
not agreeable to all. It is made in the same way as currant jelly ; 
but the fruit is so SAveet that it only requires half the weight of the 
juice in sugar. 

Pear >iarmalade.— To 6 lbs. of small pears, take 4 lbs. of sugar ; 
put the pears into a saucepan, with a little cold water ; cover it, 
and set it over the fire until the fruit is soft, then put them into 
Cv Id water ; pare, quarter, and core them ; put to them three tea- 
cups of water, set them over the fire ; roll the sugar fine, mash the 
fruit fine and smooth, put the sugar to it, stir it well together until 
It is thick, like jelly, then put it in tumblers, or jars, and, when cold, 
eecure it as jeUy. 

PiiESEBVEP CxTBO^^— Pare and cut open the citron ; clean all out 



30 



BAKING AND COOKING RECEIPTS. 



except the rind ; boil till soft. To 1 lb. of citron add 1 lb. of sugar, 
and a lemon to each lb. ; put the sugar and lemon together, and 
boil it till it becomes a syrup, skimming it well ; then put the syrup 
and citron together, and boil it an hour. 

Scotch Marmalade. — Take of the juice of Seville oranges 2 
pts., yellow honey, 2 lbs. Boil to a proper consistence. 

Raspberry Jam. — Allow a pound of sugar to a pound of fruit, 
mash the raspberries and put them, with the sugar, into your 
jTireserving kettle. Boil it slowlj^ for an hour, skimming it welL 
Tie it up with brandy paper. All jama are made in the same 
manner. 

French Hoistet. — "White sugar, 1 lb.; 6 eggs, leaving out the 
whites of 2 ; the juice of 3 or 4 lemons, and the grated rind of 2, 
and ^ lb. of butter ; stir over a slow fire mitil it is of the consis- 
tency of honey. 

Almond Blanc Mange. — Take four ounce of almonds, six oz. 
gugar, boil together with a quart of water, melt in this two 
ounces of pure isinglass, strain in a small tin mould to stiffen it. 
When wanted, dip the mould in hot water and turn it out. 

Lemon Blanc Mange. — Pour a pint of hot water upon half an 
ounce of isinglass ; when it is dissolved, add the juice of three lemons, 
the peel of two lemons grated, six yolks of eggs beaten, add about a 
good wine-glass of Madeira wine to it ; sweeten to your taste ; let it 
boil ; then strain it and put it in your moulds. 

Molasses Preserves, — Boil 1 qt. of molasses about ten or fifteen 
minutes to a thickish consistency, then add 6 eggs well beaten, and a 
spoonful of flour. Boil a few minutes longer, stirring constantly, 
then set off the fire, and flavor with lemon or allspice as desired. 

Fruit Extracts, &c, — Good alcohol, 1 qt. , oil of lemon, 2 oz. Break 
and bruise the peel of 4 lemons, and add to them alcohol for a few 
days, then filter. For currants, peaches, raspberries, pine apples, 
strawberries, blackberries, &c., take alcohol and water half and half 
and pour over the fruit, entirely covering it, and let it stand for a few 
days. For essence of cinnamon, nutmeg, mace, vanilla, &c., pulver- 
ize either article thoroughly, and put about 2 oz. of the resulting pow- 
der to each pint of reduced alcohol, agitate the mixture frequently 
lor 2 weeks, then filter and color as desired. 

Measures fob Housekeepers. 



"Wheat flour lib is 1 quart. 

Indian meal 1 " 2 oz " 1 quart. 

Butter when soft. . 1 "...." 1 '< 
Loaf sugar, broken 1 "....*' 1 " 
White sugar, powd 1 ' * 1 oz. " 1 " 



Best brown 

sugar 1 lb. 2 oz. is 1 qt. 

Eggs 10 eggs are 1 lb. 

Flour 8 qts. "1 peck. 

Flour 4pks. "Ibush, 



Liquids. 



16 large tablespoonfula are % pint. 
8 large tablespoonf uls are 1 gill. 
4 large tablespoonf uls are J4 giU* 

2 gills are % pint. 

2 pints are 1 qt. 



4 qts. are 1 gallon. 

A common sized tumbler holds i^ a 

pint. 
A common sized wine-glass " i^ a 

gill. 
25 drops are equal to 1 teaspoonf ul 



FARMERS' RECEIPTS. 



31 




FARMERS AND STOCK OWNERS' DEPART- 
MENT. 



Rarey's Directions for Breaking asd Trainixg of Horses. 
— ^In training horses you must remember that there are certain natural 
laws that govern them. For instance, it is natural for him to kick 
whenever he gets badly frightened ; it is natural for him to escape 
from whatever he thinks will do him harm. His faculties of seeing, 
hearing, and smelling, have been given him to examine everything 
new that he is brought in contact with. And so long as you present 
him with nothing that offends his eyes, nose, or ears, you can then 
handle him at will, notwithstanding^ he may be frightened at first, so 
that in a short time he will not be afraid of anything he is brought in 
contact with. All of the whipping and spurring of horses for shying, 
stumbling, &c. , is useless and cruel. If he shys, and you whiij him 
for it, it only adds terror, and makes the object larger than it would 
otherwise be ; give him time to examine it without punishing him. 
He should never be hit with the whip, under any circumstances, or 
for anything that he does. As to smelling oil, there is nothing that 
assists the trainer to tame his horse better. It is better to approach a 
colt with the scent of honey or cinnamon upon your hand, than the 
scent of hogs, for horses naturally fear the scent of hogs, and will 
attempt to escape from it, while they like the scent of "honey, cin- 
namon, or salt. To affect a horse with drugs you must give him some 
preparation of opium, and while he is under the influence of it, von 
cannot teach him anything more than a man when he is intoxicated 



32 



farmers' receipts. 



•with liquor. Anotlier things, you must rcmem"ber to treat him kindly, 
for there you require obedience from any subject, it is better to have 
it rendered from a sense of love than fear. You should be careful 
not to chafe the lips of your colt or hurt his mouth in any way ; if 
you do he will dislike to have the bridle on. After he is taught to 
follow you, then put on the harness, putting your lines through the 
shaft straps along the side, and teach him to yield to the reins, turn 
short to the right and left, teach him to stand still before he is ever 
hitched up ; you then have control over him. If he gets frightened, 
the lines should be used as a telegraph, to let him know what you 
want him to do. No horse is naturally vicious, but always obeys his 
trainer as soon as he comprehends what he would have him do ; 
you must be firm with him at the same time, and give him to under- 
stand that you are the trainer, and that he is the horse. The best bits 
to be used to hold a horse, to keep his mouth from getting sore, is a 
straight bar-bit, 4| inches long between the rings ; this operates on 
both sides of the jaw. while the ordinary snaffle forms a clamp and 
presses the side of the jaw. The curb or bridoon hurts his under jaw so 
that he will stop before he will give to the rein. To throw a horse, put 
a rope 12 feet long around his body in a running noose, pass it down 
to the right fore foot through a rmg in a spancil, then buckle up tho 
left or near fore foot, take a firm hold of youx rope, lead him around 




FAnilERS* EECEirXS. 33 

until he is tired, give liini a shove with your shoulder, at the same 
time drawing up the right foot which bruifrs him ou his kuees, hold 
him steady, and m a few moments he will lie down. Never attempt 
to hold him still, for the more he scuffles tlie better. 

Take your colt into a tight room or pen, and Avith a long whip com- 
mence snapping at the colt's hind leg, taking care not to hit above the 
1 locks, stopping immediately when the colt turns his head towards 
you; while his head is towards you, approach him with the left hand 
extended toward him, holdhig your whip in the right, ready to snap 
liim as soon as lie turns his head from you. In this way you can soon 
get your hands upon him. As soon as you have done this, be careful 
to caress him for liis obedience, and snap him for his disobedience. 
In this way he will soon leani that he is safest in your presence with 
liis head towards you, and in a very short time you cannot keep liim 
away from you. Si)eak Idndly and firmly to him, all the time airess- 
ing him, calling by name, and saying, " Ho, boy," or " Ho, Diua," or 
some familiar word that he will soon leariL 

If a colt is awkward and careless at first, you must bear with him, 
remembering that we, too, were awkward when youn^ ; allowing 
him his own way, until by degrees he will come in. If lie is wilful, 
you must then change your course of treatment, by confining liim in 
such a way that he is powerless for harm until he submits. If he is 
disposed to rim, use my pole check on him ; if to kick, fasten a rope 
around his under jaw, pass it through the collar and attach it to his 
liind feet. In this way one kick will cure him, as the force of the blow 
falls on his jaw. If he should be stubborn, lay him down and confine 
him imtil you subdue him, without piuiishing him with the whip. 

Colts should be broke without blind-bridles ; after they are well 
broke, then you may jput on blhids. Bridles vrithout blinds are the 
best unless you want to speed your horse, then it will be necessary to 
keep him from seeing the whip. Colts should be well handled and 
taught to give readily to the rein before they are hitched up. If you 
hitch them up the first thing and they become frightened, then you 
have no control over them ; but if you teach them to start, stop, and 
stand at the word before they are hitched, then you can govern them. 

Ckuelty to Horses — Besides the cruel punishment inflicted upon 
horses, by the careless and heartless driver, he is subjected to se- 
vere punishment in the whiter season, by bemg compelled to take 
frozen bits into his mouth in cold weather, tearing the skin from the 
tongue and the roof of his mouth, producing a heavy inflammation in 
the mouth and throat ; he gets poor, hidebound, and the sympathetic 
nerves of the head take up the inflammation, carry it to the head and 
eyes, frequently producing blindness, and a hundred other diseases. 
The whip should be used as an instrument of pleasure instead of tor- 
ture ; and your bits should be wound with flannel or leather ; so that 
110 frozen iron will come in contact with his mouth, lips or tongue. 

Rarey's Linement. — Sulphuric ether, 4 ozs. ; hartshorn, 4 ozs., 
oil of origanum, 4 ozs. ; alcohol, 4 ozs. ; sweet oil, 4 ozs. Shake 
well before using. For sprains on horses, &c., apply by rubbing and 
cover with a tight flannel bandage. For headache, rub a little on the 
temples and apply a bandage wet with the liniment to the forehead. 

Raret'8 Wizard Oil.— Oil of origanum, 6 ozs. ; alcohol, 6 ozs. ; 
spirits turpentine, 1 oz. ; camphor, 1 oz. Shako well before usi^g. 

3 



34 



FARMERS' RECEIPTSo 




Raret's Directions for Shoeing Horses. — "There are very- 
lew blacksjnitlis that ever once think what a comphcated piece of 
machinery the foot of a horse is, and hy one careless blow they 
frequently stop the working of this machine. The majority of smiths, 
as soon as they pick up a horse's foot, go to work paring the heel, 
from the fact that it is the most convenient part of the foot, and there- 
by destroy the heel and braces of the foot, causing, in many instances, 
contracted heels. The heels of a horse should be well kept up and the 
toe down. By lowering the heels you throw the entu-e weight of your 
horse upon the back tendon of the legs, and thereby produce lameness 
from overtaxing a ^^ery important set of tendons. By keeping up the 
heel you throw the weight upon the wall of the foot. In this position 
you prevent stumbling, clicking, &c. Next the shoer commences to 
pare away the sole, thins it down until he can feel it spring with his 
thumb. Ask him why he does this, and he gives you no reason, 
except from custom ; next comes the bars or braces of the foot, they 
are smoothed down ; next in his ruinous course, comes the frogs of 
the feet, they are subjected to the same cutting and smoothing pro- 
cess. AH the cutting, paring, and smoothing of the soles, bars, or 
frogs is a decided injury to the horse as well as to the owner. All the 
corns in the land are produced by this process of paring. The frogs 
have been placed in the foot by nature to expand the wall of the foot, 
and as soon as you commence to cut it, the oily substance commences 
to leak out, it drys up, becomes hard, losing its oily substance, makes 
the wall hard and dry, inducing it to crack. The nerves of the feet 
are very sensitive, and smiths should be very careful not to prick the 
foot, as it requires quite a time to relieve them. The foot is a very 
complicated piece of machinery, and if you keep a horse well shod 
and his foot in good condition, you can then generally manage the 
balance. The feet suffer from being kept too dry. Horses that stand 
on board floors should have their feet wet everv^ day, or there should 
be a vat five inches deep, five feet long, and three wide, filled Avith 
water and clay, in which each horse can stand for one hour per week, 
imless his feet are feverish, then he should be kept in it an hour ])er 
day, or until the fever subsides. Another source of injury to horses' 
feet, is the habit of patronizing cheap ' blacksmiths. If a man ain 



FARMERS* RECEIPTS. 35 

drive a nail, he then sets up a sign as a farrier or a veterinary surgeon, 
when in fact he laioAvs notliing of the anatomy of the liorsc's foot; 
not liaving spent any time or money in acquiring tlie necessary infor- 
mation, he can afford to slioe a few sliUliugs clieapcr than a -well-iu- 
forraed man, hut tlie patrons of sucli cheap shoemg arc generally the 
sufferers. All horse-shoers should be well skilled veterijiary surgeons, 
or there should he a skilful surgeon attached to every shop. Another 
source of poor shoeing and injury is the loss of elasticity of the frog, 
refusing to perform its proper functions ; the heel contracts, the foot 
rolls, and you have a sore horse for ten or twelve months, for it re- 
quires this long to relieve a horse's suffering from being badly shod. 

Under the circumstances, the first thing that touches the road or 
the floor of the stall, should be the frog, and the wall of the foot 
should be kept cut so as not to prevent it from touching at every step; 
and no man that owns a horse should ever allow a blacksmith to cut 
the soles, bars, or frogs of his horse's feet. Nature has adapted the 
fi'ogs to all descriptioii of roads, climates, and weather, without being 
pared. So many horses have been ruined by this process of paring, 
that there arc now several establishments in this country that 
manufacture India rubber pads, thinking thereby to supply the Avasted 
frog and the elasticity of the natural foot. The frog is insensible to 
pressure, and you may place tlie whole weight of your horse on tho 
frog and he will suffer no inconvenience, as may be seen from shoeing 
with one of my corn shoes ; besides, this is the ouly rehable way to 
cure contracted feet ; by throwing the weight upon the frog, you force 
them up between tho walls ; it acts as a wedge, and soon relieves the 
contracted feet. Smiths should never have their shoes hot Avhen 
fitting them, as the application of hot iron extracts tire oily substauco 
from the hoof. The amount of cruel punishment inflicted on 
horses by cross-grain blacksmiths, is another source of poor shoeing. 
As soon as the horse does not stand the smith gets augiy, and com- 
mences whipping and jerking the animal, which only adds terror to 
it, so that he soon refuses to go to the shop if he can avoid it ; it is 
natural for horses to disHke to be shod, because the hammering shocks 
the nervous system, until they are accustomed to it. lie should be 
taught to stand, and his feet well handled at home, before he is ever 
brought to the shop by the owner. You then save the horse pounding, 
and the smith an immense amount of labor that he never gets any pay 
for, for no man ever thinks of paying anything extra for shoehig a 
bad horse. The wall of the foot should never be rasped «above the 
nail holes, and as little below the clenches as possible ; all the rasphig 
and filing but tends to thin and weaken the wall by cutting the fibers 
of the foot. The nails should be counter sunk into the shoe, so that 
there will be no chance for the clenches to rise. No horse uiterferes 
with the heel or toe ; it is always the side of the foot. The habit of 
turning the inside of the shoe under causes a number of horses to in- 
terfere, that would not if they were shod straight in the inside. 
Spread tlie heels as wide as possible ; set the outside a little under ; 
keep the toes full. For clicking horses, raise the heels high, cut the toes 
short. For speedy cuts, place your toe corks a quarter of an inch to 
tlie inside of the centre of your shoe; keep the heels -wide apart. For 
conis, put on a shoe with a prong, for the main rim, so as to cover the en- 
tire frog, pare the wall lower than the frog, so as his entire weight wiE be 



36 farmers' receipts. 

thrown on the iTO^. Have the inner cork not quite so sharj) as tlio 
outer one, so that if he steps upon the other loot it will not cut it ; 
make the slioes as liglit as possible consistent with good service, as 
they are ordinarily made just about ^ too lieav3\" 

To Prevent Horses Kicking in the STALt. — Fasten a short 
trace-chain about 2 feet long, by a strap to each hind foot. A better 
■way is to have tlie stalls made wide enough so that the horse can tuni 
in them easily. Close tliem Avith a door or bars, and turn the animal 
loose. After a -while he will forget the habit, and stand tied without 
further trouble. 

To Cure Broken Legs. — ^Instead of summarily shooting the 
horse, in the greater number of fractures it is only necessary to par- 
tially sling the horse by means of a broad piece of sail, or other 
strong cloth placed imder the animal's belly, furnished with2 breech- 
ings and 2 breast girths, and by means of ropes and pulleys attached 
to a cross beam above, he is elevated, or lowered, as may be required. 
By the adoption of this plan every facility is allowed for the satisfac- 
tory treatment of fractures. 

Latmpas. — This consists in a swelling of the first bar of the upper 
palate. It is cured by rubbing the swelling 2 or 3 times a day with ^ 
oz. of alum and the same quantity of double refined sugar mixed with 
a little honey. 

Gravel. — Steep ^ lb. of hops in a quart of water and give it as hot 
as the horse can stand it. 

Halter Pulling. A new way to prevent horses pulling at the 
halter, is to put a very small rope under the horse's tail bringing the 
ends forward, crossing them on the back, and tjing them on the 
breast. Put the halter strap through the ring, and tie the rope in 
front of the horse. When the horse pulls, he will, of course, find him- 
self in rather an uncomfortable position, and discontinue the ellort to 
free himself. 

Hide Bound. — To recruit a hide bound horse, give nitrate potassa 
(or saltpetre) 4 oz., crude antimony 1 oz., sulphur 3 oz. Kitrate of 
potassa and antimony should be finely pulverized, then add the 
sulphur, and mix the whole well together. Dose, a tablespoonful of 
this mixture in a bran mash daily. 

To Prevent Horses from Jumping. — ^Passagood stout surcingle 
around his body ; put on his halter, and have the halter strap long 
enough to go from his head, between liis fore legs, then through the 
surcingle, and back to one of his hind legs. Procure a thill straj), 
and buckle around the leg between the foot and joint, fasten the 
halter strap in this — shorter or longer, as the obstinacy of the case may 
require. It is also useful to keep colts from running Avhere there is 
likely to be danger from the result ; if the thill strap should cause any 
soreness on the leg, It may be womid with a woollen cloth, audit would 
be well to change it from one leg to another occasionally. 

Big Leg. — To cure, use the "Blistering Liniment" with regularity 
every third hour until it blisters. In 3 days wash the leg with linseed 
oil. In G days wash it clean with soap and water. Kepeat every 6 
days until the swelling goes down. K there should be any callous 
leJt, apply spavin ointment. 

Sore Breasts. — This generally occurs in the spring, at the com- 
mencement of plowing. At times the fault is in havmg poor old 



FARMERS* RECEIPTS. 37 

collars, and not having the collar well fitted to the horse's breast; and 
often, the hames are either too tight or too loose. There is a great 
difference in horses about getting chafed or galled, and at times it has 
seemed to be impossible to keep their breasts from getting sore ; but 
a thorough application of strong alum water or white oak bark to the 
breasts of the auimal, 3 days before going to work, toughen them ^o 
that they will not get sore. Another excellent i)lan ic, when you let 
your team rest for a few moments during work, to raise the collar and 
pull it a little forward, and rub the breast thoroughly with your 
naked hand. 




The Check Retn on Horses. — ^We desire to register an earnest 
protest against this barbarous appendage to horses' harness. It re- 
tards the horse's progress in every position both Avhile he is at work, 
and while travelling on a journey. It is both useless and cruel in 
every sense of the word, without any compensating qualities to recom- 
mend it. Mr. Angell, of tlie "Boston Society for the Prevention of 
Cruelty to Animals," wiio has travelled over a great part of Europe 
in the interests of humanity to our dumb servants, says, that the use 
of the check rein is confined to America alone, being deservedly dis- 
carded every where both in England and on the Continent. The 
reason why it is so discarded, was very graphically explained by an 
extensive horse owner in Glasgow, as he remarked, in conversation 
with Mr. Angell, that " We canna get the "wark oot o' the horse wi' 
the check rein." To checlc rein a horse, is equivalent to trussing a 
man's head backward towards his back or heels, and compelling him, 
Avhile bound in this position, to do duty with a loaded wheelbarrow. 

Feeding Horses on the Road. — Many persons, in travelling^ 
feed their horses too much, and too often, continually stuifing them, 
and not allowing them to rest and digest their food ; of course they 
suffer from over-fuhiess, and carrying unnecessary weight. Horses 
should be Avell fed in the evening, and must not be stuffed too full in 
the morning, and the travelling should be moderate on starting when 
the horse has a full stomach. If a horse starts in good condition, he 
can go 20 or 25 miles without feeding. The provender required by 
horses while travellmg or engaged in ordinary farm work, j)er day, 
may be stated thus : Hay 20 lbs., oats 3 gals., water 4 gals. Muddy 
water is the best for horses. Beeves require 20 lbs, of hay and 6 



38 FAiniERS* RECEirXS. 

pals, of water per day. Quantity \nll vary in every case according to 
the size, condition, breed, &c., together -svith the kind of work in 
wiiich they are employed. 

Itch. — To cure a horse affected -with itch, first reduce his daily 
allowance of food, putting hiin on low diet and tlien give him a tea- 
Hpoonful of a mixture of equal parts of sulphur andautiraony, and at 
tlie end of a week or 10 days tlie sores will have disappeared and the 
horse will be covered Avith a fine coat of new hair. 

SxoprAGE OF UiiiXE. — Symptoms : Frequent attempts to urinate, 
looking round at his sides, lying down, rolling and stretching. To 
cure, fcike h lb. of hops, 3 drs. oil of camphor; grind and mix. Make 
this into 3 pills. Give 1 every day, with a drench made of a small spoon- 
ful of saltpetre and 2 oz. of water. This will cure as a general tiling. 

To Cure Balky Houses. — One method to cure a balky horse 
is to fcikc him from the carriage, whirl him rapidly around till he is 
giddy. It requires two men to accomplish this, — one at tl\o horse's 
fciil. Don't let liim step out. Hold him to the smallest possible circle. 
1 dose will often cure him, 2 doses are final with the worst horse that 
ever refused to stir. Another plan is to fill his mouth Avith the dirt or 
gravel from the road, and he Avill at once go, the philosophy of this 
being that it gives him something else to think about. 

Dk. Cole's Ki>'G of Oils.— 1 oz. green copperas ; 2 oz. Avhite 
vitriol ; 2 oz. common salt ; 2 oz. linseed oil ; 8 oz. molasses. Boil 
over a slow fire fifteen minutes m a i)int of urine ; when nlmost 
cold, add 1 oz. of oil of vitriol and 4 oz. of spirits of turpentine. 
Apply to wounds Avith a feather. A very jDOAverf ul liniment. 

Sloan's Horse Ointmext.— 4 oz. resin ; 4 oz. hces-Avax ; lard, 
8 oz. ; honey, 2 oz. INIix sloAvly and gently, brhig to a boil : then 
add less than 1 pint spirits turpentine ; then remove and stir till cool. 
Unsurpassed for horse flesh, craclced hoofs, human flesh, &c. 

Mexican Mustang Liniment. — Petroleum, olive oil, and carbon- 
ate of ammonia, each equal parts, and mix. 

Merchant's Gargling Oil. — Take 2^ gals. linseed oil ; 2^ gals, 
spirits turpentine ; 1 gal. Avestem petroleum ; 8 oz. liquor potiiss. ; 
sap green, 1 oz. ; mix all together, and it is ready for use. 

Arabian Condition Powders. — Ground ginger, 1 lb ; sulphurct 
o£ antimony, lib. ; powdered sulphur, 1 lb ; saltpetre, 1 lb. Mix all 
together, and administer in a mash, in such quantities as may be re- 
quired. The best condition poAvder in existence. 

Blistering Liniment. — 1 part Spanish flies, finely powdered ; 3 
of lard ; and 1 of yellow resin. Mix the lard and resin together, 
and add the flies when the other ingredients begin to cool. To render 
it more active, add 1 pint spirits turpentine. 

Medicated Food for Horses and Cattle. — Take linseed 
cake and pulverize or grind it up in the shape of meal, and to every 
50 lbs. of this ingredient, add 10 lbs. Indian meal ; 2 lbs. sulphuret 
of antimony ; 2 lbs. ground ginger, 1| lbs. of saltpetre, and 2 lbs. 
l)OAvdered sulphur. ]\Iix the whole thoroughly together, j)ut in neat 
l)oxes or packages for sale or otherAvise as desired, and you will have 
an article equal in value to " Thorley's Food," or almost any other 
preparation that can be got up for the purpose of fattening stock or 
curiug disease in every case Avhen food or medicine can be of any use 
whatever. This article can be fed iu any desired quantity, beginning 



rAKMEKS' EECEIPTS. o9 

with a icw taLlcspoonfuls .it a time, for a horse, mixing it Trith his 
p-am, and in the same proportion to smaller animals, repeatijag the 
dose and increasing the quantity as the case may seem to require, 

I.OTJON' FOR Mange. — Boil2oz. tobacco in 1 quart water ; strain ; 
add sidpliur and soft soap, eacli 2 oz. 

Foil Stkaiks and Swellings. — Strong vinegar saturated -with 
common salt, used warm, is good for strains and reducing swellings. 
1 oz. of white vitriol ; 1 oz. of green copperas ; 2 tcaspoonfuls of 
gnupowder, all pulverized together, and dissolved in 1 quart of soft 
water, and used cold, rubbing in thoroughly, is one of the best appli- 
cations IcnoAvn for reducing swellings. 

HooF-BouxD Wash. — Spirits turpentine. 4 oz. ; tar, 4 oz. ; whale 
oil, 8 oz. Mix, and apply to the hoofs often. 

To Toughen Hoofs. — ^^Vash them frequently in strong brine, and 
turn brine upon the bottoms, and soak a few minutes each time. 

Scratches. — Cut off the hair close, and wash the legs in strong 
soap-suds or urme, or wash with warm vuiegar saturated with salt, 
and afterwards dress over with a small quantity of hog's lard. 

Cough. — Quit feeding musty hay, and feed roots and laxative food. 
Sprinlde human lu'ine on his fodder, or cut i\i> cedar boughs and mis 
with his grain ; or boil a small quantity of flax-seed, and mix it in a 
mash of scalded bran, adding a few oimces of sugar, molasses, or 
honey. Administer liikewarm. If there should be any appearance 
of heaves, put a spoonful of ground gmger once per day in his pro- 
vender, and allow him to drink freely of lime water. 

Split or Broken Hoof. — Let tlie blacksmith bore two holes on 
each side of the crack or split ; pass long nails througli the lioles and 
clinch tight. After anointing with the hoof-bound liquid, it will 
soon grow together. 

Colic Cure. — Bleed freely at the horse's month ; then take ^ lb. 
raw cotton, wrap it around a coal of fire, so as to exclude the air ; 
when it begins to smoke, hold it under his nose till he becomes easy. 

To Cure Disteiviper. — Take 1^ gals, of blood from the neck vein ; 
then administer sassafras oil, 1^ oz. Cure, speedy and certain. 

Founder cured in 24 Hours. — Boil or steam stout oat-straw for 
half an hour, then wrap it around the horse's leg quite hot, cover up 
with wet Avoollen rags to keep in the steam ; in six hours renew the 
application, take 1 gal. of blood from the neck vein, and give 1 quart 
linseed oil. He may be worked next day. 

Cure for Staggers. — Give a mess twice a week, comi)osedof 
bran, 1 gal. ; sulphur, 1 tablespoonfid ; saltpetre, 1 spoonful ; boOing 
sassafras tea, 1 quart ; assafcctida, 1^ oz. Keep the horse from cold 
water for half a day afterwards. 

RiNG-BONTa and Spavin Cure. — Venice turjientine and Spanish 
files, of each 2 oz. ; euphorbium and aqua-ammonia, of each 1 oz. ; 
red precipitate, ^ oz. ; corrosive sublimate, ^ oz. ; lard, IJ lbs. Pul- 
verize all, and put into the lard ; simmer slowly over" coals, not 
scorching or burning ; and pour off, free of sediment. For ring- 
bones, cut off the hair, and rub the ointment well into the lumps 
once in 48 hours. For spavins, once in 24 hours for 3 mornings. 
Wash well previous to each application with suds, rubbing over the 
place with a smooth stick, to squeeze out a thick, yellow matter. 
This has removed very largo ring-bones. 



40 FA.R1IEES* RECEIPTS. 

AxoTHKR CiTRE. — Take sweet oil, 4 oz. ; spirits turpentine, 

2 oz. ; oil of stouc, 1 oz. Mix, and apply tliree times per day. 
If tlie horse is over four year old, or in auy cjise wlieu this isnotsufli- 
cicut, in addition to it, you vnll fit a bar of lead just above it, -wiruig 
the ends together, so it constantly wears upon the enlargement ; and 
the two together will cure nine cases out of every ten, in six weeks. 

Cure for Boxe Spavins — S300 Eecipe. — Corrosive sublimate, 
quicksilver, and iodine, of each 1 oz. Kiib the quicksilver and ioduie 
together ; then add the sublimate, and lastly the lard, rubbing them 
thoroughl}'. Shave off the hair the size of the bone enlargement ; 
grease all around it, but not where the hair is shaved off, this pre- 
vents the action of the medicme, except on the spavin. Then rub in 
as nuich of the paste as will lie on a 8-cent piece, each morning, for 

3 or 4 mornings. In from 7 to 8 days, the whole spavin will come 
out ; tlien wash the wound with suds for an liour or so, to remove 
the iK)isonous effects of the paste ; afterwards heal uji the sore with 
any good healing salve, or Sloan's llorse Ointment, as per recipe 
above, keeping the sore covered while it is healing up. 

Another very Valuabijs RECirE For Ring-bone. — ^Pul- 
verized cantharides, oils of spike, origanum, amber, cedar, Barba- 
does tar, and British oil, of each 2 oz. ; oU of woimwood, 1 oz. ; 
spirits turpentine, 4 oz. ; common potash, ^ o». ; nitric acid, 6 oz. ; 
sulphuric acid, 4 oz. ; lard, 3 lbs. Melt the lard, and slowly add the 
acids ; stir well, and add the other articles, stirring till cold ; clip oir 
the liair, and apply by rubbing and heating in. In about 3 days, or 
when it is done ruiunng, wash olf with soa^vsuds, and apply again. 
In old cases, it may tiike 3 or 4 weeks ; but, in recent cases, 2 or 3 
ai^plications have cured. 

Another. — Pulverized cantharides, oils of origanum and amber, 
and spirits turi^entine, of eiich 1 oz. ; olive oU, ^ oz, ; sulphuric acid, 
3 drams ; put all, except the acid, mto alcohol ; stir the mixture, add 
the acid slowly, and continue to stir till the mixture ceases to smoke; 
then bottle for use. Apply to ruig-bone or spavin with a sponge tied 
on the end of a stick, as long as it is absorbed into the parts ; twent}-- 
four houi*s after, grease well with lard ; and in twentj'-four hours 
more, wash off well with soap-suds. One application is generally 
sufficient for spavins, but may need two ; ring-bones, always tAvo or 
three applications, tliree or four days apart, which prevents loss of 
Lair. This vnil stop all lameness, but does not remove the lumj). 

Splint ant> SrA%aN Liniment. Oil of origanum, 6 oz. ; gum 
camphor, 2 oz. ; mercurial ointment, 2 oz. ; iodnie ointment, 1 oz. ; 
melt by puttmg all into a wide-mouthed bottle, and setting it in a 
kettle of hot Avater. Apply it to bone spavins or splints, twice daily, 
lor four or five days, and a cure is guaranteed. 

Poll Evil and Fistula. — Common potash dissolved in ^ pint of 
•water, 1 lb. ; add h oz. belladonna extract, and 1 oz. gum arable dis- 
solved in a little water ; work all into a paste with wheat flour, and 
bottle up tight. Directions : wash the sores well with Castile soajv 
euds ; then apply taUow all aromid tliem. Xext, press the above 
paste to the bottom of all the orifices ; repeat every two days till the 
callous fibrous base around the poll enl or fistula is completely de- 
stroyed ; put a piece of oil-cloth over the sores, and afterwards' IxcaJ 
up idth Sloan's Horse Ointment 



FOINTS IN A HORSE. 
DIAGRAM OF A SOUND HORSE. 



4J 




1. Forehand. 

2. Forehead. 
Face. 
Nose. 

Wings of the nose. 
Muzzle. 
Jaw. 
Throat. 

Windpipe, or Throt- 
tle. 

Point of the Shoul- 
der. 
Chin. 
Curb of the Chin. 

13. Outer comer of the 

Eye. 

14. Inner corner of the 

Eye. 

15. Tore top. 



10 



11. 

12. 



POINTS IN A HORSE. 

16. Neck. 

17. Breast. 

18. Shoulder. 

19. Withers. 

20. Arm. 

21. Fore-arm. 

22. Fore-legs. 

23. Knee. 

24. Cannon-hones. 

25. Nape. 

26. Crest. 

27. Middle-hand. 

28. Back. 

29. Back-hand. 

30. Loin. 

31. Hip, 

32. Croup, or Eump. 

33. Dock. 



35. Girth. 

36. Barrel (the Ribs). 

37. Flank. 

38. Quarter. 

39. Thigh. 

40. Stifle. 

41. Hamstring. 

42. Point of the Hock. 

43. Hocks. 

44. Fetlocks. 

45. Small Pasterns. 

46. Large Pasterns. 

47. Crown of the Hoof. 

48. Hoof. 

49. Heels. 

50. Head. 

51. Mane,or Mane Haiti 



34. Elbow. 

Comparative Vat.ue of Food for Horses. — 100 lbs. of good lifi^ 
is equivalent in yalue to 59 lbs. of oats, 57 lbs. of corn, 275 of carrots, 
54 lbs. of rye or barley, 105 lbs. of wheat bran, 400 lbs. of green 
clover, 275 lbs. of green corn, 374 lbs. of wheat straw, 442 lbs. of rye 
straw, 400 lbs. of dried corn stalks, 45 lbs. of wheat, 50 lbs. of corn, 
62 lbs. of sun-flower seeds, 69 lbs. of linseed cake, 105 lbs. of oat 
straw, 105 lbs. of wheat bran; 1 lb. of oil cake is equal to 14 lbs ca\> 
bage. 



42 



DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 




DIAGRAM SHOWINa DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
The above diagram, copied from a circular issued by L. W. Waruer 
& Co., manufacturers of Dr. Herri ck's Horse Mediciues at 67 Murray 
St., ]Sr. Y., is, notwithstanding its lugubrious appearance, of the ut- 
most value to owners of horses ; for, taken in connection witli the 
following references descriptive of the various numbers, indications, 
&c., it wall prove of great utility iu identifying and locating diseases 
in many doubtful cases. 

1. 

2. 
3. 



r Glanders. 

J Discharge from the Nostrils. 

J Membrane. 

C Glandular Swellings. 

4. Caries and Diseases of the Jaw. 

5. Fistula Parotid Duct. 

6. Diseases of the Eye. 

7. Scars on Forehead and over the 
Eyes. 

Scars from old Fontanels and 
Brain Diseases. 9. Poll Evil. 

Prurigo, or Mane Scab. 

Fistulous Withers. 

Saddle Galls, Sitfasts, &c. 

Fistulous Tail. 14. Rat Tail. 

Falling of the Fundament. 
IG. Luxation of Patella, or Whirl 
Bone Displaced. 

17. Hernia or Rupture. 

18. Broken Ribs. 19. Farcy. 

20. Sores from Constant Bleeding, 

21. Bridle Swellings. 

22. Fistula and inflammation of 

Parotid Gland. 

23. Phlebitis, or inflamed Jugular 

Vein. 



8. 

10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
15. 



1 24. Sore Throat. 

25. Tumors caused by Collar. 

26. Capped Elbow or Tumoi 

27. Wind Galls. 
IMallenders and Sallenders. 
Splint. 30. Capped Knee. 
Broken Knees and Open Joint. 
Clap of the Back Sinews. 
Ringbone. 
Acute and Chronic Founderer. 

Ring Foot. 35. Grogginess. 
Quittor. 
Tread on the Coronet and 

Overreaches. 
Sand, Toe, Cow and Quarter 

Cracks. 
Girth Swellings. 
Wind Colic, Fret, Gripes, or 

Belly-ache. 

41. Thorough pin. 

42. Capped Hocks. 

43. Swelled or Sprung Sinews. 

44. Scratches. 

45. Spa '\' in. 

46. Curb. 47. Swollen Legs. 



28. 
29. 
31. 
32. 
33. 
34. 

36. 
37. 

38. 

39. 
40. 



FAUilEKS' KECEIPTS. 43 

To TA3EE noRSES. — Tiikc finely-gratcd horso castor, oils of rho- 
dium and ciimiu ; keep tliem in separate bottles avcU corked ; put 
some of the oil of cuiniu on your hand, and approach the horso on 
the windy side. He will then move toward you. Then rub some of 
the cumin on his nose, give liim a little of the castor on anything 
he likes, and get eight or ten drops oil of rhodium on his tongue. You 
can then get him to do anything you like. Be kind and attentive to 
the animal, and your control is c'eitain. 

Best Re^iedy for Heaves. — Balsam of fir and balsam of co- 
paiba, 4 oz. each, and mix with calcined magnesia sufliciently thick 
to make it into balls ; and give a middling-sized ball night and morn- 
ing for a week or ten days. 

CcRE FOR BoTS IX HoRSES. — Give the horse, first, 2 quarts of 
new milk, and 1 quart molasses ; 15 minutes afterwards, give 2 quarts 
very strong sage tea ; 30 minutes after tlio tea, give 3 pints (or enough 
to operate as physic), of curriers' oil. The molasses and milk cause 
the bots to let go tlieir hold, the tea puckers them up, and the oil 
carries them completely away.' Cure, certain, in the worst cases. 

LiXQiENT FOR SwEENY. — Alcoliol and spirits turpentine, of each 
8 oz. ; camphor-gum, pulverized cantharides, and capsicum, of each 
1 oz. ; oil of spike, 3 oz. ; mix. Bathe this liniment in with a hot 
iron, and a cure is sure to follow. 

For Looseness or Scouring ix Horses or Cattle. — Tormen- 
til root, powdered. Dose for a horse or cow, 1 to 1^ oz. It may be 
stirred into 1 pint of milk, and given ; or it may be steeped in 1^ 
pints o£ milk, then given from three to six times daily, until cured. 

Scours and Pin- Worms in Horses and Cattle. — ^AVhite ash 
bark burnt into ashes, and made into a rather strong lye ; then mix 
i pint of it with 1 pmt warm water, and give all two or three times 
daily. This will ceitainly carry off the worms, which are the cause, 
in most instances, of scours and looseness. 

English Stable Liniment, very strong. — Oil of spike, aqua- 
ammonia, and oil of turpentme, each 2 oz. ; sweet oil, and oil oi 
amber, each, 1^ oz. ; oil of origanum, 1 oz. Mix. 

Colic Curb for Horses and Persons.— Spirits tuxi^entinG, 
3 ox. ; laudanum, 1 ox. ; mLx ; and for a horse give ^Al for a dose, by 
putting it into a bottle with half a pint of warm wi:.ter. If relief is 
not obtained in an hour, repeat the dose, adding half an oimce of the 
best powdered aloes, well dissolved. Cure, certain. 

Fob Persons, a dose would be from 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls iu warm 
tea ; children or weak persons, less. 

LiNniENT FOR fifty CENTS PER GALLON. — Bcst vinogar, 2 qts. ; 
pulverized saltpetre, ^ lb. ; mix, and set hi a cool x>hi-ce till dissolved. 
Invaluable for old swellings, sprams, bruises, &c. 

SuoEiNG Horses. — A smith who shod for the hunt, and who said 
that he would have to shut up shop if a shoe was lost, as it might 
cause the loss of a horse worth a thousand pounds, fastened the shoo 
as follows : — As he drove the nails, he merely bent the pouits down 
to the hoof, without twisting them off, as the usual practice is ; ho 
then drove the nails home, and cUnched them. Ho then twisted off 
the nails, and filed them lightly to smooth them, thus having, as ho 
remarked, a clinch and a rivet to hold the nails. 

Horse Ail.— Make a slow fire of old shoes, rags, herbs, &.G, 



44 FASMERS* RECEIPTe. 

When fired a little, smother so aa to make a great smoke and steam, 
then set a barrel without heads, over tlie fire, and hold the horse's 
head down in the barrel, and smoke him well. This will soon pro- 
duce a copious runniug at the nose, and he will be so well pleased 
that he will voluntarily hold his head m the smoke. Continue this 
half an hour or more daily, meanwhile give him potatoes and warm 
bran mashes, and gently physic if there be much costiveness which 
the laxative food A\'ill not remove. If he has fever, treat him for it. 

Saddle and IIakxess Galls, &c. — White lead and linseed oil, 
mixed as for pauit, is unrivalled for healing saddle, harness, or col- 
lar galls and bruises. Try it, applying with a brush. It soon forms 
an air-tight coating and soothes the pain, powerfully assisting nature. 

Grease Heel. — Ley made from wood-ashes, and boil w^hite-oak 
bark in it till it is quite strong, both in lye and bark-ooze ; when it is 
cold, it is fit for use. "Wash off the horse's legs "vvith Castile soap; 
when dry, apply the above ley with a swab fastened on a long stick 
to keep out of his reach, as the smart caused by the api)lication might 
make him let fly without much warning; but it is a sure cure, only 
it brings off the hair. To restore the hair after the cure is effected, 
make and apply a salve by stewing elder bark m old bacon ; then form 
the salve by adding a little resui, according to the amount of oil when 
stewed, or ^ lb. resin to each pound of oil. 

Valu^vble Re.^iedy for Heaves. — Calcined magnesia, balsam of 
fir, balsam copaiba, of each 1 oz. ; spirits turpentine, 2 oz. ; put them 
all into 1 pint best cider vinegar; give for a dose, 1 tablespoouful in 
his feed, once a day for a week; then every other day for 2 or 3 months. 
Wet his hay with brme, and also his other feed. He will cough more 
at first, but looser and looser till cured. 

To DiSTiNGinsH AXD CuRE DiSTEMTER. — ^Wct up bran with rather 
strong lye; if not too strong, the horse will eat it greedily. If tliey 
have the distemper, a free discharge from the nostrils, and a conse- 
quent cure, will be the result, if continued a few day.s ; but if only a 
cold, with swellings of the glands, no change will be discovered. 

Reimedy for Fountjer. — DraAv about 1 gal. blood ivom the neck; 
then drench the horse with linseed oil, 1 qt. ; now rub the fore-legs 
long and well with water as hot as can be borne without scalding. 

Physic-Ball for Horses. — Barbadoes aloes, from 4 to 5 or 6 
drama (according to size and strength of the horse); tartrate of 
j)otassa, 1 dram; giuger and Castile soap, each 2 drams; oil of anise, 
orpeppermmt, 20 drops; pulverize and make all mto one ball, witli 
thick gnm solution. Feed by giving scalded bran instead of oats, for 
two days before giving the physic, and durmg its operation. 

Physic fob Cattle. — Take half only of the dose above for ahorse, 
and add it to glauber-salts, 8 oz. ; dissolve all in gruel, 1 quart, and 
give as a drench. 

Hoof-ail in Sheep. — Muriatic acid and butter of antimony, of 
each 2 oz. ; white vitriol, pulverized, 1 oz. ; mix. Lift the footj^ and 
drop a little of it on the bottom, only once or twice a week. It kills 
the old hoof, and a new one soon takes its place. 

Slt^erthosphate of Lime, the greatest Agricultural Dis- 
covery of the Age. — ^Take a large puncheon, large tub, or baiTcl, 
and put into it200 lbs. water ; add, very slowly and cautiously, 100 lbs. 
of i)uje sulphuric acid; you must bo very careful, while handling this 



farmers'^ receipts. 45 

article, not to let it touch your skin or clothing, as it Avill instantly 
blacken the skin, and destroy the clothing, wherever it comes in con- 
tact; and, when mixed with water, it engenders a very intense heat. 
Into this mixture throw 200 lbs. of bones, no matter how old or use- 
less they may be. Tlie sulphuric acid instantly attacks and enters 
into combination with the bones, reducing them to a pasty consistence, 
and completely dissolving them. Keep imder cover, and turn them 
over occasionally, whUe the process is going on; and, when com- 
pleted, dump out the whole contents on the bam floor or on a plat- 
fonn of boards, and thoroughly work into the mass four times its 
bulk of dry bog-earth or dry road-dust; mix and pulverize completely 
with a wooden shovel. The bog-earth acts as an absorbent or drier, 
retaining the fertilizing proi^erties of the compoimd, and rendermg it 
easy of uniform distribution. If whole bones are used, it will take 
six or eight weeks to dissolve them ; if they are broken with an axe, 
they will dissolve in about three weeks ; if they are ground in a bone 
mill, four days will be sufficient. This manure is the most powerful 
fertilizer in existence ; and, when made by these directions, it is the 
clieapest,''as one ton is equal to thirty-two tons of barn-3'ard manure. 
Por top-dressing grass lauds, use 300 lbs. per acre; for corn, potatoes, 
beans, turnips, "&c., apply 450 lbs. per acre in the driU, mixing with 
the soil; for wheat, rye, oats, or barley, 400 lbs. per acre, harrow in 
with the seed; for buckwheat, 300 lbs. per acre. 
\ Superphosphate in Twenty-fouk Houks, — Any farmer who 
has got an apparatus for steaming food for cattle can make super- 
lihosphate in quick style by admitting steam from the boiler into the 
barrel containing the water, acid, and ground bones. The heat thus 
generated quickens the dissolution of the bones in a wonderful man- 
ner; and, if the process isproiJerly conducted, it will not take over 
twenty-four hours in any case. It is indispensable that the barrel be 
tightly covered to retain the steam. 

Fertilizer for Tobacco. — Add 40 lbs. of the best Peruvian 
{juano to each 100 lbs. of the suioerphosphatc made by the above 
receipt, and you will have one of the most powerful fertilizers for 
tobacco that can be made. If you do not have Peruvian guano, use in- 
stead 30 lbs. of hen manure to each 100 lbs. of superjDhosphate. 

HoaiE-MADE PouDRETTE. — Fcw fertilizers arc wasted with the 
prodigaUty of extravagance which attends the use of night soil, while 
the exercise of a little care and attention is all that is required to 
secure one of the most jDOwerful fertilizers in existence. Night soil 
contains phosphate of lime, Avhich is essential to the growth of 
animals' bones, and which is not supplied from the atmosphere like 
carbonic acid and ammonia. In order to receive the droppings in a 
manageable and inoffensive state, the vault should be provided with 
a large, tight box made of matched plank, placed to slide on scanthng, 
so that it can be drawn out, by attaching a horse, whenever required. 
Provide plenty of dry, black loam from the woods or swamps ; refuse 
charcoal, dry peat, or alluvial deposits answer first-rate. Keep them 
dry, in barrels or boxes on the spot, under cover; spread a thick layer 
on the bottom of the receiving box, and at intervals of a few days 
throw in a liberal supply of these absorbents on the accumulating de- 
posit. If a few handfuls of iDlaster are thrown in occasionally, it will 
suppress unpleasant odors and increase the value of the manure. 



46 FARMEKS' KECETPTS. 

Tho emptying of slops and dish water in the box should be strictly 
prohibited. Wlieu the box is filled, you can remove it, and convert 
it into poudrette. For this purpose it must be worked over with an 
additional quantity of muck, or other absorbent, in such proportions 
that it wiU form, witli what has been previously added, about three- 
quarters of the entire compound. The working should be done under 
a shed, and the whole kept perfectly dry. It should be shovelled over 
and mixed several times at intervals, and finally screened, and made 
as uniform throughout as i)Ossible; the finer it is pulverized, and tho 
drier it is kept, tho better. 

Home-made Guano of Uxequ^vlled Exceli^ence. — Save all 
your fowl manure from sun and rain. To prepare it for use, spread a 
layer of dry swamp muck (tlie blacker it is the better) on your bam 
lloor, and dump on it the whole of your fowl manure; beat it into a 
fine powder with the back of your spade; this done, add hard wood 
ashes and plaster of Paris, so that the compound shall be composed of 
the following proportions: dried muck, 4 bushels; fowl manure, 2 
bushels; ashes, 1 bushel; i^laster, 1^ bushels. Mix thoroughly, and 
spare no labor; for, in this matter, the elbow-grease expended will bo 
well paid for. A little before planting, moisten the heap with water, 
or, better stiU with urine ; cover well over with old mats, and let it lio 
till wanted for use. Apply it to beans, com, or potatoes, at the rate 
of a handful to a hill; and mix with the soil before dropping the seed. 
This win be found the best substitute for guano ever invented, and 
may be depended on for bringing great crops of turnips, corn, 
potatoes, &c. 

To Dissolve Lakge Bo>rES fok Maxtjre without Expense. — 
Take any old flour barrel, and put into the bottom a layer of liard- 
wood ashes ; put a layer of bones on the top of the ashes, and add 
another layer of ashes, filling the space between the bones with them ; 
then add bones and ashes alternately, finishing off with a thick layer 
of ashes. When your barrel is filled, pour on water (urine is better,) 
just sufficient to keep them wet, but do not on any account suffer it 
to leach one drop ; for that would be like leachmg your dungheap. 
In the course of time they will heat, and eventually soften down so 
that you can crumble them with your finger. When sufficiently 
softened, dump them out of the bn,rrel on a heap of dry loam, and 
pulverize and crumble them up tni they are completely amalgamate(l 
into one homogeneous mass with tlie loam, so that it can be easily 
handled and distributed when required. You may rely on it, this 
manure will leave its mark, and show good results wherever used. 

ScBSTiTUTE FOR SUPERPHOSPHATE. — If you havo iuch bone 
ground in a bone-mUl, and cannot afford to purchase sulphuric acid 
to work it up into superphosphate of lime, you can reduce your bones 
into a fine impalpable powder by simply using tliree barrels of loamy 
soil to every barrel of inch bones ; mix them together. The bones 
wiU soon begin to lieat and ferment, and continue so for some time ; 
they will then cool off. You will then j)roceed to chop down and 
pulverize and work the mass thoroughly ; it will begin to reheat and 
ferment and cool down again ; and you will continue working it over 
till the contents are brought to the proper state of fineness, when you 
will have a fertilizer of astonishing power. It is only a year or two 
since a statement appeared in tho " Country Gentleman," of the 



FARilEKS' RtCEIPT'S. 47 

exiicrimciits of a ^fr. IIaskkll with a manure pvo}>areil after this 
inctliod, who found it even superior to superphosphate of lime. 

How TO DOUBLE THE USUAL QUANTlTiT OF Ma>'UKE OX A 

Farm. — Provide a good suppl}- of black swamp mould or loam from 
tlie woods, within easj' reach of your stable, and place a laj-er of this, 
one foot thick, under each horse, with litter as usual, on the top of 
the loam or mould. Remove the droppings of the animals every- 
day, but let the loam remain for two weeks ; then remove it, mixing 
it with the other manure, and replace with fresh mould. By this 
simple means, any farmer can double not only the quantity but also 
the quality of his manure, and never feel himself one penny the 
poorer by the trouble or expense .incurred, while the fertilizing value 
of the ingredients absorbed and saved by the loam can scarcely bo 
estimated. 

Josiah Qumcy, jun., has been very successful in keeping cattle in 
stables the year through, and feeding them by means of soiling. 
Tlie amount'of manure thus made had enabled him to improve the 
fertility of a poor farm of 100 acres, so that in twenty years the hay 
crop had increased from 20 to 300 tons. The cattle are kept in a well- 
arranged stable, and are let out into the yard an hour or two niorning 
and afternoon ; but they generally appear glad to return to tlieii 
quarters. By this process, one acre enables him to support three oi 
four cows. They are fed on grass, green oats, com fodder, barley, 
&c., which are sown at mtervals through the sprmg and suramei 
mouths, to be cut as required ; but he remarks that his most valuable 
crop is his manure crop. Each cow produces 3^ cords of solid, and 
3 cords of liquid manure, or G^ cords m all. Five to eight miles from 
Boston, such manure is worth five to eight dollars a cord. From this 
estimate, he has come to the conclusion that a cow's manure may be 
made as valuable as her milk. 

Twenty Dollars' Worth of MA^T^RE for almost Nothixo. — 
If you have any dead animal, — say, for instance, the body of a 
horse, — do not suffer it to pollute the atmosphere by drawing it aAvay 
to the woods or any other out of the way place, but remove it a short 
distance only, from your premises, and put down four or five loads 
of muck or sods, i)lace the carcass thereon, and sprinkle it over with 
quick-lime, and cover over immediately with sods or mould sufficient 
to make, with what had been previously added, 20 good wagon- 
loads ; and you will have within twelve months a j)ile of manure 
Avortli 820 for ai\y crop you choose to put it upon. Use a j^ropor- 
tionate quantit}'^ of mould for smaller animals, but never less tlian 
twenty good wagon-loads for a horse ; and, if any dogs raauifegt 
too great a regard for the enclosed carcass, shoot them on the spot. 

Fish Comi'OSt, Substitute for Boxe-Dust, Manure fro^i 
Fish Refuse, &c. — Tlie fish owes its fertilizing value to the animal 
matter and bone-earth which it contains. The former is precisely 
similar to flesh or blood, consisting of 25 per cent, of fibrin, the rest 
being water ; and their bones are similar in composition to those of 
terrestrial animals. As fertilizing agents, therefore, the bodies of 
fishes will act nearly in the same way as the bodies and blood of 
animals ; 100 lbs., in decaying, produce 2^ lbs. of ammonia. Hence 
400 lbs. of fisli rotted in compost arc enough for an acre. The great 
effect is due to the amiaoniacal portion ; for it readei-s the herbage 



48 FAKilEKS' KECEirTS. 

dark-green, .ind starts it very rapidly. One of the best composts is 
made as follows : Dried bog-earth, loam, or peat, seven barrels ; 
hardwood ashes, two barrels ; fish, one barrel ; slaked lune, ouc 
bushel. Place a thick layer of the bog-earth on the bottom ; on the 
top of this put a layer of the fish, then a sprinkling of lime, then a 
a layer of ashes ; on top of the ashes put a thick layer of bog-earth, 
loam, or peat ; then another thin layer of fish, lime, and ashes, and 
so on till your materials are worked in ; then top off with a thick 
layer of the absorbents, to retain the fertilizing gases. The decompo- 
sition of the fish will proceed very rapidly, and a very rich compo.st 
will be the resnlt. It should be shovelled over and over and thor- 
oughly intermixed and pulverized. Put this on so as to have 400 lbs. 
of fish to the acre. It may be applied with the greatest benefit to com, 
turnips, potatoes, beans, &c., in the drill, and broad cast on the grass. 

Superphosphate can be made from pogy-chum, or the refuse of other 
fish, after the oil is expressed, by dissolvmg in sulphuric acid, and 
afterwards mixing witii dry loam, precisely as directed for making 
superphosphate with bones. "Whale-oil or the oil of any fish, when 
made into a compost with loam, and a little lime or wood ashes, 
yields a very powerful manure, merely mLxed with absorbent earth 
and applied at the end of the mouth. Impure whale-oil, at the rate 
of 40 gallons per acre, has produced a crop of 23^ tons of turnips per 
acre ; w^hile on the same soil, and durmg the same season, it took 40 
bushels of bone-dust to produce only 22 tons per acre. 

Ashes from Soil by Spontaneous Combustion. — Make your 
mound 21 feet long by lOJ feet wide. To fire, use 72 bushels of lime. 
Fii-st a layer of dry sods'or parings on which a quantity of lime is 
spread, mixing sods with it; then a covering of eight inches of sods, 
on which the other half of the lime is spread, and covered a foot thick, 
the height of the momid being about a yard. In twenty-four hours 
it will take fire. The lime should be fresh from the kiln. It is 
better to suffer it to igiiite itself than to effect it by the operation 
of water. When the fire is fairly kindled, fresh sods must be ap- 
plied ; but get a good body of ashes in the first place. I thinlv it 
may be fairly supposed that the lime adds full its worth to the 
quality of the ashes, and, when limestone can be got, I would ad- 
vise the burning a small quantity in the mounds, wliich would bo 
a great improvement to the ashes, and would help to keep the fire in. 

Substitute for B.vrn-manure. — Dissolve a bushel of s^ilt in 
water enough to slack 5 or G bushels of lime. The best rule for pre- 
paring the compost heap is, 1 bushel of this lime to 1 load of 
swamp-muck, intimately mixed ; though 3 bushels to 5 loads makes 
a very good manure. In laying ui) the heap, let the layer of muclc 
and lime be thin, so that decomposition may be more rapid and 
complete. When lime cannot be got, use unleachcd ashes, — 3 or 4 
bushels to a cord of muck. In a month or sLx Aveeks, overhaul and 
work over the heap, when it will be ready for use. Sprinlde the 
salt water on the lime as the heap g:oes up, 

Sheep-Dipping Composition,— AVater, 1 gal, ; benzine, 8 ounces ; 
cayenne pepper, 2 oimces. Mix ; make what quantity you requirej 
using these proportions. Dip your sheep and lambs in the composi- 
tion, and it will make short work of the vermin. 

Oat or Wheat Straw imade equal to Hat.— Bring 10 gallons 



farmers' receipts. 49 

water to a boiling heat ; take it off the fire, and add to it at on.t) 
3 gallons of linseed ungroimd ; let it remain till it gets cold ; tbeix 
empty the whole into a cask containing 44 gallons of cold Avatcr, 
and let it remain for forty-eight hours. At the end of that time, 
it will be reduced into a thiu jelly, like arrowroot. Spread out %£ 
ton straw, and sprinkle it over regularly with the whole of the 
liquid from the cask. The stock will eat it iip as clean, and keep 
as fat on it, quantity for quantitj', as they would do on hay. 

Death for Vekmin on Plants or Animals. — Pour a gallon of 
boiling water on one pound tobacco leaves, strain it in twenty minutes; 
for vermin, on animals or i)lants, this decoction is certain death. 

Remedy for Curculio in Fruit Trees. — Sawdust saturatea ni 
coal oil, and placed at the roots of the tree, will be a sure prevent- 
ive ; or, clear a circle around the tree from all rubbish ; fill up all 
little holes and -smooth off the ground for a distance of at least 3 
feet each way from the tree, then place chips or small pieces of 
wood on the ground within the circle ; the curculio will take refuge 
in large numbers below the chips, and you can pass aroimd in tlic 
Miomings and kill them off. 

Grafting Wax. — Resin, 1 lb. ; bees- wax, 1 lb. ; with tallow or lard 
sufficient to soften until it can be readily applied with thehand; melt. 

To Cultivate Tobacco. — To raise tobacco, select a sheltered 
situation, where the j'oung plants can receive the full force of the 
sun ; bum over the surface of the ground early in spring (new laud is 
best), rake it well, and sow the seeds : have a dry, mellow, rich soil, 
and after a shower, when the plants have got leaves the size of a 
quarter-dollar, transplant as you would cabbage plants, 3^ feet apart, 
and weed out carefully afterAvards. Break off the suckers from tlic 
foot-stallcs, as they appear ; also the tops of the plants when they arc 
well advanced, — say, about three feet high, — except those designed 
for seed, which should be the largest and best plants. The ripeness 
of tobacco is laiowii by small dusky spots appearing on the leaves. 
The plants should then be cut near the roots, on the morning of a day 
of siuishine, and should lie singly to wither. AVheu sufficiently 
withered, gather them carefully together, and hang them up under 
cover to cure and prepare for market. 

To Preserve Potatoes rRo:\i Rot. — Dust over the floor of tho 
bin with lime, and put in about 6 or 7 inches of potatoes, and dust 
with lime as before, then more potatoes, using about 1 bushel of limo 
to 40 bushels of potatoes. The lime improves the flavor of the pota- 
toes, and effectually kills the fungi which causes the rot. 

An old veteran farmer, with G3 years' experience, has successfully 
fought the potato rot in the ground, as follows: He plants them in 
the latter part of April, or beginning of lilay, and in the old of the 
moon. When six inches higli they are plastered and dressed out 
nicely. Now for the secret. When blossoming, take 2 parts plaster, 
and 1 part fine salt, mix well together, and put 1 large spoonful of 
this compound as near the centre of each hill as possible. When 
ripe, take them out of the ground, have them dry when i)ut in the 
cellar, and keep them in a dry, cool place. 

Packing Fruits for Long Distances. — ^Take abox of the propei, 
size, soft paper, and sweet bran. Place a layer of bran on tho 
bottom, then each bunch of grapes is held by tho hand over a 

4 



50 FARMERS* RECEIPTS. 

sheet pf the pai^er ; the four comers of the pnpcr arc brought up 
to tlic stalk aud nicely secured ; then laid on its side in the box, 
and so on until the first layer is finislied. Then dust on a layer of 
bniu, giving the box a gentle shake as yon proceed. Begin the 
second layer as the first, and so on luitii the -whole is full, The 
bloom of the fruit is thus preserved as fresh, at the end of a 
journey of 500 miles, as if they were newly taken from the tree. 
Never fails to preserve grapes, peaches, apricots, and other fruit. 

Thorley's Coxdoiental. Food. — The following is a formula to 
make 1 ton of the food : take of Indian meal 900 lbs., locust beans finely 
ground 600 lbs., best linseed cake 300 lbs., powdered turmeric and 
sulphur of each 40 lbs., saltpetre 20 lbs., licorice 27 lbs., ginger 3 lbs., 
anise-seed, 4 lbs., coriander and gentian of each 10 lbs., cream of tartar 
2 lbs., carbonate of soda and levigated antimony each 6 lbs., common 
salt 30 lbs., Peruvian bark 4 lbs., fenugreek 22 lbs., oiix thoroughly. 

Cure for Swelled Bags in Cows. — An excellent remedy for 
swelled bags in cows, caused by cold, etc., is gum camjohor | oz., to 
sweet oil 2 ozs. ; pulverize the gum, and dissolve over a slow fire. 

To Increase the Flow of Milk ik Cows. — Give your cows 
three times a day, water slightly warm, slightly salted, in which bran 
has been stirred at the rate of 1 qt. to 2 gals, of water. You will find 
if you have not tried this daily practice, that the coav will give 25 per 
cent, more milk, and she will become so much attached to the diet 
that she will refuse to drink clear water unless very thirsty, but this 
mess she will drink at almost any time, and ask for more. The 
amount of this drink necessary is an ordinary water-pail full each 
time, morning, noon, and night. Avoid giving cows " slops," as they 
are no more fit for the animal than the human. 

Home-made Stitmp Machine. — ^Take 3 pieces of common jomts, 
put them together in form like a common harroAV, letting the tapering 
ends lap by each other some G inches, making a place for the chain to 
rest in. Cut off the roots at any distance you please from the stump, 
place the machine at one side of the stump, tapering end up; hitch the 
chain on the opposite side and x)ass it over the macliiue ; then hitch a 
good yoke of oxen thereto, and you will see the stumj) rise. Another 
method is as follows : in the fall of the year bore a 1-inch hole 18 
inches deep into the centre of the stump, and put in 1 oz., of saltpetre, 
filling up with water, aud plugging the hole up. In the spring take 
out the plug, put in half a gill of kerosene and set fire to it. It will bum 
out the stump, to the farthest root. Here is another i>lan : in the fall, 
with an inch auger, bore a hole in the centre of the stump 10 inches 
deep, and put into it a ^ lb. of vitriol, and cork the hole up very tight. 
In the spring the whole stump and roots extending all through their 
ramifications will be found so rotten that they can be easily eradicated- 

To Sprout Onions. — Pour hot water on the seed, let it remain 2 
or 3 seconds, and they will immediately sprout, and come up 
much earlier. ^ 

To Renew Old Orchards. — Early in the spring, plough the 
entire orchard, and enrich the whole soil with a good dressing of 
compost of manure, swamp-muck, and lime ; scrape off the old 
bark with a deck-scraper, or a sharp hoe ; apply half a bushel of 
lime, and the same of ground charcoal round each tree. Then 
apply diluted soft soap, or strong soap-suds, on the trunks and 



FARMERS* RECEIPTS. 51 

limbs, as high as a man can rcacli. AVlicn the trees are in full 
bloom, throw over tliein a good propoitiou oJ: fiue slaked lime, 
aud you will reap abundant fruits from your labors. 

To Destroy the Moth ok Millei:.— Dr. Waterman says, "I took 
two white dishes (because Avliite attracts their attention in tlic 
niglit) or deep i^lates, aud placed tliem on the top of tlio hives, 
iiud filled them about half-fnii of sweetened vinegar. The next 

oniing I had about 50 millers c^aught ; the second night I caught 
50 more ; the thud night, being cold, I did not get any, the fourtli 
light, being very warm, I caught about 400; the fifth night I got 
ahout 200." 

To Keep Milk Sweet, akd Sweeten Soue Milk.— Pu,t into the 
millc a small quantity of carbonate of magnesia. 

To Make Cheap and Good Vineg^ui. — To eight gallons of clear 
rain-water, add 6 quarts of molasses ; turn the mixture into a 
clean, tight cask, shake it well two or three times, and add 1 pt. 
of good yeast. Place the cask m a warm place, and iu ten or 
fifteen days add a sheet of common wrapping-paper, smeared with 
molasses, and torn into narrow strips ; and you will have good vuiegar. 
Tlie paper is necessary to form the " mother," or life of the liquor. 

Mr. Culley's Red Salve, to cure the Rot in Sheep. — Mix 4 
02. of the best honey, 2 oz. of burnt alum reduced to powder, and 
^ a poiuid of Armenian bole, with as much tram or fish oil as Avill 
convert these ingredients into the consistence of a salve. The honey 
must first be gi-adually dissolved, when the Anneuian bole must bo 
Etirred in ; afterwards the alum and train-oil are to be added. 

To Lmpro%t3 the Wool of Sheep, by S^learixg. — Immediately 
after tlie sheep are shorn, soak the roots of the wool that remains ail 
over with oil, or butter, and brimstone ; and, 3 or 4 days afterward, 
wash them with salt .and water. The wool of next season will not be 
much finer, but the quantity will be in greater abundance. It may 
be depended upon, that the sheep will not be troubled witli the scab 
or vermin that year. Salt water is a safe and effectual remedy 
against maggots. 

To Maric Sheep \rrTnoTJT Injury to the Wool. — To ."0 spoonfuls 
of linseed oil, add 2 oz. of litharge, 1 oz. of lami)black ; bod 
ail together, and mark the sheep therewith. 

To ^I'REVENT THE Fly IN TuRNips. — From experiments lately 
made, it has been asceitaiued that lime soavii by hand, or dis- 
tributed by a machine, is an infallible protection to turnips against 
the ravages of this destructive insect. It shoidd be applied as 
soon as the turnips come up, and in the same daUy rotation iu 
which they were sown. The lime should be slaked immediately 
before it is used, if the air be not sufficiently moist to render that 
execration unnecessary. 

Coloring for Cheese. — ^The coloring for cheese is, or at least 
should be, Spanish annatto ; but, as soon as coloring became 
general in this country, a color of an adulterated kmd was exjDosed 
for sale in abnost every shop. The weight of a guinea and a half 
of real Spanish annatto is sufficient for a cheese of fifty pounds* 
weight. If a considerable part of the cream of tlie night's milk 
be taken for butter, more coloring will be requisite. The leaner 
the cheeso is, the more coloring it requires. The manner of using 



52 FARMERS KECEirXS. 

annatto is to tie up iu a liucn rag the quantity deemed sufficiewt, 
and put it iuto ^ pt. of warm water over night. Tliis infusion is 
put iuto the tub of milk in the morning witli the rennet infusion ; 
dipping the rag into tlie milk, and rubbing it agauist the palm of 
the hand as long as any color runs out. The yolk of egg will 
color butter. 

The Great Secrets for TRArriNG FbxES A^^) other Gajie, — 
Blusk-rat musk and skunk musk mixed. Can be jDrocured at the 
druggists, or from the animals themselves. To be spread on the bait 
of any trap. This receipt has been sold as high as $75. Another, 
costing $50, for minks, &c. — Unslaked lime, ^ lb, ; sal-ammoniac, 
S oz., or muriate of ammonia, 3 oz. Mix, and pulverize. Keep in 
a covered vessel a few days until a thorough admixture takes 
])lace, Sprinlde on the bait, or on the ground around the trap. 
Keep in a corked bottle. 

Food for Singing Birds. — Blanched sweet almonds, pulverized, 
h lb, ; pea meal, 1 lb, ; sallron, 3 grs, ; yolks of 2 hard boiled egge- 
lieduce all to a powder by rubbing through a sieve. Place the m:\- 
ture iu a frying pan over a fire, and add 2 oz, butter and 2 oz, 
honey. Slightly cook for a few minutes, stirring well, then set oft 
to cool, and preserve in a closely corked bottle. 

Much Butter froim Little Milk. — Take i ozs. pulverized alum, 
^ oz, pulverized gum-arabic, 50 grs. of pepsin ; place it in a bottle for 
use as required. A teaspoonful of this mixture added to 1 pt. of 
new milk will, upon churning, make I 1^ of butter. Agents are sell- 
ing this secret for $5. 

CoJirosiTioN FOR Driving out Rats, etc. — Keep on hand a 
quantity of chloride of lime. The whole secret consists iu scattering 
it dry all aromid their haunts and into their holes, and they will leave 
at once, or a liberal decoction of coal tar placed in the entrance of 
their holes will do as well. 

How TO FORM Springs. — The finest springs can be made by boring, 
which is performed by forcing an iron rod into the earth by its own 
Avcight, turning it round, and forcing it up and down bj a spring- 
pole contrivance. The water will sometimes spout up several feet 
above the surface. Iron pipes are put down in the hole alter the 
water is found. Depressed situations, having a southern exposure, 
with rismg ground towards the north, are the best situations in the 
United States or the Canadas to find water. 

To Burn Llme without a Kiln. — Make a pyramidal pUe of large 
limestones, with an arched furnace next the groimd for putting in 
the fuel, leaving a narrow vent or funnel at the top ; now cover the 
whole pile with earth or turf, in the way that charcoal heaps are 
covered, and put iu the fire. The heat will be more completely 
diffused through the pUe, if the aperture in the top is partially closed. 
Produces a superior article of lime. 

Eye Water for Horses and CATTLE.—Alcohol, 1 tablespoonful ; 
extract of lead, 1 teaspoonful ; ram water, ^ piut. 

To Destroy Moss on Trees. — Paiut them with white-wash made 
of quick lime and wood ashes. 

To Protect Fruit-trees from attack op Mice, etc. — Tar, 1 
part ; tallow, 3 parts ; mix. Appl7 hot to the baj'k of the tree with a 
paiut bnish, 



farmers' RECEIITS. 53 

Points of a Good Horse. — ^He should be about log hands high ; 
the head light and clean made, wide between the nostrils, and the 
nostrils themselves large, transparent and opea ; broad in the fore- 
head, eyes prominent, clear and sparkling ; ears small and neatly set 
on ; neck rather short and well set up ; large arm or shoulder, well 
thrown back, and high ; withers arched and high ; legs fine, flat, 
thin and small-boned ; body round and rathor light, though suffi- 
ciently large to afford substance when it is needed ; full chest, afford- 
ing play for the lungs ; back short, with the hind-quarters set on 
rather obliquely. A good draught horse should have a rather large, 
well-shaped head, a clean, long ear, full eye, neck rather long, but 
not too much arched ; strong withers, lying well forward to catch 
the collar at the proper angle for draught, and broad shoulders, well 
spread into the back, back very straight, ribs long and well rounded, 
hind-legs bent at the hock, fore-legs forward, hind-quarters some- 
what round, but not sufficiently to make them look short ; the mane 
and tail of short, but not coarse hair, and with a fetlock about two 
inches long, broad knees, long hocks, short shanks, and hard ankles 
or fetlock joints, and round hoofs, well oi^ened behind, and the 
nearer you apjjroach this description the nearer the hoise will be to 
perfection. 

The Epizootic. — The early symptoms of the disease are a light, 
hacking cough, with a general dulness, and an indisposition to move ; 
cold legs, with a watery discharge from the nostrils. At first, the 
nasal membrane is pale, but, as the disease advances, becomes highly 
colored, and the mucous discharge changes to a greenish yellow 
color, and the pulse becomes more rapid. As soon as the symptoms 
appear, the animal should be kept warm in the stable, by blanketing. 
The following prescriptions are recommended : No. 1 — Linseed oil, 
1^ ozs. ; turpentine, 1^ ozs. ; liquor ammonia fort., 1 oz. Mix all 
together, and apply to the throat. No. 2 — Nitrate potash, 1^ ozs. ; 
tartarized antimony, 1^ ozs. ; digitalis, 1\ ozs. Pulverize all to- 
gether, and give one night and morning. If not very bad, the digi- 
talis may be omitted. The disease consists of an inflammation of 
the mucous membrane lining the throat, which gradually extends 
from the epiglottis downwards till it reaches the lungs, when if 
assumes a decidedly dangerous character. The following will arreii1 
the disease at once, if taken in time: Boil a handful of sm art- weed tii'^ 
ftll the strength is obtained, and pour the liquid boiling-hot over th^ 
usual mess of oats, and, when all is cold, feed them to the horso 
Repeat till all symptoms disappear. Cure certain. Ground ginge. 
mixed with the oats, has also proved effectual. 

Age of Horses. — By Teeth. — A horse has 40 teeth, 24 double 
teeth, or grinders, 4 tushes, or single file teeth, and 12 front teeth, 
called gatherers. As a general thing, mares have no tushes. Be- 
tween 2 and 3 years old, the colt sheds his four middle teeth, 2 above 
and 2 below. After 3 years old, 2 other teeth are shed, 1 on each 
side of those formerly changed ; he now has 8 colt's teeth and 8 
horse's teeth; when 4 years of age he cuts 4 new teeth. At 5 years 
of age, the horse sheds his remaining colt's teeth 4 in number, when 
his tushes appear. At 6 years of age his tushes are up, appearing 
white, small find sharp, while a smajl circle of young growing teett 



54. FAKMERS' RECEIPTS. 

are observable, The mouth is now complete. At 8 years of age the 
teeth have filled up, the horse is aged and his mouth is said to be full. 

By El/did. — Alter a horse is 9 years old, a wrinkle comes ou the 
eyelid at the upper corner of the lower lid, and everj' year thereafter 
he has one well defined wrinkle for each year over 9. If, for instance, 
a horse has three of these wrinkles, he is 12 ; if 4, he is 13. Add tlie 
number of wrinkles to 9,- and you will invariably judge correctly of a 
horse's age. 

Tliose who manage horses should be careful never to inflict any 
unnecessary pain, for it is only by the law of kindness that a horse 
can be trained and managed. No man ever yet struck a horse, but 
he made the horse the worse for it. Patience and kinduess will ac- 
complish in every instance what whij^ping will fail to do. Horses 
liaviug a vicious disposition are invariably made so from cruel treat- 
ment. Horses are designed to work, and daily labor for them is as 
much a necessity to their existence as to that of man's. It is not the 
hard drawing and ponderous loads that wear out horses and make 
tiiem poor, balky and worthless; but it is the hard driving, the worry 
by rough and inhuman drivers, that uses up more horse flesh, fat and 
muscle than all the labor a team performs. Another great reason 
why there are so few really sound animals is because of their being 
put to work too soon. Horses are not developed until they are 5, 6 or 
7 years old, and they should do very little work until they reach that 
period. When a horse is worked hard its food should chiefly be oats; 
if not worked hard its food should chiefly be hay; because oats supply 
more nourishment and flesh making material than any other food; 
hay not so much. 

Artificial Rubber FROM Milkweed. — The juice or sap is express- 
ed from the milk- weed by running it between iron rollers and then 
allowing it to ferment or evaporate to the consistency of thin molasses. 
It may then be slowly boiled to reduce it to a thick mass which may 
be treated in the usual way of manufacturing the genuine rubber. 
See Boot, Shoe and Mubber Manufr's Bep't. 

To Pickle Meat in One Day. — Get a tub nearly full of rain or 
river water, and put two pieces of thin wood across it and set the beef 
on them at about the distance of 1 inch from the water. Heap as 
much salt as will stand on the beef and let it remain 24 hours, then 
take off the beef and boil it, and you will find it is completelj'^ impreg- 
nated by the salt, the water having drawn it through the meat. 

Baron Liebig's Great Fertilizer. — Dry peat, 20 bushels, nn- 
leached ashes, 3 bushels, fine bone dust, 3 bushels, calcined plaster, 
S bushels, nitrate of soda, 40 lbs., sulphate of ammonia, 33 lbs., sul- 
phate of soda, 40 lbs. Mix numbers 1, 2 and 3 together, then mix 
numbers 5, 6 and 7 in 5 buckets of water. Wlien dissolved, add tho 
liquid to the first, second, and third articles. When mixed, add the 
fourth article. This is a cheap and efficient fertilizer, and this quan- 
tity applied to one or two acres of turnips, beets, oats, corn, wheat, 
grapes, &c., will bring abundant returns. 

Another Cheap Fertilizer.— -Ammonia, 60 lbs. ; nitrate of soda, 
40 lbs. ; ground bone, 250 lbs. ; plaster, 250 lbs. ; salt ^ bushel; wood 
ashes, 3 bushels ; stable manure, 20 bushels. Use the above quantity 
on 6 acres. Labor included, it will cost about $15, in some places 
less, and is equivalent iu value to some fertilizers which cost |5f) oc 
£10 sterling per ton. 



TARMEKS RECEIPTS. 00 

To Protect Sheep from the Gad Fly. — In August and Sep- 
tember this fly laj-s its eggs in the nostrils of sheep, where they are 
hatched and the worms crawl into the head, and very frequently eat 
through the brain. In this way many sheep are destroyed. As a 
protection, smirch their noses with tar. Lay some tar in a trough or 
on a board, and strew fine salt on it. The sheep will finish the opera- 
tion. The tar will protect them, and what they eat will promote theii 
health. 




PORTABLE STEAM ENGINE. 
Threshing by Steam Power. — A 4 horse power Portable Engine 
with 6 inch cylinder ; pressure of steam 45 lbs. per square inch, revo- 
lutions 140 per minute, has threshed, under favorable surroundings. 
320 bushels per day of 10 hours, coal consumed 3 cwt. Another engine 
of 5 horse power threshed 400 bushels, coal consumed, 4 cwt. Ano- 
ther of 6 horse poAver, threshed 480 bushels, coal consumed 5 c\\i:. 
Another of 7 horse jDOwer, threshed 560 bushels, coal consumed G cwt 
Another of 8 horse power, threshed 640 bushels, coal consumed 7 CAvt. 
Another of 10 horse power threshed 800 bushels p.^r day, coal consumed 
9 cwt. The economy of these performances is evident at a giauce, 



06 



FARMERS RECEIPTS. 



and even if much less work than the above were effected, it is evident 
that such an engine as the one represented above, would, if mounted 
on wheels, prove a most valuable acquisition to any neighborhood 
composed of thrifty farmers, who might, by an equitable arrangement, 
become both the owners and beneficiaries of the same. Many porta- 




ble engines are Imown to be performing excellent service, not only in 
threshing grain, but in chaffing straw, hay, &c., food for cattle, cutting 
wood for fuel,and sawing logs into boards. Among other late inventions, 
^ee have one as novel as it is meritorious, consisting of a self-propell- 
ing engine, capable of moving itself from one locality or farm to 



FARMERS RECEIPTS. 



57 



another, together with the necessary fuel and water, without the aid 
of horses. An excellent view of this most useful invention is pre- 
sented in the cut. 

Excelsior Axle Grease. — Tallow, 8 lbs. ; palra oil, 10 lbs. ; plum- 
bago, 1 lb. ; heat and mix well. 
Ploughing Table. — Showing the distance travelled by a 

Horse in Plowing an Acre of Land; and the quantity 

OF Land Cultivated ter Day, Computed at the rate of 16 

AND 18 Miles per Day of 9 Hours. 



Jj llUl of 
FlirioW 


Space travel- 
led in Plough- 


Extent Ploughed 
per Day. 


B'dth of 
Furrow 


Sljuce travel- 
led in Plough- 


Extent Ploughed 
per Day. 


slice. 


ing an Acre. 


slice. 


ing an Acre. 


Inches. 


Miles. 


18 Miles. 


16 Miles. 


Inches. 


Miles. 


18 Miles. 


IG Miles. 


7 


14 1-2 


1 1-4 


1 1-8 


14 


7 


2 1-2 


2 1-4 


8 


12 1-2 


1 1-2 


1 1-4 


15 


6 1-2 


2 3^ 


2 2-5 


9 


11 


1 3-5 


1 1-2 


16 


6 1-6 


2 9-10 


2 3-5 


10 


9 9-10 


1 4-5 


1 3-5 


17 


5 3-4 


3 1-10 


2 3-t 


11 


9 


2 


1 3-4 


18 


6 1-2 


3 1-4 


2 9-10 


12 


8 1^ 


2 1-5 


1 9-l{ 


19 


5 1-4 


3 1-2 


3 1-10 


13 


7 1-2 


2 1-3 


2 l-K 


20 


4 9-10 


3 1-5 


3 1-4 



Rapid Rule to Reckon Cost of Hay, Coal, &c,— Multiply th3 
number of pounds by half the price per ton, and remove the decimal 
point three places to the left. Example : What is the cost of 764 lbs. 
Df coal at $14 per ton ? Ans. : $5,348. 



Process : 



764 
14^2= 7 



5.348 
To Measure Grain. — ^Rule. — Level the grain; ascerfciiu the space 
it occupies in cubic feet; multiply the number of cubic feet by 8, and 
point off one place to the left. 

Example: A box level full of grain 20 ft. long, 10 ft 
5 ft. deep, how many bushels does the box contain ? 
bushels. 

Process: 20xlOx5=1000x8-flO=800 

Or, 1000 ft. 

8 



wide, and 
Ans.: 800 



800.0 

.A'u.e. — Correctness requires the addition to every 300 bushels of 1 
extra bushel. 

Quantity of Seed required for a Given Number of Hills, 
OR length op Drill. — Asparagus, 1 oz. to 60 feet drill; beet, 1 oz. to 
50 ft. drill; carrot, 1 oz. to 180 ft. driU; endive, 1 oz. to 150 ft. drill; 
onion, 1 oz. to 100 ft. drill; parsley, 1 oz. to 150 ft. drill; parsnip, 1 oz. 
to 200 ft. drill ; radish 1 oz. to 100 ft. drill ; spinach, 1 oz. to 100 ft. drill ; 
turnip,l oz. to 150 ft. driU; peas, 1 qt. to 100 ft. drill; dwarf beans, 1 qt. 
to 150 hiUs; com, 1 qt. to 200 hills; cucumber, 1 oz. to 50 hills; water- 
melon, 1 oz. to 30 hills; muskmelon, 1 oz. to ^ hills; pumpkin.l oz. to 



58 farmers' receipts. 

40 hills ; early squash, 1 oz. to 50 hills ; marrow squash, 1 oz. to 16 li^lls- 
cabbage, 1 oz. to 3000 plants; cauliflower, 1 oz. to 3000 plants; celery, 
1 oz. to 4000 plants ; egg plant, 1 oz. to 2000 plants ; lettuce, 1 oz. to 
4000 plants, pepper, 1 oz. to 2000 plants; tomato, 1 oz. to 2000 plants. 

Quantity of Seed required per Acre, and Actual weight 
OF EACH to the Bushel. — Wheat, broadcast, If to 2 bushels; ditto, 
in drills, Ij bushels, weight per bushel, 60 lbs; rye, broadcast, l| 
bushels, weight 56 lbs. ; oats, broadcast, 2 bushels, weight 33 lbs. ; 
timothy, broadcast, 2 gals., 45 lbs. per bushel; red clover, broadcast, 
3 to 4 gals., 60 lbs. per bushel; white clover, broadcast, 8 lbs., 50 lbs. 
per bushel; lucerne, broadcast, 10 lbs., 54 lbs. per bushel; herd or red 
top, broadcast, 1 to 1^ bushels, 14 lbs. per bushel ; bluegrass, broad- 
cast, 1 to 1^ bushels" 14 lbs. per bushel ; millet, broadcast, | to 1 
bushel, 45 lbs. per bushel; Hungarian, broadcast, f to 1 bushel, 50 
lbs. per bushel; corn in hills, 1 to l^gals., 56 lbs. per bushel; tur- 
nips and ruta baga, 1 lb., 50 lbs. per bushel; onion sets, 28 lbs per 
bushel . 

The Vitality of Seeds may be tested by placing almost any of 
I he larger seeds or grains on a hot pan or griddle ; when the vitality 
is perfect the grain will pop, or crack open with more or less noise. 
Where tlie vitality is detective, or lost, it remains immovable in the 
vossel. A celebrated botanist's recipe for improving and fertilizing 
all kinds of seed, consists in the preparation of a solution of lime, 
nitre, and pigeon's dung in water, and therein steeping the seed. 
Tested on wheat, the produce of some of these grains was reported at 
60, 70 and 80 stems, many of the ears 5 inches long, and " 50 corns 
each, and none less than 40. The same botanist (Millar) produced 
500 plants from 1 grain, and 576,840 grains, weighing 47 lbs. Grains 
of wheat in different countries yield from 6, 10, 16, and even 30 to 1 : 
Cape wheat 80 to 1. Barley yields from 50 to 120. Oats increase 
from 100 to 1000. Wheat and millet seed germinate in one day, bar- 
ley in 7, cabbage in 10, almond and chestnut and peaches require 12 
months, and rose and filbert 24. A field of wheat buried under an 
avalanche for 25 years, proceeded on its growth, &c., as soon as the 
snow had melted. A bulbous root found in the hand of a mummy, 
above 2000 years old, lately produced a plant. Potatoes planted be- 
low 3 feet do not vegetate ; at ^ foot they grow quickest, and at 2, are 
retarded 2 or 3 months . 

Compound for Reviving Exhausted Orchards — Sulphate of 
potash, 30 lbs. ; sulphate of magnesia, 15 lbs. ; salt, 35 lbs. ; plaster of 
Paris, 15 lbs. ; chloride of magnesia, 5 lbs. All to be well powdered 
and mingled with barn manure, and then dug in around the roots at 
the rate of 10 to 20 lbs. to a tree. This compound is assumed tore- 
store those elements to the soil of which it has been exhausted during 
many years of fruit bearing, and the secret has been sold to hundreds 
at extortionate prices. 

Artificial Manure.— The composition of Dr. Jeaunel's artificial 
manure for pot plants, as detailed to the Central Horticultural 
Society of France, is as follows: — Nitrate of ammonia, 400 grammes 
(a gramme == 15 grains) ; phosphate of ammonia, 200 grammes ; ni- 
trate of potash, 250 grammes; hydrochlorate of ammonia, 50 gram- 
mes ; sulphate of lime, 60 grammes ; and sulphate of iron, 40 gram- 
mes. One gramme or 15 grains of this mixture is dissolved in n litre 
of water, aiid used once or twice a week. .. 



FARMERS RECEIPTS. tID 

Equivalent Fektjlizing Pkoperties of Various i\[AxuRES.- 
1 lb. guauo equals c'8 lbs. cow uiauure, 33 farm yard do., 22 svviue do., 
21 horse, 14 human. 

Seed Oats. — Place j-our oats in a heap at the leeward end of the 
threshing floor on a day when a gentle breeze is blowing through the 
barn. Take a common wooden tlour-scoop and throw the oats against 
the wind, towards tlie other end of the floor. A few minutes' experi- 
ence will enable you to throw them so that they will fall in a senii- 
circlo at a nearly uniform distance from where you stand, the oats 
'v\'hic]i fall farthest are the best for seed, and are to be carefully swept 
together as fast as thej' accumulate m sufficient quantities. 

Seed Wheat should not oulj'' be thoroughly cleaned from the 
seeds of weeds, but small grains sliould be taken out with a separator 
or suitable fanning mill, leaving only the largest, plumpest, and ear- 
liest ripened kernels. To prevent smut, soak the seed wheat in brine, 
riud then dust it with imslacked lime; tliis will prove a j)erfect preven- 
tive. 

To PiiODUCE THE Pear IN PERFECTION. — Pears are liable to crack 
when the trees stand in soil deficient in Ume and potash. These es- 
sential elements are restored to exhausted soil by the application of. 
wood ashes at the rate of 400 bushels to the acre, Avhich ensures the 
renewal of the proper proportions necessary to supply the require- 
ments, viz., 40 per cent, of potash and 30 per cent, of lime. This will 
check the cracking of the fruit. Tested. Applied to the roots of the 
trees and vegetables, 12 qts. of soou mixed with 1 hogshead of water, 
is a most powerful stimulant of growth and production. A paint of 
soot and sweet milk applied to fruit trees will keep rabbits off. 

Salt akd its Uses. — Salt appears to be as necessary for vegetable 
life as it is to animal life. Apxolied in combination" with other manures 
at the rate of 2 cwt. to the acre, it never fails to produce wonderful 
results on all kinds of grain and vegetable productions, and the vor- 
acity shown by animals for salted hay is well known. 

To Kill the Potato Bug. — Mix 1 lb. Paris green with 10 lbs. 
poor flour or fine whiting. To use, take a circular piece of wood 4 or 
5 inches in diameter (it may be cut out of a 2 inch plank), insert a mop 
handle in the centre, tack on an old tin can Avith one end removed for 
the reception of the block, punch the other end with holes through 
which to sift the compound on the hills as you pass along the rows, 
and bore a hole in the wooden end for the reception of the mixture, 
and fit a plug to secure it. The compoiuid should be sifted on the 
hills while the vines are Avet with dew or rain. 

The Striped Bug on Cucumbers and Melons maybe destroyed, 1st, 
By sifting charcoal dust over the plants 3 or 4 times in succession. 
2nd. Use a solution of 1 peck of henhouse manure to 1^ gals, water, 
and sprinkle the plants freely with it after sunset. Chinch-bugs.— 
place any old rags in the crotches of the trees. The worms will take 
refuge and spin in the old rags, when the latter may be thrown in boil- 
ing water. Caterpillars. — Use a solution of 1 part in 500 of sulphide of 
potassium, sprinkle on the tree by means of a hand syringe. Curculio. 
— Make a very strong solution of water and gas tar, so that after 
standing 48 hours it will be powerful and dark colored like creosote 
On the appearance of the curculio, drench the tree thoroughly with a 
hand-forcing pump, repeating it every 3 days for 2 weeks.- and de 
ktiov all fallen fruit. 



60 farmers' receipts. 

To Relteve Choked Cattle. — lu choking, the accumulation of 
gas (chiefly sulphuretted hydrogen) is the cause of the animal's 
death. This gas Ciiu be decomposed by forcing a strong solution of 
salt and -water down the animal's throat ; or, force the beast to jump 
over the bars of a gate or fence. When she touches the ground on 
the opposite side, the obstruction will be ejected. Another Avay is to 
use four or five feet of l-inch rubber hose, and push the obstruction 
down. 

Farrotv Cows. — Feed them liberally, and they will give rich milk, 
though perhaps but little of it. Let them have three or four quarts 
of meal per day through the winter and spring, and do not stop giv- 
ing it when the grass comes. As soon as it dries them up, they will 
be fit for the butcher. 

To Cook Food for Cattle. — To Cook Ray. — Cut it, wet it well, 
put it in an upright tank or cask, with a false bottom and tight 
cover, press it down firmly, and pass the steam in under the false 
cover. To Cook Corn. — Soak as many barrels, half full, as you wish 
to cook from 15 to 24 hours ; turn on steam and cook until done, 
and the barrels will be full. To Make Mush. — Fill as many barrels, 
half full of water, as you wish to make barrels of mush ; bring the 
water nearly to a boil iDy passing the steam to the bottom ; stir into 
each barrel from 1^ to If bushels of meal until well mixed ; then cook 
until done, when the barrels should be full. To Cook Vec/etables. — 
Fill the barrels full, and, if no other cover is at hand, chop the top 
fine with a shovel ; then cover them up with meal or proven- 
der, and cook until done ; have holes in the bottom of the barrelg 
to carry off condensed steam. 

To Fatten Sheep. — Sheep will fatten readily on good clover-hay 
alone, if the hay has been cut in full bloom, so as to retain all its 
juices before they are turned into woody fibre, and of a good green 
color. A sheep of, say 120 lbs. live-weight, will consume 21 lbs. of 
clover-hay per week, and increase in weight 2 lbs. Allowing that it 
would orflinarily take 14 lbs. to keep it in good stationary condi- 
tion, an expenditure of 7 lbs. of hay extra will iDroduce 1^ lbs. of 
mutton, worth in the spring 10 cents, — perhaps more, — so that the 
hay is literally realizing to the farmer at the rate of $30 or 
more to the ton. No other stock, we think, will give a return for 
the trouble of fattening like this. To fatten sheep more rapidly, 
the daily addition of a small quantity of oats to their feed will pro- 
duce good effects. Keep their quarters dry, well-ventilated, and 
abundantly littered with clean straw, with freedom of access to good 
water, and an occasional taste of salt. The health of sheep during 
the grazing season will be promoted by giving the sheep tar at the 
rate of a gill a day for every 20 sheep ; and, if given pine boughs 
once or twice a week, they Avill create appetite, prevent disease, and 
increase their health. The best sheep to keep, both for wool and mut- 
ton, is the American Mermo. 

Hay Racks for Sheep. — The cheapest and best rack for sheep 
can be made of 8 boards, 4 long and 4 short ones, nailed to 4 
posts, forming an enclosure 12 or more feet long, as the case may 
be, and 32 inches wide. The bottom board should be at least 10 
inches wide, and the top one need not be over 4, with a space be- 
tween of from 6 to 8 inches, depending somewhat, upon the size at 
the sheep that are to cat, with their heads through this aperture. 



ON BEE KEEPING. 



61 



COKSTRUCTION OF BeE HiVES. — 

Few departments of economy and 
nse are more productive of utility, 
profit, and real pleasure than the 
intelligent management of the hon- 
ey bee, hut perhaps no other sub- 
ject is less understood by the enor- 
mous masses of the vast population 
who in every grade of society, 
might be benefited by a correct 
knowledge of the subject. In order 
to manage bees with profit it is ne- 
cessary to discard the old method of 
suffocation with sulphur, the old 
barrels, hollow logs, straw hives, 
boxes, &c., of the past, and keep 
abreast with the new discoveries of 
the age. All that is required for 
success is to plan well, and always 
work ill harmony with, and never 
against, the heaven derived 
instincts which guide the 
marvellous operation of thi3 
wonderful insect. Fore- 
most among the appliances 
which benefit man and fa- 
cilitate the labors of the 
bees we would mention the 
American Movable Comb 
Hive, cuts of which are pre- 
sented herewith. 

Directions formaking the 
American Hive. — The bot- 
tom board is 13^ inches 
wide, 18 inches long and 1^ 
inches thick. The front and 
back are 14J inches wide 
and 19^ inches long. The 
8x10 observation door in 
the back, is cut out with a 
buzz-saw, 3 inches from the bottom, and thin strips f in. wide arc 
tacked on the sides and top of the opening even with the outer edge 
to leave an ^ in. rabbet on the inside for the glass. The door is fin- 
ished by nailing an inch clamp on end and side, beveled and hung to 
the clamp above. Both front and back have a rabbet for the frames 
on the mside, across the top 4^ in. wide and f in. deep, and the same 
extend down the edge ^ in. wide, against which the moveable side is 
to fit. The clamp is nailed on the^front 7^ in. up from the bottom, 
and the 1| in. fly holes are bored 3 ins. from centre to centre just 
above it. 

The stationary side with the 1\ in. clamp on the upper end is 19^ 
ins. long and 15 ins. wide. A i^art of the front is cut off 3 ins. from 




62 ON BEE KEEPING. 

the 1)0110111, to within Ig in. of the edge ncrct to the movable side, and 
the last surface is left beveling out to nialce the entrance block C, 
easy of removal, which is 12^ ins. long, to the beveled point, and 
2 ins. wide, and beveled each side and between the 1^ pillars, l| ins. 
up on the outside, and § in. upon the inside, and the edges rounded 
off to leave a bee passage § of an in. high. — (See entrance block in tho 
first cut.) 

The block is held in place by the base of the same button that 
holds the entrance slide, B. The entrance slide B is ly ins. wide, 15 
ins. long, and § in. thick, having 2 notches §iu. high emd 1 in. long, 
cut to fit the pillars, C, when closing the hive. 

A movable side to fit over the open part of the liive, (as shown 
wide open in cut) secured by clamps, is 16| ins. long, and 14 ins. wide 
at the top and y less at the bottom to make it easy to remove. 

Before nailing the body of the hive together, nail a clamp 3 ins. 
wide and 12g ins. long on the under side of the bottom board, crosn- 
wise to prevent it from warping. Use wrought nails and drive them 
through upon a heavy iron to clinch them, and nail the clamps ou 
the front and back in the same manner. Fasten the bottom board in 
a vice and nail the back on the bevelled end just even with tho 
lower i^art of the observation door, and use two or three long brad 
nails near the edge next to the moveable side. Kext nail on tho 
stationary side firmly to the back and bottom board, especially at tho 
front edge, then to the front having the movable side in place. Nail 
the clamp on the upper end of the stationary side, nailing through tho 
ends into the front and back. Next, nail the strip under tho 
bottom board next the moveable side, which is 14 ins. long by 2^ ins. 
wide at the back end, and runs to a point at the other end. Nail tho 
1-^ in. clamps on the ends of the movable side, when the two hooks 
and metallic buttons are screwed on the edge of the front and back 
after painting. When finished the movable side is^ in. shorter than 
the front and back, to avoid killmg bees that may be on the stand, 
when closing the hive. The adjustable bevelled strips rest upon tho 
frame rabbets next the stationray side, and holds the frames over 
against the movable side. ^.- _ 

« "There are nine of the movable comb' frames, 'and all are mado 
alike. The bees pass up into the honey boxes through slots or mor- 
tises. Each of the two slots in the iDrojectmg edge of the top bars, is 
^in. wide and 2 ins. long. The side bars are7-16th of an inch thick, 13 
in. long and f wide being sawed from lumber that thickness. The top 
bars lack ^ in. of 14 in. in length, and lack 1-lGth of an inch of iMns. in 
width. They are sawed 7-I6th of an inch thick from a plank which 
should be exactly the right thickness for their width. _ 
pte' The Improved Comb Guide, which the bees invariably follow, is 
constructed in a manner that secures straight combs. A groove is 
made in the centre of the lower side of the top bar, into which is in- 
serted a thin strip of wood having its lower edge coated with bees- 
wax. ^ The projecting nails in the side bars to keej) the frames apart 
should have large heads and be driven through a hole in an iron or 
hard piece of wood, 9-16th of an inch thick. The frames are held from 
the walls of the hive by a triangular strip across the front, 5-16th. 
in thick, and the one on the back is not nailed on until the glass ism, 
when it is dressed to give tjicfraiacs Jin. x-)la7 between thQ trian- 
gular strips, ' 



ON BEE KEEPING. 63 

The tops and bottoms of the 12 small honey boxes are ij- x GJ ins. 
and about | m. thick. A slot 1^ x 3 ins. is cut across the tops and 
bottoms of all except the tops of six of the first set of boxes. The 
four comer posts are | in. square and 5 ins. long. The end glass 4 x 
5 and side glass 5 x G ins. are held in place by a two prong narrow 
strip of tm through the corner of the posts and the prongs bent each 
"way over the glass. 

The end pieces of the caps are 15| ins long, 8Jins. wide at the ends 
and 102 ills, wide in the centre, each ha^dng a 1^ in. hole, covered with 
wire cloth on the inside. The side pieces are 17 ins. long and 8^ wide 
the upper edge sawed beveling to fit the roof boards. 

The roof boards are 20^ ins. long, and each 11 ins. "wide, with the 
tipper edge beveled to fit" and the lower edge leveled to ctand plumb. 
A 1^ inch half round is nailed on the top to cover the joint. 

In j)ainting, give the hives one coat of white and when dry, putty 
and paint the second coat ; and while the paint is fresh, cloud, with 
the hive hangmg upon aboard projecting from tlie shop Avail, G feet 
from the floor, by passing beneath it a lighted coal oil lamp with a 
small romid wick. When the paint is drj^ screw on the hooks and 
buttons, giving each a tap that it may fit the movable side more 
closely. 

By consulting the Painters Department, beginning at page 1S2, the 
reader will find an immense number of formula for comi:!Ounding 
paints of every description at the lowest cost. Many of these will be 
admirably adapted for painting bee-hives in a beautiful and inex- 
pensive style. ^ 

The lumber used should be thoroughly seasoned, and, after both 
sides are dressed, it should be, for the body of the hive, § in. thick. 
In the cut, the bottom board, projects in front of the hive, making a 
convenient alightmg board, and being inclined, is kept clean by the 
bees during the working season, By removing the entrance block, 
C, a large opening is made for brushing out litter in the winter or 
early spring, and for hiving new swarms. By the use of the small 
slide, B. held in place by the same button, the entrance can be con- 
tracted, if necessary-, to the admission of a single bee, thus effectual- 
ly guarding a weak swarm from robbery, and the entrance may bo 
closed entirely by making notches d, d, in the slide correspond with 
the pillars. By means of the movable side and the observation door 
at the back of the hive every facility is furnished for obtaining ho- 
ney, observing progress, removing or adding frames to strengthen 
weak ctock, transferring, &c., fcc, without injuring the combs or irri- 
tating the bees, and the honey boxes oix the top may be removed or 
added at will. 

Another hive of intrinsic excellence is called the Climax, and still 
another, the American, with Climax improvements, see cuts. The 
Climax is made in two parts. The uiDper joart, which contains tlie 
boxes (or frame) is i^rovidcd with common tnmk rollers, and rests 
on cleats, secured to the lower parts of the hive. These cleats extend 
far enough beyond the hive to allow the upper to roll olr from the 
lower without crushing, distiirhinr/ or in any way interfenng with 
the labors of the bees . The strips forming the track, have drop legs 
at their outer ends, and arc hinged just outside the body of the hive, 
and when not in use, fold up snugly against the hive. The bottom 
board of the upper part answers every purpose of a lioncy bccrd. 



64 



ON BEE KEEPING. 



It is provided with two slots to admit tlic bees ; each slot is provided 
with a ziuc strip on the under-side, connected hy a wire with a han- 




THE clim.a:x bee hivb 




AMERICAN" BEE HIVE WITH CLOIAX IMPROVEMEiTT. 

die on the outside. By this simple contrivance, all communication 
between the two parts of the hive may be instantly cut off, and divi- 
ding or any other operation performed without difficulty. 

The bottom board of the lower part is made of plank 1^ ins. thick; 
and is beveled from the centre to each end, and projects far enough in 
front and rear to form alighting boards. Along the summit of 
the bottom board is nailed a triangular sti-ip notched on the upper 
edge. Corresponding notches are*" made in the centre of the lower 
edges of the bottom bars of the frames. Then notches are cut bevel- 
ling, so that the frames are easily inserted or withdrawn, but when 
in place, are immov able, sind will not shake or jostle, no matter how 
the hive is turned. Then there is a central rest for the frames, which 
renders them entirely independent of each other, and of the walls of 
the hive. The well known propensity of bees to glue every thing to- 



ON BEE KEEPING, 



65 



getlier that they cau is thus anticipated and prevented, -while at tho 
same time a free passage all around, between, above and below the 
frames, is afforded. The lower part has two entrances on opposite 
Bides, and the bottom board slanting each way is easily kept clean. By 
removing the entrance block, complete ventilation is effected, and for 
surplus honey in the comb, twenty-four small frames above, each 5x6 
aud 2 ins. wide are used. Six of these frames are placed together, top 
and sides close fitting, and a pane of glass, 5x6 inches, placed at 
each end. A strip of ^ough paper, about 2 ins. wide, is then glued to 
each side and turned around on the glass, which holds them firmly in 
place. Twelve frames thus made into ticosnrplus boxes, just covertlio 
top, and another tier, above this, furnish room for 50 lbs of honey, in 
the best shape for market or home use, the cost of these frame boxes 
being less than half that of the common glass boxes. 

Another important auxiUary to the apiculturist will be found in 
tlie Honey Extractor, represented herewith. This is a geared ma- 
chine made of metal, or other suitable material, fitted with au 




HOXEY EXTRACTORS. 

interior arrangement for receiving the movable frames containing 
the comb aud honej^ from the hive. The centrifugal force generat- 
ed by the rapid rotary motion of the frame causes the honey to fly 




in every direction against the inner side of the machine, and fio-vr 
down into the vessel beneath. The frame and perfect comb, minus 
the honey, is then returned to the hive to be again filled with honey. 
Tliis operation may be repeated with the same comb for twelve ov 
fifteen years, if required and the value of the device may be imma- 

5 



C6 



ON BEE KEEPING. 



gined when it is known that each pound of the comb, so far as the 
labor of the bees is concerned, is equivalent or equal to the collec- 
tion of twenty pounds of honey. 'I'he knife represented hereAvith is 
used for uncapping honey for extracting. 

As the utility of the preceding remarks will be greatly enhanced 
"by additional information regarding bees, we herewith api^end the fol- 
lowing excellent representations of the tenants of the hive, together 
with practical instructions for profitable management. 




QUEEN- 



DRONE. 



BLACK WORKER. ITAL. WORKER. 



The Italian bees are becoming great favorites wherever thej^ havej 
"been introduced, and are rapidly supplanting the black bees. " They 
are credited with being very industrious workers, making three 
flights for every two made by the black bees, and storing much more 
than double the honey, besides being more prolific, as is evidenced 
by their more frequent swarming. Besides, the Italian bee is veiy 
hardy, working earlier and later in the season and gathering honey 
from sources not frequented by the common bee. 

Useful Hints for Beginners. — 1. Work quietly; avoid sudden 
jars ; never fight your bees, and always keep cool. 2. If j'ou get 
stung, remove the sting, squeeze out all the poison you can, and ajj- 
l^ly hartshorn. 3. Use plenty of smoke; a roll of dry rags or dccaj-- 
cd wood makes the best ; blow in the entrance and at the top of 
frames. If you are timid, use rubber gloves on your hands, and, a 
veil over the face and head ; the veil must be long enough to allow 
the vest or coat to be put on over it. 4. When pasture first becomes 
plenty hi the spring is a good time to transfer bees. Always work 
among the hives durmg the middle of the day, when the bees ara 
busy. 5. Stocks without eggs or young brood in June, must bo 
qucenless and should be supplied with a queen or queen cell, or they 
will dwindle away and perish either by robbers or moth. 6. When 
symptoms of robiaing occur, use the utmost caution. Contract tho 
entrance of weak hives, and allow no comb, honey, sugar or syrup 
to be around. Avoid opening hives as much as possible. 7. Avoid an 
excess of drone comb by the loresenco of a queen in swarms where 
combs are to be constructed. As swanns having yoimg queens sel- 
dom swarm that year, less drone comb is built in swarms having 
young queens. 8, Quiet is essentially necessary to the well-being of 
an apiary. Do not place it near IMiils, Steam 'Works, or Mannfac- 
torics of any kind. If possible have it in view from the mndows of 



ON BEE KEEPING. 



67 



the familr room, as much extra trouble may be avoided. 9. As 
natural talent or business tact, is requisite, with education to success 
in busmess, so a careful turn of mind and a love for the business, 
with an imderstanding of the subject, is necessary to success in bee- 
keeping-. 10. Put on honey boxes partly filled with comb as soon a.s 
the lower part of the hive is well filled with honey and bees, and 
when they are gathering honey plentifully ; commence with only one 
or two boxes at a time on the most populous stocks. 11. In transfer- 
rin*^ combs always give those the preference that contain worker 




DRONE AND WOKKEE C03IB. 

brood. Put brood comb near the centre of the hive in the order in 
which they were in the box hive. Do your transferring where rob- 
bers cannot possibly be attracted. 12. Avoid v/eak sv.'arms, as they 
gather but little honey, breed slowly, and are in danger of destruc- 
tion by robbers, the "moth, or severity of winter. Weak swarms 
should always be united in the fall, and should never be made by 
di^dding early in the season. 13. Whenever you notice the bees run- 
ning about the entrance in the evening in a disturbed condition, mark 
that hive and notice it the next evening. If the bees run about 
smelling each other, it is a sign they have lost their queen and 
should receive attention. 14. In establishing an apiary, select a 
gentle slope to the south-east; face the hives in the same direction, if 
possible have running water near ; shade and protection from winda 
and the heat of the sun are important Set every hive as perpendi- 
cular as a clock — for a stand, take two short pieces of 4x 6 scantlin? 
and Izy or nail on a board. 15. To make queen cages, cut wire clotti 



68 



ON BEE KEEPING. 



3x4 inches ; pull ov;t tvro or three transverse -wires from one of tlic 3 
inch edges, and insert the projecting ends thus leit in tiie corres- 
ponding meshes of the other three inch edge, and fasten them ; stop 
one end with a cork or wood, AVhen you wish to introduce a 
queen, put her in the cage and stop the other end with wax. IG. A 
lew inches of drone comb is am])ly abundant for any hive, 
as drones consume a great deal of honey and gather none. Tho 
movable frame hive renders any preventive operation very easy : the 
cut will enable the beginner to identify the drone by the large 
cells. 17. In the Northern States and British Provinces, exi^eriments 
demonstrated that bees wintered in the open air- have consumed 
about 45 lbs, of honey per hive, while bees wintered in the cellar 




COMB SHOWIKG BROOD AND QUEEN CELL. 

during the same period consumed on an average only 5 lbs each In 
another case G^hives wintered out of doors lost an average of 29^ lbs, 
in weight each, during 3 months, while 20 hives in the cellar lost 
only5| lbs, each, during the same time. Do not place them in the 
cellar until the severe weather begins ; give them plenty of upward 
ventilation in order to pass off the vnnor generated from the bees ; 
place the hives in rows on shelves, keep them in a clean dark place, 



ON BEE KEEPING. 69 

bat uot in a damp or badly ventilated cellar, for that is certain death 
t) bees, and keep wire cloth tacked over tlie entrance to each hive ; 
if a dry absorbent material such as cut straw or sha^ ings, can be 
placed in the upper part of the hive to receive and absorb the un- 
healthy emanations from the bees, all the better ; in out door wintering 
especially, this is a most desirable plan, as it retains the heat while 
it absorbs the effluvia. 18. Bees wintered on their summer stands 
should always be allowed from 30 to 60 lbs, of honey to each colony 
and extra protection around the hive if the cold is very intense. 19. 
When eggs are deposited by the queen in the cells prepared by the 
workers, in 3 days they hatch into small worms which are nurtured 
and fed , until about the eighth day the larvae become nymphs, and 
are sealed up in their cells to reappear as perfect bees. The queen 
bee emerges in from 10 to 17 days, the drone in 24, and the workers 
in 21 days from the egg. The cut illustrates a comb showing brood 
and queen cell but the artist has not succeeded very well in representing 
the royal form Avith which nature has endow ed h er majesty. In from 3 
to 5 days after emerging, the queen leaves the hive to meet the drones in 
the air, for fertilization. She never leaves the hive at any other times 
except when she goes with a swarm, and one copulation is all sufficient 
to ensure fertility for life. Under favorable circumstances she will 
deposit 3000 eggs per day. 20. In introducing an Italian qiieen to a 
colony of common bees, enclose her m a wire cloth cage and insert 
the cage in the centre of a comb where the bees will cluster upon it. 
In-3G hours release the queen, smear her with honey, and allow her 
to crawl down among the bees. 21. When tees are short of honey 
a good and cheap food may be provided by using good coffee sugar, 
4 lbs, added to water, 1 qt., bring to a boil, skim and allow it to cool. 
25, Another. Take of the best quality of brown sugar, two parts by 
measure, to one part of pure soft water ; boil and skim it ; then to 
eveiy quart of the mixture, add one even tcaspoonful of thebest creani- 
tartar ; dissolve the cream tartar before putting it in. Remove the 
.empty comb with the frame from the hive fill them by allowing the 
syrup to drain through a proper strainer into the cells, and then 
return the frames to the hive. With box hives, use some good feeder 
or a dish of proper size to set under the cap on the top of the hive ; 
fill the dish with the syrup, and throw on fine shavings or cut straw, 
to prevent the bees from falling into it. 23. The best substitute for 
bee bread or natural pollen is rye flour unbolted. In the absence of 
rye, use other flour. 24. The damp air may be drawn from a cellar 
in whicli bees are being wintered by connecting the cellar and your 
r-tove pipe by means of a 2 inch tin pipe passing up through the floor. 
25. In hiving bees, use diluted honey or white sugar syrup, damp the 
inside of your hive and gently sprinkle the bees with the liquid ; it 
will render them so happy that you may handle them as you please. 
Surplus Honey Stored in Boxes. — "Those having bees in 
common hives, and who wish their surplus honey stored in boxes, 
will obtain the greatest amount and avoid many disappointments by 
attending to the following conditions : 1. The boxes should be tight 
and large, but not over four or five inches high, and protected from 
the changes of the weather by an outer cap. 2. The bees should be 
induced to commence in them by attaching pieces of clean empty 
combs to the under side of the top, and placing the boxes directly 



70 ON BEE KEEPING. 

over tlic breeding apartment, -with largo openings under each box to 
admit the bees. 3. Early in the season select a lew populous stocks, 
giving a box to each, and when the bees have commenced in them, 
give boxes to the next strongest, being careful not to give too much 
room until a start has been made. 4. Keep the hives cool by shad- 
ing from the sun, and if the bees cluster outside, when flowers arc 
plenty, ventilate by enlarging the entrances and giving more room in 
the boxes if needed. After a populous stock has nearly filled its 
boxes it will often take long enough time to finish them, to have 
half filled empty ones, besides the difficulty so often experienced in 
getting the bees to commence in the boxes after those first filled arc 
removed, which objections are both overcome in the American hive, 
described in the article on hives." Bee-Keepeis' Text Book. 

Hatching and Fertilization of Queens. — "In about eight 
days after the old queen leaves with the first swarm, the most advan- 
ced sealed queen is ready to emerge. During this time the old stock 
is without a hatched queen, the young queen immediately upon leav- 
ing her cell, if not restrained by the workers, commences the work of 
destruction upon her yet imprisoned sisters. She accomplishes thifj 
by biting open the side of each cell near its base, and dispatching the 
unfortunate inmate with her sting. She is yet incompetent for the 
maternal duty, and must leave the hive to meet the drones in the air 
for the purpose of fertilization*. This once accomplished, the work- 
ers, awaiting her safe return, greet her with a reverence and affec- 
tion never shown before. They hasten to prepare the cells to receiyo 
her tiny eggs, and seem to realize that on her existence the perpetua- 
tion of the family depends. There is also a perceptible change in tho 
queen's form, her abdomen being a little swollen and somewhat 
lengthened, but not as much as at the height of the breeding sea- 
son. She now remains the fruitful mother of the prosperous and 
happy colony." Bee-Keepers' Text Book. 

To Prevent new Swarms from leaving their Hhtes. — 
" Natural swarms occasionally refuse to stay after having been hived, 
usually in consequence of heat or strong odor about the hive. In 
nucleus swarming this seldom or never happens, because the bees 
are never Avithout a comb containing brood and honey ; and they 
will not leave voluntarily. Therefore when hiving a swarm in a 
moveable comb hive, go to any stock that can spare a comb contain- 
ing brood and honey. Brush back the bees, being careful not to 
remove the queen or any queen-cells with comb, and place it in tho 
hive that is to receive the neAv swarm. It will not only prevent the 
bees from decamping but will greatly encourage them, and should 
bad weather confine them to the hive they will be secure from star- 
vation. If the swarm is put in a common hive, place over them a 
box of honey taken from the parent stock." Bee-Keepers' Text Book. 

The Nucleus System of Swarming.—" The introduction of a 
mature fertile queen to a colony tioo iveeks sooner than when they 
sioarm naturally is an advantage sufficient to pay for the extra 
trouble. The time gained in breeding is equivalent to a swai-m. M. 

QUINBY. 

In swarming bees on this system, we first rear a queen in a small 
cluster nucleus of bees, allowing the nucleus hive to remam in its 
;>lacc until the ouceu becomes fertile, when wc tjwarm the beeaby 



ON BEE KEEPING. 



71 



simply causing the two hives to exchange places. Unlike natural 
swarming, the old queen remains in the parent stock and its labors 
go on scarcely interrupted. The system is based iiijon the well known 
law, that bees, after luxuriatmg upon the flowers, will return to the 
exact spot of their old habitation. Form a nucleus from an Italian or 
other populous stock by blowing a few whiffs of smoke into the en- 
trance and opening the hive ; select a frame of comb containing cap- 
ped brood, but especially plenty of eggs and yomig larvae. After 
looking this over carefully, lest the old queen be removed, place it 
Avitli its adhering bees in the empty hive, and next to it another comb 
containing honey, which will afford protection to the brood and food 

lor the bees. As many of the old bees 
will return to tlie parent stock, give the 
nucleus hive at least a quart of bees 
and set it on a new stand two or three 
rods distant. Contract the entrance so 
that but one or two bees can pass at the 
same time, and set a feed pan on the 
frames, or a sponge filled with sweet- 
ened water will supply their wants until 
the young bees go to work m their new 
location. In place of the combs removed 
from the parent-stock, set in empty 
frames with a full one between. If the 
frames are put near the centre, the old 
stock will increase all the faster, as the 
queen will fill the new comb with eggs as 
fast as it is built. The removal of the 
two combs stimulates the bees to great 
activity by giving them room to work, 
and detaches just bees euough to prevent 
their clustering idly about the entrance. 
The nucleus wiU construct queen-ceUs 
and rear a queen as -well* as a whole 
swarm. Besides, the queen is easily found among so few bees. We 
now wait until the tenth or eleventh day, from the time the nucleus 
was formed, when we open it, and witk a sharp thin bladed knife, cut 
out all the queen-cells but one and use them immediately in forming 
other nucleus, by attaching one of them to a frame of comb and bees 
taken from an old stock, as before described, and placed in an empty 
hiva In transferring queen-ceUs great care must be taken not to 
press or dent them, or expose them long to the hot sun or cool air for 
fear of destroying the royal occupants. The begmners should re- 
move but one at a time, returning the frame from which it is taken 
to its place in the hive until the royal cell is adjusted in its new loca- 
tion. When practicable have about an inch square of comb attached 
to the cell, and upon taking the comb or brood from the old stock, 
make an opening among the eggs and larvse where bees will be 
sure to cluster upon it and keep- it warm, and carefully in- 
sert it as shown in figure, leaving an open space below it. 
If the first nucleus was formed from the only Italian stock 
in the yard, and more queen-cells are wanted, remove every queen- 
ceU from it, and add another comb of eggs and brood from its parent 




72 ON BEE-KEEPING. 

stock. Bii: when no more queen-cells are needed, leave one to hatch, 
and as by this time the brood will all be capped over, the bees ^vill be 
liable to follow the young queen on her excursions to meet the drones. 
To prevent this, exchange one of the combs for one containing eggs 
and young lar\'8e. When forming the other nucleus, young queens 
will return unless lost by birds or other casualties, to which all queens 
are once exposed. Such loss is easily ascertained among so few bees, 
and we have only to insert another queen-cell, adding a comb contain- 
ing eggs and brood and repeat the trial. Should the parent stock be 
very populous it may be swarmed by taking a queen from the nucleus 
belonging to a less populous stock, and another queen reared there. 

When and hoio to Sioarm the Bees. — Every i)opulous stock, from 
which a nucleus has been formed, should be swarmed, if the weather 
is favorable, as soon as the queen in the nucleus has become fertile. 
This is, usually, in from six to ten days after inserting the queen-cell, 
and is readily determined by examinmg the combs for eggs. We now, 
unless the yield of honey is very abundant, confine the young queen 
in a gauze wire cage. Having filled up the nucleus hiyes vrith empty 
tranies, exchange the places of the two hives, brmging the entrance 
of the nucleus hive where the old stock has stood, and where the mass 
of the old bees will return from the fields, thus throwing out of the 
old stock swarms of workers into the nucleus hive while the old bees 
from the nucleus will enter the old hive and minister to the wants of 
the numerous brood of the parent stock. The bees must not be swarm- 
ed between the hatching and the fertilization of the queen, and should 
they be swarmed when the honey harvest has received a check from 
a storm or drought, the bees thus empty ot honey and consequently 
more quarrelsome, being suddenly thrown into the presence of a 
strange queen (although of the same scent) are inclined to sting her. 
To prevent this she is caged for thirty-six hours, when the bees from 
the old stock will mostly have joined the nucleus colony and she may 
be safely liberated. But, if she was taken from another nucleus, we 
sometimes let her remain caged a day longer, or smear her well with 
warm honey, and drop her in among the bees. They immediately 
commence licking up the honey, a.nd forget to sting her. If from any 
cause the stocks are swarmed when the bees are working but little, 
and after three or four days the nucleus swarm be found deficient in 
bees, it may be strengthened by exchanging some of its empty frames 
for frames of capi^ed brood from the parent stock, or should the flowers 
yield bountifully within a week, the location of the two hives may 
again be exchanged. The bees will not quarrel as they are of the 
same scent. Unless a nucleus has been formed several weeks, or when 
honey is scarce, it is sometimes necessary to treat both stocks, especi- 
ally the old one, to tobacco smoke. This precaution, however, is only 
for the inexperienced, since, in the midst of the swarming season, 
when the flowers are in prof usion, little protection is needed either for 
the queen or the operator. 

Hens Made to Protect Bees. — A bee raiser has patented an in- 
vention for the protection of bees from the attacks of the honey moth, 
which enters the hives at night, and rifles the stores. The idea arose 
out of his familiarity with the daily routine, not of bees only, but of 
hens. Hens, he observed, retire to rest early ; but bees seek repose 
earlier stUl; no sooner are they sunk into slumber, than the moth 
steals into their abode and devours the produce of their toil. He has 



ON BEE-KEEPIXG. 



7S 



now built a stand of hives with a hen house connected. The bees first 
betake themselves to their dwelling and settle themselves for tlie 
night. The hens then come home to roost on their perch, and as they 
take their places upon it, tlieir weight sets some simple mechanicism 
to work, which at once shuts down fhe doors of all the hives. When 
the day dawns, however, the hens leave their roost, and the removal 
of their weight from the perch raises the hive doors, and gives egress 
to the bees in time for their morning's work. 




Explanation of the above Cuts. — The cut A represents brood 
in various stages from eggs andlarvfe in the lower part of the comb to 
brood capped at e, and just emerging at/; n, is a queen-ceU just 
commenced at from larvae ; b, a perfect queen-cell capped over ; a, 
a cell from which the queen has just emerged. B represents queen- 
cells destroyed ; C unimpregnated queen; D fertile queen; E male 
moth or miller ; F female miller. 

To Kill Bee Moths. — Bee moths can easily be killed by setting a 

Ean of grease on which is placed a floating lighted wick, near the 
ives after dark : the light will attract the moths in large numbers, 
when they will be destroyed by falling into the grease. 

Many persons are deriving substantial yearly incomes amounting 
to thousands of dollars from bee-keeping, and it is credibly reported 
that the late Mr. Quimby left property valued at $100,000, all derived 
from this source alone. Mr. Quimby wrote that the honey gathered 
by bees compared with what was lost for the lack of bees to gather it, 
was but as 1 compared with 1,000, so that it seems as if a careful per- 
son, engaged in bee-keeping, and thoroughly equipped with all mod- 
era appliances for the business, possesses, as old honest Sam Jolmson 



74 BEE-KEEPING, &C. 

once expressed himself regarding a different subject, "The potential- 
ity of growuig rich beyond the dreams of avarice," and what is of 
still greater importance, the pleasure derived from the business is al- 
most ineffable in comparison with the satisfaction of being rich. 

Limited space forbids the further consideration of this attractive 
subject in this place, and the author would conclude by expressing 
his sincere obligations to the editor of the " Bee-Keeper's Magazine" 
for according permission to make extracts from the varied contents of 
an excellent little manual called the "Bee-Keeper's Text Book," and 
other reliable sources of information. For the benefit of parties de- 
siring further light on this fascinatmg topic, he would state that the 
"Bee-Keeper's Magazine" will fill the entire bill of their require- 
ments. It is Si first rate illustrated monthly journal of 32 octavo pages, 
devoted exclusively to Bee-Culture, edited by Albert J. King, con- 
taining monthly contributions from Mrs, E. S. Tupper, and other 
eminent writers and bee-keepers in both Europe and America. A 
large space is devoted to Beginners, giving useful information, just 
when it is needed, throughout the year. Terms Sl-oO per year. The 
proprietors will send the JNIagazine four months on trial, and include 
a 64 page pamphlet (price 50 cents), containing a beautiful life-like 
chromo of Honey-Plants and Italian Bees in their natural colors; 
Prize Essay by Mrs. Tupper ; Queen Rearing by M. Quimby ; instruc- 
tions for begiuuers, &c., all for 50 cents. Address, King & Slocum, 
61 Hudson street, New York. 

Food fob Mockikg Birds. — Mix well together corn meal, pea 
meal (made by drying split peas in an oven and then grinding them 
in a mill), each one part, moss meal, prepared from the moss seed 
imported from Germany, ^ part, add sufficient melted lard not to make 
it too fat or greasy, and sweeten with molasses . Fry the mixture in 
a frying-pan for ^ an hour, stirring it all the time, to avoid burning. 
Mocking, and other birds of like nature, will leave all other food for 
this. 



FOR LUMBERMEN, BUILDERS, CONTRACTORS, 
MILL OWNERS, SHIP BUILDERS, SHIP OWNERS, 
NAVIGATORS, QUARRYMEN, STONE CUTTERS, 
MERCHANTS, AND BUSINESSMEN GENERALLY. 

To Prevent wood from Cracking. — Place the wood in a bath 
of fused paraffine heated to 212* Fahr. and allow it to remain as long 
as bubbles of air are given off. Then allow the paraffine to cool down 
to its point of congelation, and remove the wood and wipe off the 
adhering wax : wood treated in this way is not likely to crack. 

To Bend Wood. — Wood enclosed in a close chamber and submitted 
to the action of steam for a limited time will be rendered so pliant 
fliat it may be bent in almost any direction. The same process wiU 
also eliminate the sap from the wood and i)romote rapid seasoning. 

Fire Proofing for Wood. — Alum, 3 parts; green vitriol, 1 part; 
make a strong hot solution with water, make another weak solution 
with green vitriol in which pipe clay has been mixed to the consis- 
tence of a paint. Apply two coats of the first, dry, and then finish witb 
one coat of the last. 



luaibermen's camp. 



75 




LUMBERMAN'S SHANTY OR CAMP. 

Many of the honest farmers and sturdy lumbermen of tlie North- 
ern States, Canada and N ew Brunswick, will be at no loss to under- 
stand the uses of the humble mansion represented in the cut, and 
many a forest wanderer and weary hunter will identify the modest 
habitation as the counterpart of another where he has been refreshed 
by the substantial meal, and invigorated by the peaceful slumber en- 
joyed under the hospitable roof. However. poor the lumberman may 
be, however numerous his trials and privations, and we are sorry to 
gay they are not few in number, this we will say, that whether you are 
known or unknown, rich or poor, whether you are beut on business 
or pleasure, in the lumber camp you are always made to feel at horn© j 



76 



CUTTING LOGS, &C. 



the "best ill the house" is at your service, and hospitality is dis- 
pensed with a princely generosity. Under such circumstances it is 
■wisdom to accept and folly to refuse the proffered beneficence, and 
many can attest that they have enjoyed these kind offices to exhaust- 
ed humanity with a relish (thanks to the pure oxygen so bountifully- 
supplied to their lungs by a forest atmosphere), known to but few in 
the dwellings of the wealthy, or in the sumptuous and costly hotels . 
of tlie crowded city, with their bountiful and costly bills of fare, em- 
bracing the best iii the market. 




CUTTING LOGS IN THE WESTERN PINE FORESTS. 

The usual time for commencmg lumbermg operations in New' 
Brjanswick and many paxts of Cauada, is in the fall, soon after the 



CUTTING LOGS, &Q. 



77 




LOADING PINE LOGS IN THE WESTERN FORESTS. 

operators, many of whom are farmers, have safely housed their crops, 
consisting of hay, oats, buckwheat, potatoes, «Sic. , and the work con- 
tinues with very little intermission until towards spring'. It must be 
confessed that lumbering jpursuits are not well calculated to produce, 
in the minds of those who follow them, a very strong bias towards 
scientific agriculture, the tendency being rather to produce derange- 
ment in that respect, but there seems to be a fascination in the busi- 
ness which very few who enter upon it seem able to resist, and much 
of the farming work is considered by many as only of secondary con- 
sequence compared with lumbering, being stimulated principally by 
the necessity arising for agricultural products in tlie lumber camps, 
and for family uses at home. 

In selecting the site for a camp, the principal object is to obtain a 
central position within easy reach of water, and an ample supply of 
timber adapted to the wants of the market. It is also of great con- 
sequence that it should be easily accessible for the purpose of trans- 
porting, or " portaging," as it is termed, the substantial supplies re» 



78 



BREAKING A JAM. 




BREAKING A JAM. 

quired by the men and horses engaged in the work, and convenient to 
a suitable " landing," usually on ornear a stream, where the logs are 
unloaded to await the breaking up of the ice, and the sjoring floods, 
which are to convey them to their destination. The work is systemati- 
cally conducted, every man from the boss to the cook having his post, 
but the labor is very severe, and taxes the utmost energies of both 
man and beast, some of the loads drawn by the latter being of enorm- 
ous bulk and weight. This kind of toil continues during the fall and 
winter months, only to give place in the spring to another form of 
labor, which is, if possible, still more arduous, and is certainly more 
dangerous; that of "driving" the lumber down stream. The driv- 
ing operations are commenced by rolling the logs into the stream on 
the breaking up of the ice and guiding them down the current, the 
poor fellows being often up to the waist in cold water, and when a 
^' jam," or lock of the timber takes place in the stream, owing to ob- 
structions or barriers of any kind, the danger of "breaking" it is 
positively fearful, many having been killed outright, by the siidden 
" shoot " taken by the liberated timber as it rushes t'ox'ward, imx^elled 
by the surging floods in the rear. 



ON LUMBERING. 79 

In lumbering districts the season of active work for cutting timber 
ranges from November until towards the middle of March ; in New 
Brunswick much of the work performed in getting out, or hewing 
birch timber, is done during the summer months, but the cutting and 
hauling of spruce logs is the principal object of winter operations. 
In getting out birch timber, the tree is felled and hewn square to the 
largest available dimensions, and allowed to remain till sleighing sets 
in before being hauled to the stream for transportation. Owing to 
the density of birch timber much of it is lost by submergence in the 
water, and for the purpose of rendering it more buoyant it is usual to 
induce floatation by forming connections with spruce logs or other tim- 
ber of light specific gravity. The rigorous climate of the Northern 
States and Canada is most favorable for the growth of hardy mer- 
chantable timber, such as pine, spruce, &c., but is inimical to mahog- 
any, box, lignumvitse and other dense tropical woods which require 
a warm climate. 

Timber grown in humid, swampy or wet localities, with the excep- 
tion of cedar, willow, poplar, &c., is not so firm, sound, and durable 
as that grown on drj- and elevated situations, where the soil is largely 
composed of loam interspersed with sand, gravel and stones. Trees 
selected from the midst of the forest possess greater elegance of form 
and are usually straighter, less knotty, and more merchantable every- 
way, than timber exposed to the ravages of storms, &c., on the con- 
fines adjacent to the clearings, or on hill sides and exposed places, 
sheltered situations being the most favorable for the growth of timber, 
but not so promotive of hardness as unprotected localities. A dense, 
dark, green color in the leaves of trees during June and July indicates 
a sound, healthy growth, while the sere and yeUow leaves, scanty in 
number, decaying branches, with spotted, streaked, loosened and dis- 
eased bark, indicates defective timber. To secure timber in its best 
condition for long endurance, it should be cut during mid- winter, say 
in January or February, and during July in summer, and should he 
worked up as soon as possible by sawing, splitting or hewing, into the 
desired dimensions. 

The nature of the various departments of the work is very well 
illustrated in the cuts presented herewith, which are engraved in the 
best style from exceedingly fine photographs of actual scenes in the 
Western forests, and therefore truthfully depict the various stages of 
getting out lumber, from the cutting down of the great trees, sawing 
tliem into lengths, hauling them out, and finally " landing " the logs 
on or near the stream, in readiiiess for the spring freshet to drive 
them to market. Though many of these streams are too shallow in 
summer to float an Indian in the lightest bark canoe, yet, when 
swoUen by spring freshets, each one becomes a wide and deep 
river. 

Many ingenious contrivances have been constructed to procure tim- 
ber from mountains. A novel locomotive has been made in Califor- 
nia to run on the long flumes that are used to float lumber down 
from high elevations. The wheels fit on the edge of the sides of 
the flume, and at the ends of the car are paddle wheels dipping into 
the water, and which are turned by the swift current. By a simple 
arrangement, this power is made to propel the locomotive up the 
flume, and it runs back itself. Alpnach, in Switzerland, as is well 
knoM\ni, was, durmg war time widely noted for its famous slide, or 



80 



ON LUMBERING. 




UNLOADING LOGS ON TE[E LANDING. 

wooden trough, containing a stream of water, in which the timber 
was launched with terrific velocity from the forests on Mount Pilatus 
into Lake Lucerne, a distance of 8 miles. 

Spruce forests possess a wonderful recuperative power, it being 
well known that they may be stripped of merchantable timber dur- 
ing any given year, and ten j^ears subsequently, if nothing happens, 
another harvest will be ready for the axe. The great bane of all for- 
ests is fire, and the loss resulting from this one cause is simply incal- 
culable. While it is true that many forest fires are accidental, it can- 
not be denied that the majority are purposely set ; and, while such 
atrocious wickedness cannot be too severely denoimced, it is equally 
true that owing to the privacy of the act, and consequent Avant of 
proof, the offender too frequently escapes the retribution which his 
enormities deserve. The recent forest fires in Michigan, Wisconsin, 
and other places, proved terribly destructive, and the so-called "great 
Miramichi fire" will be memorable for generations to come, on ac- 
count of the terrible destruction of human life and property of every 
kind effected by it. Many of the old settlers on the Miramichi have 
a vivid remembrance of tliat awful calamitj^ and can recount many 



SEASONING OF TlilBER. 81 

liarrowiiig narratives of suffering, consternation, death and hair- 
breadth escapes during that terrible time, when the sky appeared as 
one sheet of flame, emitting a universal rain of tire, wliicli de- 
stroyed everything in its course, even burning the soil from the 
earth, rendering thousands of acres a barren desert to tliis day. 

A most singular case of forest-destruction occurred many years 
ago, as related by the Allemaine Zeitunr/, in which a subterranean 
fire, undoubtedly of volcanic origin, burnt the roots of 250 acres of 
forest trees at Magland, in Switzerland, which, falling, were also con- 
sumed ; flames also, issued near Lausanne. 

Seasoning and Preserving Timber. — This may be effected — 1st. 
By piling and completely ventilating under cover for a period 
of from two to five years, for thorough seasoning. 2nd. By immer- 
sion in water for a few weeks. This improves all kinds of timber, 
both flat, square and round. If a man wishes to season green boards 
quickly, let him throw them into water, — all the better if it is run- 
ning water, — and the sap will be withdrawn very rapidly : a short 
subsequent exposure to the air will be all that is necessary. 3rd. 
Fell your trees during June and July, Avhile m full leaf, and allow 
theni to lie until every leaf has fallen ; it is said the leaves will ex- 
haust nearly all the sap from the tree, leaving it dry in from one 
month to six weeks, according to the dryness or wetness of the 
weather. 4th. Small pieces of non-resinous wood can be seasoned 
perfectly by boiling four or five hours ; the process taking the sap 
out of the wood, which shrinks nearly one-tenth in the operation. 
5th. Kiln-din/ing , is adapted only for boards and small timber ; it is lia- 
ble to check, crack, and otherwise injure the wood, unless the process is 
cautiously conducted. Black walnut cannot be seasoned in this way 
at all : for this wood use Process No. 1. 6th. Steaming. — This pro- 
cess has been adopted by some, and has proved successful in elimin- 
ating the sax^ from the wood. 7th. Kyanizing consists in the satura- 
ration of the wood with corrosive sublimate, — solution, 1 lb. of clilo- 
ride of mercury in 4 gals, water. 8th. Burnettizing. — By this process, 
impregnation of the wood is effected by submitting it to an end-ways 
pressure of 150 lbs. to the square incli, — solution, 1 lb. of the chlo- 
ride to 10 gals, water. 9th. Boucheri's Process. — ^Impregnation is 
effected as in the last instance, using a pressure of 15 lbs. to the 
square inch, — solution, 1 lb. sulphate of copper to 12^ gals, of 
water. 10th. BethoVs Process. — As above, by submittmg the wood 
to an end-ways pressure of 150 to 200 lbs. per square inch, with creo- 
sote oil intermixed with bituminous matter, 11th. Rabbins' Process. — 
See full description of this process in the Mechanical Department of 
this work. 12th. Samuel Wood's Process, consists in vaporizing and 
withdrawing the sap from the wood, as described inRobbins' Process, 
and forcmg in a solution of sulphate of iron at a pressure of 175 lbs. 
per square inch for thirty minutes ; then finishing with another solu- 
tion of carbonate of lime. 

In preserving and seasoning wood by impregnation with coal tar, 
creosote, etc., it is essential that the juices of the wood should be com- 
l)letely withdrawn and the albumen coagulated, otherwise decay will 
ensue. Wood treated in this way repels decay, the attacks of worms, 
e*c., and is greatly increased in strength and resilience. 

Dr. Feuchtwanger's process for preserving wood consists in steam- 

G 



■i'2 SEASONING OF TIMBER. 

Ing the limber, and injecting a solution of silicate of soda for eight 
hours ; afterwards, soak wood for the same period in lime-water. 

George Woods, the celebrated organ manufacturer, in Cambridge- 
port, near Boston, has also discovered and patented a very valuable 
method of seasoning timber. 

Lumber is improved by repiliug, and the shifting of its position at 
proper intervals. Violent currents of heated air cause cracks, etc., in 
the lumber during natural seasoning ; a moderate temperature is the 
best in every respect. The proportion of water in different woods 
varies from 2G to 50 per cent. A beam of green oak weighing 972 lbs. 
lost 342 lbs. by seasoning. 

The best results are attained bypiling the lumber under shelter in 
properly arranged piles, elevated on blocks at least 2 feet from the 
ground, each kind of timber by itself, with 1 inch slats interposed be- 
tween the boards at short distances, to keep them straight, and permit 
tlie air to circulate freely, while square and round logs should be 
stripped of bark and raised from the ground. 

The best timber, is that which has been allowed to attain full ma- 
turity previous to being felled. The age of a tree is easily determined 
by the number of concentric rings displayed on the stump. Spruce 
and'fir matures very rapidly, pine more slowly, and oak matures in 
Irom 75 to 200 years. White oak is said to be favorably influenced 
by the vicinity of sea water; the growth of many other' trees is re- 
pressed by it. In Nova Scotia the great valley extending from Com- 
wallis to Digby, is noted for the enormous quantity and excellent 
quality of the fruit produced, -while on the other side of the mountam 
fronting the Bay of Fundy, the propagation of fruit trees has proved 
an entire failure, and no man could form any conception of the pro- 
digious extent of the New Brunswick forests from a steamer's deck, 
while sailing along the treeless, rock-bound coast of that Province. 

The best timber in a tree is always the part near the ground. The 
quality of the wood may be frequently determined by a healthy, 
fresh, and uniform appearance, free from white or yellow spots, 
blending to a deeper shade near the heart. Yellow stains indicate 
the existence of dry rot, caused by the fermentation of the albumen 
in the wood ; and the sapwood, being liable to early decay on accomit 
of the putrefactive decomposition of the vegetable juices, should be 
removed. The loss to lumbermen from this cause, when they are 
obliged to " hang up," or abandon their drives, owing to the insuflS- 
ciency of water in the stream to float them to their destination, is very 
great, and in the event of failure to drive them down with the ensuing 
fall or spring floods, often proves ruinous. 

1 he excellence of timber is liable to be impaired by many causes, 
among others, 1. Wind-shakes or circular chinks, or rents, involvmg 
the separation of the annular layers of wood from each other; a very 
bad imperfection. 2. Birish-ioood, caused by deterioration or decay 
in the timber,induced by age, imparting a brittle crumbling grain to the 
wood, together with a reddish and porous appearance. 3. Twisted wood 
is very unsafe for long stretches, on account of its liability to break 
Buddenly, owing to the screw like formation of the grain. 4. Splits, 
ch&zks, and cracks, if greatly expanded and enlarged, almost ruin 
the timber for any useful purpose except the most common kind; 
the same is true concerning, 5. Knotty timber, which tliougli it mav 



SEASONING OF TI3IBEK. 



83 



be substantial is not well adapted for fine work, but subserves many- 
important uses, such as roofing, fencing, &c. 6. Belted timber, con- 
sists of trees which were dead and partially decayed previous to being 
felled; usually very bad. 7. Common rot. — Timber and lumber of 
various kinds, are liable to be affected in this way, whenever exposed 
to alternate humidity and dryness. It may also be induced by im- 
perfect ventilation in sheds, and manifests itself by yellow decaying 
spots, and a sulphur colored dust in the apertures and crevices of the 
timber. 8. Perforated timber. — This mischief is caused by worms 
and insects which infest timber and exist on the albumen, sugar, &c 
contained in it. Submerged timber is affected in a similar manner by 
the ravages of the Teredo navilis, a genus of testaceous mollusks. * 
Number of Cubic Feet of Timber is a Ton (Avoirdupois), to- 
gether WITH THE Weight in lbs. per Cubic Foot- 





TSsT 


Cubic 




Lbs. 


Cubic 


"Woods. 


per 
Cubic 


Feet 
per 


Woods. 


per 
Cubic 


Feet 
per 




Foot. 


Ton. 




Foot. 


Ton, 


Alder, dry. 

Ash, " { 


50. 

52.812 

43.125 


44.80 
42.414 


Larch, dry. 
Lignum Vitse. 


34. 
35. 
83.312 


65.8 
26.866 


Apple, " _ 


49.562 


45.18 


Logwood. 


57.062 


39.225 


Bay, 


43.601 
51.375 


43.601 


Mahogany. | 


.35. 
66.437 


64. 
33.714 


Beech. 


43.8 




Maple, dry. 


40.876 


47.66 


« (( 


53.25 




Oak, Canadian. 


54.5 


41.101 


Birch, common. 


43.8 




" English. 


58.25 


38.455 


'* American black. 


46.9 




" live, seasoned. 


66.75 


33.558 


Box. 


62.5 


39.40 


" " green. 


78.75 




Bullet-wood. 


58. 




" white upland. 


43. 


52.09 


Butternut, dry. 


23.5 




Pear, dry. 


41.312 




Cedar, " 


35.62 


63.866 


Plum, " 


49.062 


47.47 


Cork, " 


15. 


149.333 


Poplar. 


26.31 




Cherry, " 


44.687 




Pine, pitch, dry. 


41.25 


51.303 


Chestnut, " 


38,125 




'< red, *' 


36.875 


60.745 


Ebony, mean of 2 sets. 


79.4 




" white, " 


34.625 


64.693 


Elm, dry. j 


41.937 


53.25 


** well seasoned. 


29.5G2 


75.773 


35.625 


62.97 


" yellow. 


33.812 


66.248 


Fir, white. 


35,57- 




" " dry. 


28.812 




Fir, New England, dry. 


34.4 




Poplar, mean of 2 sorts 


28.5 




Fir, Norway Spruce " 


32. 




Rosewood, dry. 


45.5 




Fir, Riga. 


46.9 




Satin wood, " 


.55.312 




Gum, blue, dry. 


£2.087 




Spruce, <•■ 


31.25 


71.68 


Hackmatack, " 


37.10 


60.37 


Tamarack, " 


23.937 




Hazel, " 


53.75 




Teak, African oak. 


46.9 




Hemlock, «* 


23. 




Walnut, dry. 


41.9 


53.42 


Hickory, pig nut. 


49.5 


45.252 


'' blaclc, dry. 


31,25 


71.68 


" shell bark. 


43.126 


61.942 


Willow. 


86.562 


61.265 


Holly, dry. 


47.5 


* 


« (( 


80.375 


73.744 


Juniper, " 


35.375 










Lance wood, dry. 


45. 











COMPARATIVE VALUE OF DIFFERENT WOODS, EXHIBITING 
THEIR CRUSHING STRENGTH AND STIFFNESS. 



Teak 


6555 


Beech 


3079 


Walnut 


2374 


English Oak 


4074 


Quebec Oak 


2927 


Yellow pine 


2193 


Ash 


3571 


Mahogany 


2571 


Sycamore 


1833 


Elm 


3468 


Spj-uc© 


252^ 


Cedar 


70C 



84 



AGE, &C., OF TIIEKS. 



LOGS ON THE LAKDIXG AWAITING THE SPKING FKESHETS. 




Age, &c., of Trees. — An oak tree in 3 years grows 2 ft. 10| ing. 
A larch 3 ft. 7| ins. ; at 70 years it is full grown : and a tree of 79 yearg 
was 102 ft. high, and 12 ft.' girth, containing 253 cubic ft. Another of 
80 years was 90 ft. and 17 ft., and 300 cubic feet. An elm tree in 3 
years grows 8 ft. 3 in. A beech, 1 ft. 8 in. A poplar, 6 ft, A willow, 
i.) ft. 3 in. An elm is full grown in 150 years and it lives 500 or 600. 
Ash is full grown in 100, and oak in 200 The mahogany is full 
grown in 200 years to a vast size. A Polish oak, 40 ft. round had GOO 
circles. An oak in Dorsetshire in 1755, was 68 ft. round ; 2 near Cran- 
borne Lodge are 38 and 36 ft. There are yews from 10 to 20 ft. diam., 
whose age is from 1000 to 2000 years. A lime in the Orisons is 51 ft. 
round, and about 600 years old. An elm in the Pays de Vaud is 18 ft, 
diam. and 360 years old. The Africaii baobab is the patriarch of liv- 
ing organizations; one specimen by its circles is estimated at 5700 
years old by Adamson and Humboldt. The trunk is but 12 or 15 ft. to 
the branches, and often 75 ft. round. A cypress in Mexico is 120 ft. 
round and is estimated by De Caudolle to be older than Adamson' h 
baobab. The cypress of Montezuma is 41 feet round. Strabo wrote 
of a cypress in Persia, as being 2500 years old. The largest tree in 
Mexico Is 127 ft. round, and 120 high, with branches of 30 ft. A chest- 
nut tree on Mount Etna is 196 ft. round close to the ground, and 5 of 
its branches resemble great trees, Ue Candolle says there are oaks in 



BUYING AND SELLING TIMBER. 85 

France 1500 vears old. The Wallace oak, near Paisley, is nearly 800 
years old. The yew trees at Fountain's Abbey are about 1200 years 
old. That at Crowhurst, 1500. That at Fortingal, above 2000. That 
at Brabiiru, 2500 to 3000. Ivys reach 500 or 600 years. The larch 
the same. The lime 600 or 700 years. The trunk of a walnut tree, 12 
it. in diam., hollowed out, and furnished as a sitting-room, was im- 
ported from America and exhibited m London. The trunk was 80 ft. 
high, without a branch, and the entire height 150 ft, the bark 12 ins. 
thick and the branches from 3 to 4 ft. in diam. The California pine is 
from 150 to 200 ft. high and from 20 to 60 ft. in diam. The forests in 
watered tropical countries are formed of trees from 100 to 200 ft. high, 
which grow to the water's edge of rivers, presenting a solid and im- 
penetrable barrier of trunks 10 or 12 ft. in diam. The dragon tree is 
in girth from 40 to 100 ft. and 50 or 60 feet high ; and a misosa in South 
America is described, whose head is 600 ft. round. 

Tensile Strength of different kinds of Wood, showing the 
Weight or Power required to tear asunder 1 Square Inch. 



Lbs. 

Lance 23,000 

Locust 25,000 

Mahogany 21,000 

Box 20,000 

African Oak 14,500 

Bay 14,500 

Teak '. 14,000 

Cedar 14,000 

Ash 14,000 

Oak, seasoned 13,600 

Elm 13,400 

Sycamore ... 13,000 

Willow 13,000 

Christiana Deal 12,400 

Spanish Mahogany 12,000 



Lbs. 

Pitch Pine 12,000 

White Pine, (American) 11,800 

White Oak, " 11.500 

Lignum Vitse 11,800 

Beech 11 ,500 

Chestnut, sweet 10,500 

Maple 10,500 

White Spruce 10,290 

English Oak 10,000 

Pear 9,800 

Larch 9,50o 

Mahogany, Spanish 8,000 

Walnut 7,800 

Poplar 7,000 

Cypress 6,000 



Buying and Selling Tijlber. — Inch boards, plank, joists and 
scantling are generally sold by board measure, the dimensions of one 
foot of board measure being 1 ft. long, 1 ft. wide and 1 in. thick. 
Round timber is sold by the cubic foot, and when squared by hewing 
or sawing is estimated to lose one-fifth, hence a ton of round timber 
is estunated to contain only 40 cubic feet. Square timber, hewn or 
sawn, is also sold by the cubic foot and rated at 50 cubic feet to the 
ton, but as usually surveyed, a ton of timber contains 50 92-lOOths 
cubic feet. 

Pine and spruce spars, from 10 to 4| in. diam. are estimated by 
taking the diameter, minus the bark, at ^ of their length at the large 
end ; they are generally bought and sold by the inch diameter, all 
vuider 4 ins. being considered poles. 

The soundness of timber may be tested by applying the ear to the 
middle of one of the ends, while another party strikes the other end. 
The blow will be clearly and distinctly heard, however long the beam 
may be, if the wood is sonnd and of good quality, but if decay has 
get in, the sound will be muffled and indistinct. The toughest part of 
a tree will always be found on the side next the north. 

British Carpentry. — The fir timber in general use is imported 
from Memel, Riga, Dantzic, and Sweden. Meinel timber is tlie most 
convenient for size, Riga the best in quality, Dautzic the strongest, 



86 BRITISH CARPENTRY, «fcC. 

and Swedish the toughest. Riga timber can always be depended 
upon ; red pine may be used whenever durability and strength are 
objects ; and Quebec yellow pine for light dry purposes. Deals are 
from Norway, Sweden, Prussia, Russia and New Brunswick. For 
framing, the best deals are the Norway, particularly the Christijina 
battens ; for panuelling, the Christiana white deals ; for ground floors, 
Stockholm and Gefle yellows; for upper floors, Dram and Christiana 
whites; Archangel and Onega planks for warehouse floors and stair- 
cases, and for best floors, &c., Petersburg, Onega and Christiana battens. 
100 Superficial ft, make 1 square of boarding, flooring, &c. 
120 deals are denominated one hundred. 
50 cubic ft. of timber equal 1 load. Also, 
GOO superficial ft. of inch boards equal 1 load. 
Battens are from 6^ to 7 ins. in breadth, deals, 8^ to 10 ins., and 
planks 11 to 12 ins. 
12^ 12-feet boards to 1 square of rough boarding or flooring. 
" edges shot. 
*' wrought and laid folding. 
" " " straight joint. 

" " '* ploughed and tongued. 

17 12-ft. battens to 1 square of wrought folding door. 

18 " j-ellow to a straight joint floor. 

The duration of well seasoned wood, when kept dry, is very great, as 
beams still exist which are laiown to be nearly 1100 years' old. Piles 
driven by the Romans, and used in the formation of bridges prior to 
the Christian era, have been examined of late, and found to be per- 
fectly sound after an immersion of nearly 2000 years. 

Russian Way of Stopping Holes in Ships. — In that country, 
there has lately been invented ^nd successfully applied, a ready 
means for stopping holes made in ships by collision or otherwise. It 
consists of a plaster made of two rectangular sheets of canvas sewed 
together, bordered with a rope, and containing a water-proof material. 
A sounding-line has to be passed under the keel, and brought up on 
the other side : then the plaster can be lowered to the hole, and made 
fast. Several cases are ^ited in which this invention has been em- 
ployed with advantage ; and a large immber of Russian ships are 
now furnished with such plasters. It is proposed that men be spe- 
cially trained and ready for the mancBuvring of the apparatus. 

To Raise the Body of a Drowned Person. — In a recent fail- 
ure to recover the body of a drowned person in New Jersey, a French- 
Canadian undertook the job, and proceeded as foUows : Having sup- 
plied himself with some glass gallon-jars, and a quantity of un- 
slaked lime, he went in a boat to the place where the man was seen 
to go down. One of the jars was filled half full of lime, then filled 
np with water, and tightly corked. It was then dropped into the 
water, and soon after exploded at the bottom of the river, with a 
loud report. After the third trial , each time at a different place, the 
body rose to the surface, and was secured. 

To Get Rid of Rats, &c. — Get a piece of lead pipe and use it as a 
funnel to introduce about 1^ ozs. of sulphide of potassium into any 
outside holes tenanted by rats ; not to be used in dwellings. To get 
rid of Mice, use tartar emetic mingled with any favorite food ; they 
will eat, sicken, and take their leave. 



MAcnixiSTS, engineers', &c., receipts. 87 

. IIvDKAirLic Cetmevt, — Powdered clay, 3 lbs. ; oxide of iron, 1 lb. ; 
and boiled oil to form a stiff paste. 

KxGiKEERs' Cemext. — Equal parts of red and white lead, with dry- 
ing oil, spread ou tow or cauvas. Au admirable composition for uniting 
large stones in cisterns. 

^TONE Cesient River. — Sand, 20 parts; litharge, 2 parts; quick- 
lime, 1 part: mix with linseed oil. 

Glce. — Powdered chalk added to common glue strengthens it. A 
glue which will resist the action of water is made by boiling 1 lb. of 
glue in 2 qts. of skimmed milk. 

Cheap WATERrROOF Glue. — Melt common glue with the smallest 
possible quantity of water; add, by degrees, linseed oil, rendered 
drying by boiling it with litharge. While the oil is being added, the 
ingredients must be well stirred, to incorporate them thoroughly. 

Fire A^'D Waterproof Gltje. — Mix a handful of quick-lime with 
4 oz. of linseed oil ; thoroughly lixiviate the mixture ; boil it to a good 
thickness, and spread it on thin plates in the shade: it will become 
very hard, but can be dissolved over a fire, like common glue, and is 
then fit for use. 

Prepared Liquid Glue. — ^Takeof best white glue, 16 oz,; white- 
lead, dry, 4 oz.; rain-water, 2 pts. ; alcohol, 4 oz. Witli constant stir- 
ring dissolve the glue and lead in the water, by means of a water- 
bath. Add the alcohol, and continue the heat for a few minutes. 
Lastly, pour into bottles, while it is still hot. 

To 'Make Grindstones froim Com.^ion Sand. — River sand 32 lbs.; 
shellac, 10 parts; powdered glass, 2 parts; melt in an iron pot, and 
cast mto moulds. 

PoLisHENG Powder for Specula. — Precipitate a dilute solution 
of sulphate of iron by ammonia in excess ; wash the precipitate ; pross 
it in a screw press till nearly dry ; then expose it to heat until it 
ai>pears of a dull red color in the dark. 

On Saw-Mills. — To Get the Most Lumber FRoai Saw-Logs. 
— ^Experience has abundantly proved to our satisfaction that this can 
be done only by the use of the circular saw. Some i)arties are in 
favor of the mulay saw. Human ingenuity has been so prolific in the 
invention and construction of this kind of machinery, that the prin- 
cipal difficulty with the intendmg purchaser seems to be an inability 
to decide whose machine is really the best. Every builder or inventor 
appears to claim for his machme such a i^erfect constellation of valu- 
able features, that a certain amount of hesitation in coming to a de- 
cision seems to be inevitable. In the stationary form of saw mills, 
the saws are arranged either single or in gangs. Some of the port- 
able kind (circular saw mills) have au upper saw to complete the cut 
made but partially through large logs by the lower saw. See 
diagram. By the single movement of a lever, the head-blocks on 
which the log rests, are simultaneously moved up, moving the log a 
distance nearer the saw, adequate to the thickness of board desired, 
with au overplus the width of the cut made by the saw. By moving 
another lever, a pinion meshing into a rack beneath the log-carriage is 
made to impel the log agamst the saw, and run the log backwards 
after the board is cut. These movements, on the best constructed 
machuies, are made with suri^rising velocity, some of them being ac- 
credited with having cut over GO,0(X) feet of lumber in one day. 



88 



OLD FASHIONED SAW-MILL, &C. 




The performance of a 36 horse-power steam engine attached to a 
modern saw-mill, is equivalent to that of 75 saw-pits requiring the 
labor of 150 men. 

Comparative Resilience of Various Kinds of Tnip.ER, Ash 
BEING 1, Fir -4, Elm '54, Pitch Pine -57, Teak -59. Oak '63, Spruce '64, 
YeUowPine -64, Cedar '66, Chestnut "73 Larch '84, Beech -86. By resi- 
lience is understood the quality of springing back, or touglmess. 

Percentage of Increase in Strength of Different Woods 
BY Seasoning. — White pine, 9 per cent., Elm 12*3 per cent., Oak 26*6 
per cent., Ash 44*7 per cent, Beech 61*9 per cent. 

TRANSVERSE STRENGTH OF WOODS, SHOWING THEIR 
BREAKING WEIGHT FOR A THICKNESS OF ONE INCH 
SQUARE AND ONE FOOT IN LENGTH, WITH WEIGHT 
SUSPENDED FROM ONE END. 



Breaking Value 
weight, for use 



Lbs. 

Locust 295 80 

Hickory 250 55 

Oak, live American. . . 245 55 

" white " ..230 50 

" African 208 60 

Teak 206 60 

Maple 20'J 

Oak, English, best. ..188 45 

Ash 168 55 

Pine, American 60 50 

Birch 100 40 

Chestnut 160 53 



Breaking Value 
weight, for use. 



Lbs. 

Oak, Canadian 146 36 

" live American .. . 245 55 

" English 140 35 

Deal Christiana 137 45 

Pine pitch 136 45 

Beech 130 32 

Pine white American. 130 45 

Elm 125 30 

Pine Norway 123 40 

Oak Dantzic 122 30 

White wood 116 38 

Riga Fir <)4 30 

Pine, white 92 30 



MACHINISTS, ENGINEERS , «feC., RECEIPTS. 



89 



Occasionally we listen to a great deal of rant regarding the beati- 
tudes of "the good old times," duriag the lives of our forefathers. 
These times proved very disastrous to the enterprising Dutchman, 
who, in 1663 started the first saw-mill in England, which he was 
finally obliged to abandon, and fly to save his life. In 1767 another 
saw-mill, at Lime-house, near London, was demolished by a mob of 
sawyers, who considered that their business would be ruined to a 
dead certainty if things were allowed to go on. 




tt ^T-(r-lT-ci-(<Me<5-<»< 




aj Oooi-tTf<t-ot-<-. 



■g—"0iC0»<50W* 



MACHINISTS, ENGINEERS , ttC, RECEIPTS. 91 

Tlic old method of manufacturing lumber and dimension stuff by 
ripping logs lengthways on the saA\-pit, is still fresh in the remem- 
brance of many. One man mounted the log and pushed the saw 
downwaMs and pulled it upwards, assisted by another man in the 
pit below, with a veil over his face to keep the sawdust out of liis 
eyes. We hail with gratitude the modern improvements which en- 
able us to disj^nse with every such form of labor. 

Having tried the up and down saw and the circular saw also, wo 
■would again repeat our conviction 'that the last mentioned is the best 
for manufacturing lumber, and shoidd any person act on this expres^sion 
of opinion, let them in the first place be very careful to get, if possible, 
the best machine, bring it to the mill, and set it perfectly level and 
true. When you get it in operation, see that you handle it carefully. 
If you have been used to running the up and down saw only, you will 
soon find out that your former experience avails almost nothuig in 
themanagement of the rotaiy machine ; but when you get the hang 
of ruiming it, the compensation in the way of convenience, rapidity, 
and quantity of work, is immense. Some prefer to use the inseited 
tooth saws, and will use no other. They seem to possess many ad- 
vantages, and are entirely safe. A late invention of sprcadUn) the 
vppcrjpdvt of the tooth towards the point durmg the process of manu- 
facture, spreading it out so as to make the point of the tooth the 
thickest part of the circumference of the saw, enables tlie sawyer to 
dispense in a great measure with the use of the swage. Those insert- 
ed tooth saws which do not possess this improvement must be carc- 
fidly swaged and filed at least twice per daj-, and sometimes as often 
as six or seven times per day, depending upon the kind of lumber 
being cut. In filing or swaging the saw, be careful to form the point 
of the teeth absolutely square, and even across, the slightest deviation 
from perfect trutli in this respect being apt to cause the saw to nni, as 
it is termed, or vary from its j)roper course while passing through the 
log. Some prefer to form the ix)int of the tooth a little hooking, just 
enough so as to be barely perceptible, and in swaging to use that part 
of the die belonging to the swage, which gives the tooth of the saw a 
slightly curved or rainbow form, something in this shape '"", or 
scarcely so much cursed. One sawyer of 20 years' experience in 
running machinery, informed us that he never did better or more 
lapid work with his mill than when he kept his saw exactly right on 
tliese ^tfopom^s just stated. If j-ou can run a No. 7 gauge saw on 
your mill, the loss resultmg from sawdust will be very slight, and as 
large saws are generally thickest at the centre, tapering off towards 
the circumference, this size or No. G will, as a general rule, be foimd 
sufficiently strong for most purposes. Make sure at aU times, es- 
j^ecially during frosty weather, that the dogs have a secure hold of 
the log before the saw enters it. It is only a few daj's ago that a 
(ase came to my knowledge of a firm near Fredericton, N.13., having 
fustained a severe loss by a log (insufficiently secured of course) 
(anting over on the saw as it was passing through it. The effect was 
to break off the saw from the mandril, twist off the nut at the end 
near the saw, and break away the two iron pins used for securing the 
saw in the collar, causing a stoppage of the mill, and the consequent 
expense of repair and delay. When you get the mill in operation, see 
that you handle it carefully, and maintain unceasing watchfrincsr, 



&2 MACHINISTS, engineers', JtC, KECEIPTS. 

over it while in operation. Give it ;9?cnf?/ of pov)er ; if jon donH, 
you may as Avell sliut up shop at once ; (jood attendance, and witli a 
good machine, the attendants will not have much time to play them- 
Bclves, I can assure you. Keep all the parts Avell oiled — ttat has a 
great deal to do Avith the smooth and successful running of the 
machine ; and, by the "way, I would remark that saw-mills are not 
the only things in this world that run all the better for being oiled. 
If that kind, loving, gentle, and affectionate spirit of which oil is the 
symbol, pervaded the hearts and the minds of our race, and found 
universal expression in every thought, word, and deed during our 
daily intercourse with each other, it would be a very different 
world from what it is — better for ourselves, and better for our neigh- 
bors. Let us all carry on this branch of the oil hxmness as extensively 
ns possible, and we shall soon see a brotherhood " dwelling together 
in vinity." In order to facilitate calculations regarding the velocity 
of saws, herewith is appended a reliable table to serve as a guide in 
ascertaining the proper speed for running : — 

TABLE OF SPEED FOR CIRCULAR SAWS. 

o(S inches in diameter, 1000 revolutions per minute 



38 






950 






40 






900 






43 






870 






44 






840 






4G 






800 






48 






760 






50 






725 






53 






700 






54 






675 






56 






650 






58 






625 






GO 






600 






G3 


•• s 




575 






G4 






580 






GG 






545 






G8 






530 






70 






515 






73 






500 






74 






485 






76 






475 






Shingle machine saws 


\ 


1400 







The march of improvement in the manufacture of shingle mac]iinc.«? 
has been truly wonderful, and they can now be procured from the 
manufacturer, of almost any capacity and power, at veiy reasonable 
rates. Shingle machines are now in use, which cut out over 30,000 
shingles per day, carrying two or more bolts. Some of them possess 
very complex machinery and are positively dangerous to operate unless 
continual vigilance is maintained. One gentleman well known to 
the writer, was crippled for life by having his hand terribly lacer- 
ated during an unguarded moment by one of these machines. As a 
rule the less gearing and the more simplicity there is about the me- 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 93 

(lianism of a sliiiiglc macliine llie more satisfaction -will be derived 
from it 

In the manufacture of shingles, as Trell as in anything else, it is the 
wisest policy to use the best materials. Get good rift, free from 
laiots, sand, bark, &c., and you will inevitably get good merchant- 
able stuff, "with less waste and more pleasure every way, both with 
the machinery in the first place, and tlie satisfactory state of your 
cxcliequer in the last. It is all the better if you can lay in a good 
stock one year ahead, as it cuts much easier when properly seasoned, 
to say notliing of the saving in weight during transportation. In 
edging shingles, many prefer the saw to the revolving knives, as it 
enables the operator in many cases to get a shingle of extra quality 
by trimming a poor shingle down, and selecting the best part. This 
can be done by a smart hand with marvellous rapidity, but still, to 
use a modem phrase, many persons can't see it, and so they use the 
knives, giving what they conceive to be good reasons for so doing. 

Velocities of "Wood Wohking Machinery. — Circular Saius at 
periphery, GOOO to 7000 ft. per minute. Band Saivs, 2500 feet ; Ganr/ 
i>aics, 20 incli stroke, 120 strokes per minute ; Scroll Saics, 300 
strokes per minute; Flaninr/ Machine Cutters at periphery, 4000 to 
COOOfeet. Work under plaiuijig machine l-20th of an inch for each 
cut. Mouldiiifj Machine Cutters, 3500 to 4000 feet; Sqtiarinrj-vp 
Machine Cutters, 7000 to 8000 feet; Wood Carvinr/ Drills, 5000 revo- 
lutions; Machine Augers, IJ in. diam., 900 revolutions; ditto, | in. 
diam., 1200 revolutions; Cfang Saws, require for 45 superficial feet of 
pine per hour, 1 horse-power. Circidar Saivs require 75 superficial 
feet per hour, 1 liorse-power. In oak or hard wood jths of the above 
quantity require 1 horse-power; Sharpeninff Angles of Machine Cutters. 
Adzing soft wood across the grain, 30° ; Planing Machines, ordinary 
softwood. 35°; Gauges and Ploughing Machines, 40°; Ilardwood 
Tool Cutters, 50° to 55°. 

Filing Saws. — The grand secret^ of putting 'any saw in the best 
possible order, consists in filing the teeth at a given angle to cut 
rapidly, and of a uniform length so that the points will all touch 
a straight edged rule without showing a variation of the hundredth 
part of an incli. Besides this, there should be just set enough in the 
teeth to cut a kerf as narrow as it can be made, and at the same time 
allow the blade to work freely without pinching. On tlie contrary, 
the kerf must not be so wide as to permit the blade to rattle when in 
motion. The very points of the teeth do the cutting, If one tootli 
is a twentieth of an inch longer than two or three on each side of it, 
the long tooth will be required to do so much more cutting than it 
should, that the sawing cannot be done well, hence the saw goes 
jumping along, working hard and cutting slowly; if one tooth ia. 
longer than those on either side of it, the short teeth do not cut 
although their points may be sharp. When puttmg a cross-cut saw 
in order, it will pay well to dress the points with an old file, and af- 
terwards sharpen them with a fine whetstone; much mechan- 
ical skill is necessary to put a saw in prime order; one careless thrust 
with a file will shorten the point of a tooth so much that it will bo 
utterly useless, so far as cutting is concerned; the teeth should be 
ret with much care, and the filing done with the greatest accuracy. 
If the teeth are uneven at the points, a large flat file should be secured 



04 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 



to a block of wood in such a manner that the very points only may 
be jointed, so that the cutting edge of the same may be in a straight 
line, or circle, if it is a circular saw ; every tooth sliould cut a little as 
the saw is worked. The teeth of a hand saw for all kinds of work 
should be filed fleaming, or at an angle on the front edge, while the 
back edges may be filed fleaming or square across the blade. The 
best way to file a circular saw for cutting wood across the gram, is to 
dress every fifth tooth square across, and apart one twentieth of an 
inch shorter than the others, which should be filed fleaming at au 
angle of about forty degrees. 

As regards such saws as are used for cutting up large logs into lum- 
ber it is of the utmost importance to have them filed at such an angle 
as will ensure the largest amount of work with the least expenditure 
of power. The following diagrams will help to illustrate our mean- 
ing. Fig. 1 shows the shape of teeth which nearly all experienced 






Fig. 1. 

mill-men consider as that standard form which combines the greatest 
amount of strength and capacity for rapid work, Avith the minimum 
of driving power while doing the work. •« 

Figure No. 2 represents a passable form of teeth which are capable 
of doing a good deal of work, but their great weakness lies in their 
slender points. Look out for "breakers" when teeth of this 
description are passing through dry spruce or hemlock knots. 




Fig. 2. 



MACHINISTS, ENGINEERS', ScC, RECEIPTS. 95 

Fit;. No. 3 illustrates the appearance of one of those intolerable 
■wood rasps which are altogether too common in saw-mills. Only 
think what an appalling waste of valuable power is required to drive 
a " Jigger" like this through a large log! 




Fig. 3. 

Fig. 4, at a, is intended to show the method of ascertaining the 
proper-angle, that of sixty degrees, at which such saws should bo 
filed. The diagram being self-explanatory requires but little further 
elucidation here, A quarter circle with lines radiating from the centre 
towards the circumference is represented near the verge of the segment 
of a circular saw. The lower part corresponds with the level of the 
horizon, and the higher part at 90° corresponds with the zenith or 
meridian, Avhere the sun appears at noon-day. Exactly half-way up 
is 45° ; look up a little higher and you will find 00°, indicated by the 
radiating line which runs parallel with the angle of the tooth of the savv^ 
and this is the guide you must follow in filing. The same rule is see]-* 
applied to a straight mill saw at b. 

Many good authorities contend that mill saws snould in no case bo 
set with the instrument commonly used for that purpose, but that in 
lieu thereof the teeth should be spread out at the points with tho 
swage or upset to a sufficient extent to permit the body of Jhe saw to 
operate without binduig. Both instruments require to be skilfully 
handled, and the swage, when used in this way, has proved itself equal 
to every emergency without the risk of breaking the teeth. It would 
be quite safe to say that the saw-set should only be used on saws of 
this description with the most extrem.^ caution aiid care. Every man- 
ufacturer, however, has his own opinion, and consequent i^ractice on 
the subject, some contending that one way is right and the other di- 
rectly the reverse. 

^ To Repair Fractured Circular Saws. — Tlie best way to do 
this is to drill a small round hole at the termination of the crack, which 
effectually prevents its furtfter extension. I have seen some circular 
saws very neatly repaired by riveting thin clamps to each side of the 
fracture, both clamps and rivets being countersunk so they will be 
level with the surface of the saAV, and placed in such a position across 
the crack as to impart the greatest ix)ssible strength to the weakest place. 

To Mend Broken^ Cross-cut Saws.— In the first place scarf off 
the broken edges in such a manner that when lapped over each other 



96 



MACHINISTS, ENGINEERS , &C., RECEIPTS. 



they will be about the same thickness as the rest of the plate, and 
rivet them together loosely with iron rivets inserted through holes 
which must be punched for that purpose ; the ends must be imited 




■with great accuracy so that the teeth, &c., of the saw may range 
truly. IS'ow place the saw in the fire, then a tiax of powdered borax 
and sal ammoniac is flowed all over it after having it raised to the 
proper heat. See page 270 for preparing and using the composition; 
Keturn the saw to the fire and when it is raised to the proper welding 



MACHINISTS, ZXGIXEEKS', &C., RECEIPTS. 97 

heat, place it on the anvil and unite the joint as rai^idly as possible 
^vith the liammer ; he careful not to heat ^o hot as to injure the f^teel; 
When the job is well done, and the part properly tempered, it will be 
found as strong as the rest of the plate. I kiiow one blacksmith in 
Canada who told me that this class of work was the best paying part 
of his business. 

Quantity ajtd Cost of Supri.iES foe Horses axd Lumberi^tq 
Crews in the woods. — The following figures have been kindly 
furnished for this Avork by the obliging manager of Messrs. Gilmour's 
mill on the Gatineau, near OttaAva, Canada, and are most valuable as 
affording a basis for calculating the quantity and quality of the sup- 
plies required for men and horses engaged in this branch of industry. 
These calculations are the result of long experience in the business, 
and are based on actual consumption. 

Quantity of Oats for each span of horses, 51 lbs. per day. 
" ILiy " " 40 '^ 



Flour used by 


each 


man 


1.80 


Pork 






1 23 


Beef 






0.85 


Beans " 






0.33 


Fish 






0.13 


Onions " 






0.13 


Potatoes " 






0.47 



Total daily consumption per man 4.93 

Quantity of Tea used " 1^ lbs. per month. 

The d..:ly allowance of oats for each spaii of horses may appear 
large, hut it must le remembered that the labor is extremely severe, 
and moie hay wIlJ be required if any part of the oats is Avithheld. On 
making inquiry with reference to the item of molasses, so largely 
used by our lumbering friends in New BnuisAvick and Elaine, the 
answer returned was that owing to the hejivy cost of the commodit}', 
it was entirely omitted from the list of supi^lies. The following 
exhibits the comparative value of Mess and riiuic Pork, calculated 
from actual consumption : — 



Jlfcss Fork FHme Mess. 

^IQ Sl8 80 

25 18 08 

24 17 35 

23 IG G2 

23 15 89 

21 15 IG 

20 f. 14 43 

10 13 70 

18 13 97 



Mess Pork. Prime Mess. 

$n Sl3 24 

IG 11 51 

15 10 78 

14 10 05 

13 9 S2 

13 8 59 

11 7 86 

10 7 13 

9 6 40 



1 Barrel Mess averages 37 lbs. grease, 6 lbs bones, when cooked. 
1 " Prime Mess 24 " 13 " " 

To Mekd Broken Saws. — Pure silver, 19 parts ; pure copper, 1 
part ; pure brass, 2 parts ; all to be filed into powder, and thor- 
oughly mixed ; place the saw level on the anvil, broken edges in 
contact, and hold them so ; now. put a small lino of the raixturo 
along the seam, covering it with a larger bulk of powdered char- 

7 



98 MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 

coal ; now with a spirit lamp and a jewellers' blow-pipe hold the 
coal' dust in place, and blow siifRcieut to melt the solder mixture ; 
then with a hammer set the joint smooth, and file away any su- 
perfluous solder, and you will be surprised at its strength ;, the 
Iieat will not injure the temper of the saw. 

Velocity of Wheels, Pulleys, Drums, &c. — ^AVhen wheels are 
applied to communicate motion from one part of a machine to an- 
other, their teeth act alternately on each other ; consequently, it one 
'Wheel contains 60 teeth, and another 20 teeth, the one containing 20 
teeth will make 3 revolutions while the other makes but 1 ; and if 
drums or pulleys are taken in place of wheels, the etfect will be the 
.same ; because their circumferences, describing equal spaces, ren- 
der their revolutions unequal ; from this the rule is derived, namely : — 

Multiply the velocity of the driver by the number of teeth it con- 
tains, and divide by the velocity of the driven. Tlie quotient will be 
the number of teeth it ought to contain ; or, multiply the velocity 
of the driver by its diameter, and divide by the Telocity of the 
driven. 

Example 1. If a wheel that contains 75 teeth makes 10 revolutions? ' 
I)er minute, required the number of teeth in another, to work into and 
make 24 revolutions in the same time. According to rule, vou mul- 
tiply 10 by 75, and divide the product, which is 1200, by 24, and you 
have the ansM'er, 50 teeth. 

Example 2. Suppose a drum, 30 inches in diameter, to make 20 
revolutions per minute, required the diameter of another to make 00 
revolutions per minute. According to rule, you multiply 20 by 30, 
and divide the product, which is GOO, by GO, and you have the answer, 
10 inches. 

Example 3. A wheel 64 inches in diameter, and making 42 revo- 
lutions per minute, 1:5 to give motion to a shaft at the rate of 77 revo- 
lutions in the same time ; find the diameter of a wheel suitable for 
that purpose. According to rule, multiply 42 by 64, and divide the 
product, which is 2G88, by 77, and you will have for the answer 35 
inches nearly. 

77)2688(34 10-12 
231 

378 
308 70 

Example 4. Suppose a pulley 32 inches diameter to make 26 revo- 
lutions ; find the diameter of another to make 12 revolutions in the 
game time. 

According to rule, 26 x 32 -J- 12 = 69^ 

2/) and 12) 832. this wiU bo seen to be 69J 

32 

— 69 4-12= J 

832 

Example 5. Find the number of revolutions per minute made by 
a wheel or pulley 20 inches in diameter, when driven bj'^ another 48 
inches in diameter, and making 45 revolutions in the same time. Ac- 
cording to rule, 48 x 45-^-20 = 108^ That is, 48 multiplied by 45 = 
^160, divided by 20, gives the answer, 108 revolutions. 



MACHINISTS, ENGINEERS', £iC., RECEIPTS. 



09 



Construction of Trussed Roofs.— In roofs of the ordiiirjy 
construction, the roof covering is laid upon rafters supported by 
liorizontal^)i«'^in5, "which rest on upright trusses or frames of timber, 
placed on the walls at regular distances from each other. Upon the 
iramuig of the trusses depends the stability of the roof, the arrange- 
Tiient of the rafters and purlins being subordinate matters of detail! 
In Trussed Roofs, exerting no side ilirust on the icalls, each truss 
consists essentially of a pair of principal rafters ox principals, and a 
horizontal tie beam, and in large roofs these are connected and 
strengthened by king and queen posts and struts. (See figs. 2. and 3.) 
Fig. 1. shows a very simple truss in which the tie is above the 
bottom of the feet of the principal, which is often done in small roofs 
ior the sake of obtiiining height. The tie in this case is called a 
coLlar beam. Tlie ieet oi botH common and principal rafters rest on 

a icall plate. The purlins rest 
on the collar, and the common 
rafters but against a ridge run- 
ning along the top of the roof. 
This kind of truss is only suited 
to very small spans, as there is 
a cross strain on that part of the 
principal below the collar, which 
IS rendered harmless in a small 
span by the extra strength of 
the principal, but which m a, 
large one would be very likely to throw out the walls. 

in roofs of larger span the tie beam is placed below the feet of the 
principal, which are tenoned into and bolted to it. To keep the beam 
from sagging, or bending by its own weight, it is suspended , from 
the head of the principals by a king post of wood or iron. The loAvcr 
part of the kmg post affords abutments for sturts supporting the 
principal immediately under the puxUns, so that no cioss strain is 




Kpr.l. 




Fig. 2. 

exerted on any of the timbers in the trass, but they all act in the 
' direction of their length, the principal and struts being subjected to 
compression, and the king post and the tie beam to tension. Fig. 2 
shows a sketch of a king truss. The common rafters but on a pole 
plate, the tie beams resting either on a contuiuous plate, or on short 
templates of wood and stone. 
Where the span is considerable, the beam is supported atadditioiial 



100 



MACHINISTS, ENGINEERS', <fbC.j RECEIPTS. 



points t)y suspension pieces called queen posts (fig 3), from the bot- 
tom of which, spring additional struts ; and, by extending this 




principle ad infinitum, we might construct a roof of any span were it 
not that a practical limit is imposed by the nature of the materials. 
Sometimes roofs are constructed without king posts, the queen posts 
"being kept apart by a straining piece. This construction is shown in 




Fig. 4. 



iig. 4, which shows the design- of the old roof (now destroyed) of the 
church of St, Paul, outside the walls, at Rome. This truss is interest- 
ing from its early date, having been erected about 400 years ago : 
the trusses are iu pairs, a king post being keyed in between each 
pair to support the beams in the centre. _ 

Of late years iron has been much used as a rnaterial for the frusse.-> 
of roofs, the tie beams and suspending pieces bemg formed of light 
rods, and the prmcipals and struts of rolled T or angle iron, to which 
sockets are riveted to receive the purlins. 

Durable I>'sulation for Electkic Wires. — Tin the wires and 
.then cover with pure rubber. 



STRENGTH OF WOODS. 



101 



The following tabulated form shows the results of Mr. Hodgkin- 
Eon's experiments on the crushing strengths of different woods per 
square inch of section. The samples crushed were short cylinders 1 
inch diameter, and 2 inches long, fiat at the ends. The results given 
in the first column are those obtained when the wood was moderately 
dry. The samples noted in the second column were kept seasoning 
2 months longer than the first. The third column is appended by the 
author, to illustrate the resilience or toughness of certain woods. 



Kmd of Wood. 


Crushing strength per 
square inch of section. 


Length in feet of a rod 1 
inch square that would 
break by its own weight 


Alder, 

Ash, 

Bay, 

Box, 

Beech, 

Birch, 

English Birch, 

Cedar, 

Deal, Christiana, 

Red Deal, 

White Deal, 

Hornbeam, 

Elder, 

Elm, 

Fir (Memel), 


6831 to 6960 
8683 to 9363 
7518 to 7518 

10300 
7733 to 7363 

10300 
3297 to 6402 
6674 to 6863 

5748* to' '658'6'*" 

6781 to 7293 

7300 

7451 to ^J73 

7451 to 10331 


42,080 
38,940 

55,500 

39,050 
40,500 

42160 


Fir (Spruce), 
Larch, 


6499 to 6819 


Mahogany, 
Liguum Vitae, 
Oak (Quebec), 
Oak (English), 
Pine (Pitch), 
Pine (Red), 
Poplar, 
Plum (Dry), 
Sycamore, 


8198 to 8198 
9900 
4231 to 5982 
6484 to 10058 
6790 to 6790 
5395 to 7518 
3107 to 5142 
8241 to 10493 


32,900 

35,800 
36,049 


Teak, 

Walnut, 

WiUow, 


8241 to 12101 
6063 to 7227 
2898 to 6128 



It was also found that in pillars of the same dimensions, but oi 
different materials, taking the strength of cast iron at 1,000, tliat of 
wrought iron was 1,745, cast steel 2,518, Dantzic Oak 108.8, and Red 
Deal 78.5. 

Beams of timber, when laid with their concentric layers vertical, 
are stronger than when laid horizontal, in the proportion of 8 to 7. 

Anti-Fouling CoisiPOSiTiON FOR Ships. — Melt, mix and grind to- 
gether into an impalpable powder, 1 part copper, 4 of zinc, and 1 of 
tin : mix thoroughly with red lead or Torbay mineral red, and ap- 
ply to the ship's bottom. (See "Marine Paint for Metals in Salt 
Water," under Painters' Department.) 



10^2 TONNAGE OF SHIPS. 

- "MEASUREilEXT AXD CALC0L ATI0X3 OF THE TOXNAGE OF "VESSELS 

AND Ships of the Uxited States, uxdek the Act of Congbbs* 
OF May 6, 1864. 

The tonnage deck, in vessels having 3 or more decks to the hull, shall 
be the second deck from below, in all other cases the upper deck of the hull 
is to be the tonnage-deck. The length from the forepart of the outer 
planking, on the side of the stem, to the after part of the main stern post of 
sereio steamers, and to the after part of the rudder-post of all other vessels, 
measured on the top of the tonnage deck, shall be accounted the vessel's 
length. The breadth of the broadest part on the outside of the vessel is ac- 
counted the vessel's breadth of beam. A measure from the under side of 
tonjiage deck plank, amidships, to the ceiling of the hold (average thick- 
ness), shall be accounted the depth of hold. If the vessel has a third 
deck, then the height from the top of the tonnage deck plank to the under 
side of the upper deck plank shall be accounted as the height under the 
spar-deck. All measurements to be taken in feet and fractions of feet ; 
and all fractions of feet shall be expressed in decimals. The Register ton- 
nage of a vessel is her entire internal cubical capacity in tons of 100 cubic 
feet each, to be determined as follows : Lengths. Measure the length of 
the vessel in a straight line along the upper side of the tonnage deck from 
the inside of the inner plank (average thickness) at the side of the stem 
to the inside of the plank on the stern timbers (average thickness), de- 
ducting from this length what is due to the rake of the bow in the thick- 
ness of the deck, and what is due to the rake of the stern timber in one- 
third of the round of the beam ; divide the length so taken into the num- 
ber of equal parts required by the following table, according to the class 
in such table to which the vessel belongs: 

Table OF Classes. 

Class 1. Vessels of which the tonnage length according to the above 
measurement is 50 feet or under, into 6 equal parts. 

2. Over 50 feet and not over 100, feet into 8 equal parts.' 

3. Over 100 feet and not over 150 feet, into 10 equal parts. 

4. Ov^r 150 feet and not over 200 feet, into 12 equal parts. 

5. Over 200 feet and not over 250 feet, into 14 equal parts. 

6. Over 250 feet, into 16 equal parts. 

The extent of the areas is found by measurement and calculation, and 
if there be a break or poop or any other permanent closed i]i space on the 
upper decks, or on the spar deck, available for cargo, or stores, or for the 
berthing or accomodation of passengers or crew, the tonnage of such 
space shall be computed. If a vessel has a third deck, or spar deck, the 
tonnage between it and the tonnage deck is also computed. 

In ascertaining tne tonnage of open vessels, the upper edge of the upper 
Btrake isto form the boundary line of measurement, and the depth shall 
be taken from an athwart shipline, extending from the upper edge of said 
strake at each division of the length. 

The register of the vessel must express the number of the decks, the 
tonnage under the tonnage deck, that of the between decks, above the 
tonnage deck ; also that of the poop or other enclosed spaces above the 
deck, each separately. In every registered TJ. S. ship or vessel the num- 
ber denoting the total registered tonnage shall be deeply carved or other- 
wise permanently marked on her main beam, and shall be so continued, 
and if at any time cease to be so continued such vessel shall no longer be 
recognized as a registered U. S. vessel. 

By a subsequent Act, approved Feby. 28, 1S65, the preceding Act was so 
construed that ** no part of any ship or vessel shall be admeasured or reg- 
istered for tonnage that is used for cabins or state-rooms, and construct- 
ed entirely above the first deck which is not a deck to the hull." 

Carpenters' Measurement for a Single-Deck Vessel.— i?uZe. 
Multiply the length of keel, the breadth of beam and the depth of hold 
together, and divide by 95. 



TONNAGE OF SHIPS. 103 

For a Doublk Deck Vessel.— ^ifZe. Multiply as above, taking half 
the breadth of beam for the depth of the hold, and divide by 95. 
British Measurejiext. 

The British mode for measuring vessels, authorized by Act of Parlia 
ment in 1854, has been substantially copied into the above noted Act tc 
re^iilate the admeasurement of tonnage in the United States, the mail 
difference being a reduced number of areas or sections by the Britisi 
method, which stands as follows. 

1. Vessels of which the tonnage length is 50 feet or under are divided 
into 4 equal parts. 

2. Over 50 and not over 120 feet, into G " " 

3. " 120 ** " " 180 •' " 8 " '* 

4. " 180 " " " 225 " " 10 " " 

5. " 225 ft. into 12 " " 
Divide the length of the upper deck between the after part of the stem 

and the forepart of the stern-post into 6 equal parts, and note the fore- 
most, middle, and aftermost points of division. Measure the depths at 
these three points in feet and tenths of a foot, also the depths from the 
under side of the upper deck to the ceiling at the timber strake ; or, in 
case of a break in the upper deck, from a line stretched in continuation 
of the deck. For the breadth, divide each depth into 5 equal parts, and 
measure the inside breadths at the following points, viz. : at 2 and 8 from 
the upper deck of the foremost and aftermost depths, and at 4" and 8 from 
the upper deck of the midsliip depth. Take the length, at half the mid- 
ship depth, from the afterpart of stem to the forepart of the stern-post. 
Then, to twice the midship depth, add the foremost and aftermost depths 
for the sum of the depths ; and add together the foremost upper and 
lower breadths, 3 times the upper breadth with the lower breadth at the 
midship, and the upper, and twice the lower breadth at the after division 
for su)ii of the breadths. 

Multiply together the sum of the depths, the sum of the breadths, and 
the length, and divide the product by 3500, which will give the number of 
tons or register. If the vessel has a poop or half deck, or a break in the 
upper deck, measure the inside mean length, breadth and height of 
such part thereof as may be included within the bulkhead ; multiply these 
three measurements together, and divide the product by 92.4. The quotient 
will be the nuiiiber of tons to be added to the result, as above ascertained- 

For Open Vessels. — ^The depths are to be taken from the upper edge of 
the lower strake. 

For Steam Vessels. — The tonnage due to the engine room is deducted 
from the total toimage computed by the above rule. 

To determine this, measure the inside length of the engine-room from 
the foremost to the aftermost bulkhead ; then multiply this length by the 
midship depth of the vessel and the product by the inside midship 
breadth at .4 of the depth from the deck, and divide the final product by 
92-4. 

Self- Acting Nautical Puimp. — Captain Leslie, in a voyage from 
North America to Stockholm, adopted an excellent mode of empty- 
ing water from his ship's hold when the crew were disabled from 
performhig that duty. About ten or twelve feet above the pump, he 
rigged out a spar, one end of which projected overboard, while the 
other was fastened as a lever to the machinery of the pump. To the 
end which projected overboard was suspended a water-butt half full, 
but corked down, so that when the coramg wave raised the water- 
butt, the other end depressed the piston of the pump ; but, at the 
retiring of the wave, this was reversed ; for, by the weight of the 
butt, the piston came up again, and with it the wa1»er. Thus, without 
t'le aid of the crew, the ship's hold was cleared of w iter in a few hours. 



104 



ENGLISH FREIGHT TABLE. 

GOODS PEOPORTIONED IN STOWAGE. 

line follo^ving Table is fTora." Harrison's Freighters* Guide," London 
Edition, 1848. The 1st column shows the Quantities, in Numbers and 
Decimal parts ; the 2d column the character, or kind of Goods ; the 
3d column the Gross Weight of the Goods in Tons and Decimal paita 
of a ton ; and the 4th column the number of Cubic Feet required for 
Stowing the same. [850 Cubic Feet equal 21.2 Tons, or 1 Keel.] 



Quantities in 

Numbers & 

Decimals. 



♦97. 
88. 
105. 
108. 
114. 
125. 
10. 
9.107 
7.760 
5.825 
4.444 
5.257 
7.2727 
17. 
17. 
17. 
17. 
17. 
17. 
14.923 

5.1515 
4.857 
f 1.275 



1.300 
1.200 
0.840 



t^ 0.70S 



1.054 

3.883 
I 
80. 

8. 
12. 
16. 



Articles of Freight. 



do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 



do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 
..do. 
..do. 
,..do. 
,..'do. 



Quarters of Wheat, 61.2 lbs. per Bushel, equal 
do. Tares, Beans, & Peas 63 do. do. 

do. Rye, 57 

do. Seed,. 52 

do. Barley, 52 

do. Oats, 37 

Tons Clean Hemp and Flax,. . 
do. Outshot do. do ... . 
do. Half -clean do. do. . . . 

do. Cedilla do. do 

do. Wool, do. 

do. Wool, compressed, do. 

do. Dried Skins, do. 

do. Tallow, 

do. Ashes, J do, 

do. Hides (Salted), 

Loads of Timber (Baltic squared Fir), 

do. do (N. American do.), [do. 

do. do (Birch do), ) 

do. Masts (round), do. 

Plfi/jfis Ft 111' Jti 
stand. Hund. Deals, 120* 12*11*11/0 do. 
do. do Battens, 120 12 7 2% do. 

Mille Baltic Staves reduced ~ 

Viz. 1200 pieces, 66 in. long by I14 thick, 

do. Odessa do. do ". 

do. Quebec do. do 

do. Baltic Staves rough 

1200 pieces 72 inches by Sy^ | 

do. Odessa do. do .....|^do. 

1200 pieces 76 inches by 3l^ 
do. Quebec do. do ... 

1200 pieces 66 inches by 2% 
do. West India do. do 

1200 pieces 42 inches by IV4. 

Casks Pot and Pearl Ashes, .' do. 

Tons Bones (calcined), in Bulk, do 

do. do. (manure, &c.), do do. 

do. do. (best quality), do do. 



Tons 
Weight 



21.2 

20. 

21. 

20. 

21. 

16,5 

10. 
9.107 
7.76 
5.825 
4.444 
5.257 
7.2727 

17. 

18.5 
13.5 
22. 
17.5 

17. 
17.75 



15.25 



16. 

8. 
12. 
16. 



Cub. 
Feet. 



F50 
do 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 

do. 

do. 
do. 
do, 
do. 

do. 
do. 



do. 



do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 



* Wheat is the standard, 8 imperial bushels of Wheat equal 1 Quarter, 
and 1 English Quarter equal 8V4 United States bushel. 
t The Staves average C inches in breadth. 



lOo 



ENGLISH FREIGHT TABLE. 



Quantities in 

Kumbers & 

Decimals. 



9.M4 i 
100. 
100, 
100. 
136. 
140. 
160. 

8.333 

9.166 
4.75 

7. 



9.7 

5. 
17. 
20. 
40. 
230. 
17. 
17. 

8. 

4.500 

10. 
8- 
110. 
156. 
120. 
535. 
180. 
144. 

20. 

20. 
120. 

16. 

21. 
150. 

40. 

50. 

60. 
100. 

200. 



Articles of Freight. 



Tons Mats of 400 pieces (Archangel), equal 
Barrels Tar do do 

do. Pitch do do. 

do. Tar (Stockholm), do. 

do. Tar and Rosin (American), do, 

do. Flour 220 lbs. each (196 nett), do 

Sacks do. 280 do do 

ON COTTOX. 

Tons New Orleans and Mobile, all com- ) ^^ 
pressed, J - * 

do. best carrying ships, do do. 

do. Charleston and Savannah, not com- ) ^ 

pressed, j 

•do. PemambucoandMaranhamlil^"Ves-'j 
sels from these ports generally stow 1 ^^ 
10 per cent, more than l^ the register ton- j 
nage, part compressed, say 7 tons as above J 

do. Alexandria, all compressed, do. 

do. do, not compressed, do. 

Hogsheads Tobacco, do. 

do. Sugar 16i^ cwt. average, do. 

Tierces Coffee, 7" cwt. do do. 

Bags do. 1^4 cwt. do do. 

Tuns of Oil of 252 gals, each, do. 

do. "Wine, Brandy, or any other Spirit ) ^ 
reckoning the full gauge of the Casks, J 
Tons Oranges and Lemons of 10 Chest ) ^ 
or 20 Boxes per Ton, j ""• 

do. Cork, (Faro), do. 

do. Bark, (Tree), do. 

do. do. (Coppice) do. 

Tierces Beef, 3 cwt. each, do. 

Barrels Pork, 2 cwt. each, do. 

Bags Bread, 1 cwt. each, do. 

Firkins Butter, 70 lbs. each, do. 

Barrels Red Herrings, do. 

do. White do do. 

Hogsheads Copperas, do; 

do. Lamp Black, do. 

Bags do do. 

Tons Soda & other Alkalies, in Casks, do. 

do. do. in Bulk, do. 

Carboy, Oil Vitriol, do. 

Crates Glass, 18 Tables, do. 

do. do. 15 do do. 

Crates Glass, 12 Tables, do. 

Gross of Bottles = 6 per Gallon = 19 lbs. ) , 

Weight per dozen, in Bulk, (Glass), ) ^"' 

do. i| Bottles = 12 per Gallon = 11 lbs. 
weight per Dozen, in Bulk, 



} do. 



Tons 


Cub. 


Weight 


Feet. 


8.5 


850 


16. 


do. 


20. 


do. 


16. 


do. 


17. 


do. 


13.75 


do. 


20. 


do. 


8.333 


do. 


9.166 


do. 


4.75 


do. 



7. 



9.7 


do 


5. 


do 


10. 


do 


16.5 


do 


14. 


do. 


17.25 


do 


18.5 


do 



4.5 


do. 


10. 


do 


8. 


do. 


16.5 


do 


15.5 


do 


6. 


do. 


16.5 


do. 


11. 


do. 


21.5 


do. 


17. 


do. 


7, 


do. 


0', 


do. 


16. 


do. 


21. 


do. 


8. 


do. 


4.5 


do. 


5. 


do. 


5.5 


do. 


10. 


do. 


11.75 


do. 



do. 



do. 
do. 



106 

ENGLISH FREIGHT TABLE. 



Quantities in 

Numbers & 

Decimals. 



80. 

28. 
22. 

16. 
7000. 
8000. 

26. 

17. 

20. 

21. 
300. 



Articles of Freight. 



Crts. Bottles (Glass) 10% cubic ft. each, equal 

do. Earthenware, small size, do. 

do. do. mixed sorts or middling size, . do. 

do. do. largest size, do. 

Fire Bricks, in Bulk, % 

Common do., also Tiles, do. do. 

Chaldrons Grindstones, do. 

Tons Potatoes, do, 

do. Oil Cake, do. 

do. Slates, do. 

Pigs of Lead,. do. 

Wagons of Coal, 53 cwt, each, do. 



do. 
do. 

% 

do. 



Tons 


Cub. 


Weight. 


Feet 


10. 


850 


10. 


do. 


9. 


do. 


7. 


do. 


21. 


638 


21. 


do. 


21. 


425 


17. 


do. 


20. 


do. 


21. 


567 


22. 


283 


21.200 


850 



* The Contents of each Wagon of Coals is 126 Cubic Feet, 8 Wagons 1008 
Feet, but when stowed in bulk on board a ship, from the spreading out 
and pressure, become closer packed, and are proved, from practice, to 
stow in the space of 850 Cubic Feet. 

Note. —As wheat is the standard equally for weight and measurement, 
it will be necessary to explain how it is so. The imperial corn bushel is 
2218.192 cubic inches : this multiplied by 776 (the number of bushels in 97 
qrs. of wheat), and divided by 1728 (the cubic inches in one foot), gives 
996 cubic feet ; but, when stowed in bulk on board a ship, is reduced in 
measurement nearly 15 per cent., viz., tc 850 cubic feet ; 1st, about 8 per 
cent, by the ship stowing it in spaces where no measurement goods can be 
stowed, and the immense pressure on the lower parts of the cargo ; and 
2d, about 7 per cent, difference between the bushel being filled in the 
customary way, and what it can be made actually to hold ; this, by sev- 
eral trials of wheat, 61 lbs. to the bushel, average nearly 5 pinLs, or 5-64rths, 
making, in all, about 15 per cent, as above. This seeming paradox, which 
I have taken some pains to clear up, although well known to exist in 
practice, by me and every one acquainted with the stowage of goods, 
applies to every sort of grain, and in fact, to every thing in bulk, according 
to its weight and elasticity ; and 97 qrs. of wheat, is equal to 850 cubic feet. 

TREENAILS.— 5333 pieces of 9 inches equal 1 load of timber ; 4000 do. 
12 do. do.; .3200 do. 15 do, do. ; 2663 do. do. 18 do. do, ; 2285 do, 21 do. do.; 
JOOOdo. 24 do. do. ; 1777 do. 27 do. do.; 1600 do. 30 do. do. ; 1454 do. 33 do 
do. ; 1333 do. 36 do. do.; 1142 do. 42 do. do. 

FIR AND OAK PLANK.— 1200 pieces of 1/2 inch equal 1 load of timber; 
eOOdo. 1 do. do. ; 400 do. IVg do, do.; 300 do. 2 do. do. ; 240 do. 2% do. do.; 
200 do. 3 do. do. ; 150 do. 4 do. do, ; 120 do. 5 do. do. ; 100 do. 6 do. do. 

Frkight Table, — The foregoing Table gives about 100 different de- 
scriptions of goods, proportioned in stowage. 

Rule.— If 97 Quarters of wheat equal a keel (21 .2 tons or 850 cubic ft.) 
then how many quarters of Barley, or how many, tons of Hemp, AVool, or 
Cotton, or barrels of Flour can be stowed in a vessel whose carrying capa- 
city is 294 tons ? - 

Example.— 294 tons multiplied by 40 (the number of cubic feet in a ton) 
equals 11.760 cubic feet, which divided by 850 and the quotient multiplied 
by 140 (the number of barrels which can be stowed in 850 cubic feet, as 
stated in the table) gives 1936 barrels of Flour, as the quantity which such 
vessel can carry. ■.-••-" 



LIGHTNING CALCULATOR. 



107 



LIGHTNTNG CALCULATOR FOR MERCHANTS, SEAMEN, Con- 
tractors, &c., allowing the Solid Contexts or Cubic Feet of Timber, 
Stones, Boxes, Bales, Barrels, Casks, Hogsheads, Sic, according to their 
several lengths, breadths and thicknesses. Condensed from JilunCs Ex- 
peditious Measurer. 

■ Example.— Required the cubic contents of a Box, Stone, Bale or 
Package, 6 feet long, 36 ins. thick or deep, and 46 ins- broad : turn to 36 
inches thick, among the running titles over the tables, and opposite 6 ft. 
and under 46 ins. (indicated by B, denoting breadth), you will find the an- 
swer 69, the number of cubic feet. , 

If there should be a package exceeding the extent of the tables in length, 
breadth or thickness, its solid contents may, however, easily be found by 
halving the dimension so exceeding, and doubling the solid content ; or, 
double any suitable number, add any two together, or subtract, as may be 
required. , , o . 

Sizes in feet and inches may be determined by applying the scale for in- 
ches under each table, adding or deducting as may be required. 

In measuring casks and hogsheads, it is customary to deduct one-fifth on 
account of the bulge. Thus supposing the square or solid contents of 
a cask should bs bythe table 20 cubic ft., the 5th olf would leave it but 16ft. 



Lenirth 




5 Inches Thick, — By 






ft- 


in. 


5 B| 6B| 7 B 


8 B 


9B 


10 B 


IIB 

5 


12 B 


13 B 


14 B 


15 B 


1 


2 3; 3 


3 


4 


4 


5 


5 


6 


6 


2 





4 5 6 


7 


8 


8 


9 


10 


11 


1 


1 1 


3 





6 8 9 


10 


11 


1 1 


1 2 


1 3 


1 4 


1 6 


1 7 


4 





8 10 1 


1 1 


1 3 


1 5 


1 6 


1 8 


1 10 


1 11 


2 1 


5 





10 1 11 3 


1 5 


1 7 


1 9 


1 11 


2 1 


2 3 


2 5 


2 7 


6 


— 


1 113 16 


1 8 


1 11 


2 1 




2 4 



2 6 


2 9 


2 11 


3 2 


_ 


1 


0! 























2 





0] 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 





3 


1 


10 1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


— 


6 


1 


li 1 


2 


2 


2 2| 


3 


3 


3 


4 


Lengtir 




6 Inches Thick, — By 






fi- 


in. 


6B 


7B 

4 


8B 

4 


9B 

5 


jlOB 
5 


11 B 
6 


12 B 
Q 6 


13 B 

7 


14 B 


15 B 


16 B 


1 





3 


7 


8 


8 


2 


— 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


n 


1 


1 1 


1 2 


1 3 


1 4 


3 





9 


11 


1 


1 2 


1 3 


1 5 


1 6 


1 8 


1 9 


1 11 


2 r- 


4 


_ 


1 


1 2 


1 4 


1 6i 1 8 


1 10 


2 


2 2 


2 4 


2 6 


2 8 


5 


— 


1 3 


1 6 


1 8 


1 11! 2 1 


2 4 


2 6 


2 9 


2 11 


3 2 


3 4 


6 


1 


1 6 




1 9 




2 



2 3 


2 6 


2 9 



3 
1 


3 3 


3 6 


3 9 


4 








1 


1 


1 


1 


— 


2 


1 


1 


1 


10 1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


— 


3 


1 


1 


1 


10 10 1 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


— 


6 


2 


2 


2 


2 3 3 


3 


3 


4 


4 


4 



Lei 


igth 


7 Inches Thick,— By 


fU 


m. 


7B 

4 


8B 


9B 


10 B. 
6 


11 B 

. 6 


12 B 

7 


13 B 14 B 


15 B 


16 B 


17 B 


1 


5 


5 


8 8 


9 


9 


9 


2- 


^- 


a 8 


9 


11 


1 


1-1 


-1..2 


- 1-3 


-1-4 


1 6 


^ 1 -7 


1- 8 


3 


— 


1 


1. 2 


1 4 


1 6 


1 7 


1.; 9 


1 11 


2 1 


.: 2 2 


2 4 


. 2^-6 


4 ■ 


— 


1 4 


1 7 


1 9 


1 11 


2 2 


2: 4 


2 6 


2 9 


2 11 


3 1 


. a- 4 


5 


— 


1 8 


1 11 


2 2 


2 5 


2' 8 


^ 2.11 


3 2 


3 5 


3. 8 


3 11 


.42 


6 


1 


2.1 



2 .4 



3 8 



2 11 



1 


3 6 
1 


3 10 


4 1 


4 5 
1 


4 8 


. &-0 





1 


1 


1 


1 


— 


2 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


2 


2 


— 


3 


1 


1 


1 


1 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


3 


— 


6 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3i 4 


4 


4I 5 


51 r. 



108 



LIGHTNING CALCULATOK. 



Lengtli 


8 Inches Tliick,- 


=^5r- 








ft- 


%n. 


8B 


9B 


10 B 


11 B 


12 B 


13 B 


14 B 


15 B 


16 B 
11 


17 B 


18 B 


1 


5 


6 


7 


7 


8 


9 


9 


10 


11 


1 


2 




11 


1 


1 1 


1 3 


1 4 


1 5 


1 7 


1 8 


1 9 


1 11 


2 


3 




1 4 


1 6 


1 8 


1 10 


2 


2 2 


2 4 


2 6 


2 8 


2 10 


3 


4 




1 9 


2 


2 3 


2 5 


2 81 2 11 


3 1 


3 4 


3 7 


3 9 


4 


5 




2 3 


2 6 


2 9 


3 1 


3 4i 3 7 


3 11 


4 2 


4 5 


4 9 


5 


6 


— 


2 8 


3 


3 4 


3 8 


4 


4 4 


4 8 


5 


5 4 


f 6 


6 





1 





1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


— 


2 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


— 


3 


1 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


3 


— 


6 


3 


3l 3 


4 


4 


4 


5 


5 


5 


6 


6 



Length 










9 Inches Thick,- 


-Bv 












ft- 


m. 


9B 


10 B 


11 B 


12 B 


13 B |14B 


15 B 


16 B 


17 B 


18 B 


19 B 


1 





7 


8 





8 


9 


10 


11 


11 


1 


1 


1 


1 


2 


1 3 


2 


— 


1 2 


1 3 


1 


5 


1 6 


1 8 


1 9 


1 11 


2 


2 


2 


2 


3 


2 5 


3 


— 


1 8 


1 11 


2 


1 


2 3 


2 5 


2 8 


2 10 


3 


3 


2 


3 


5 


3 7 


4 


— 


2 3 


2 6 


2 


9 


3 


3 3 


3 6 


3 9 


4 


4 


3 


4 


G 


4 9 


5 


— 


2 10 


3 2 


3 


5 


3 9 


4 1 


4 5 


4 8 


5 


5 


4 


5 


8 


5 11 


6 


— 


3 5 


3 9 


4 


2 


4 6 


4 11 


5 3 


5 8 


6 


6 


5 


6 


9 


7 2 





1 


1 


1 





1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 





1 





1 


1 





2 


1 


1 





1 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 





2 





2 


2 


__ 


3 


2 


2 





2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 





3 





3 


3 


— 


6 


3 


4 





4 


5 


5 


5 


6 


G 





6 





7 


7 



Length 










10 Inches Thick .- 


-Bv 








^/. 


in. 


10 B 


11 B 12 B 


13 B 


14 B 


15 B 


16 B 


17 B 


18 B 


19 B 


20 B 


1 


_. 


8 


9 


10 


11 


1 


1 1 


1 1 


1 2 


1 3 


1 4 


1 5 


2 





1 5 


1 6 


1 8 


1 10 


1 11 


2 1 


2 3 


2 4 


2 G 


2 8 


2 9 


3 





2 1 


2 4 


2 6 


2 9 


2 11 


3 2 


3 4 


3 7 


3 9 


4 


4 2 


4 





2 9 


3 1 


3 4 


3 7 


3 11 


4 2 


4 5 


4 9 


5 


5 3 


5 7 


5 





3 6 


3 10 


4 2 


4 G 


4 10 


5 3 


5 7 


5 11 


G 3 


6 7 


6 11 


6 


— 


4 2| 4 7 


5 


5 5 


5 10 


6 3 


6 8 


7 1 


7 G 


7 11 


8 4 





1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


— 


2 


1 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


— 


3 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


4 


4 


4 


4 




6 


4 


5 


5 


5 


6 


G 


7 


7 


8 


8 9 



Lergth 










11 Inches 


Thick 


-Bv 








ft- 


tn. 


11 B 


12 B 


13 B 


14 B 


15 B 


16 B 


17 B 


18 B 


19 B 


20 B 


21 B 


1 





10 


11 


1 





1 1 


1 2 


1 3 


1 4 


1 5 


1 5 


1 G 


1 G 


2 





1 8 


1 10 


2 





2 2 


2 4 


2 5 


2 7 


2 9 


2 11 


3 1 


3 3 


3 


— 


2 6 


2 9 


3 





3 3 


3 5 


3 8 


3 11 


4 2 


4 4 


4 7 


4 10 


4 


— 


3 4 


3 8 


4 





4 3 


4 7 


4 11 


5 2 


5 6 


5 10 


6 1 


6 5 


5 


— 


4 2 


4 7 


5 





5 4 


5 9 


6 1 


6 6 


G 11 


7 3 


7 8 


8 


6 


— 


5 1 


5 6 


6 





1 


6 5 


6 11 


7 4 


7 10 


8 3 


8 t 


9 2 


9 8 


__ 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


2 


2 


— 


2 


2 


2 





2 


2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 





3 


3 


3 





3 


3 


3 


4 


4 


4 


4 


5 


5 


— ^ 


6 


5 


6 


6 


6 


7 


7 


8 


8 


9 


9 


10 



LIGHTNING CALCULATOR. 



109 



Length 
ft.iin. 



=1^ 



12 Inches Thick,— By 
12 B 13Bil4B 15B 16B 17B 18 B 19 B 20 B 21 B 22 B 



a ( 



1 2 

2 4 

3 6 

4 8 

5 10 
7 



3 
6 
9 

3 
6 8 



1 1 11 1 

2 2 2 3 

3| 3 4 4 

6; 7l 7 8 



1 5 

2 10 

4 3 

5 8 

7 1 

8 6 



1| 1 

31 3 

4| 4 

8l 



1 7 

3 2 

4 9 

6 4 

7 11 
9 6 



2 2 

3 3 

5 5 

91 10 



Lengtin 



13 Inches Thick.— By 




fi' 


in- 


13 B 


14 B 


15 B 


16 B 17 


B 

6 


18 B 

1 8 


19 B 


20 B 


21 B 


22 B 


23 B 


1 





1 2 


1 


3 1 


4 


15 1 


1 9 


1 10 


1 11 


2 


2 1 


2 


— 


2 4 


2 


6 2 


9 


2 11 3 


1 


3 3 


3 5 


3 7 


3 10 


4 


4 2 


3 


— 


3 G 3 


10 4 


1 


4 4 4 


7 


4 11 


5 2 


5 5 


5 8 


6 


6 3 


4 


— 


4 8 5 


li 5 


5 


5 9 (5 


2 


G 6 


6 10 


7 3 


7 7 


7 11 


8 4 


5 


— 


5 10 6 


4! 6 


9 


7 3 7 


8 


8 2 


8 7 


9 


9 6 


9 11 


10 5 


6 


— 


7 1 7 


7 


8 


2 

1 


8 8 9 


3 
2 


9 9 
0. 2 


10 4 


10 10 


11 5 


nil 


12 6 





1 


10 


1 





1 


2 


2 2 


2 


3 


— 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


4 


4 


4 


4 


— 


3 


4 


4| 


4 


4 


5 


5 


5 


5 


6 


6 


6 


.^ 


6 


7i 


81 


8 


9 


9 


10 


10 


11 


11 


10 10 



Length! 
/t.in. I 



14 Inches Thick. 
14 B 15 B 16 B 17 B 18 B 119 B 20 B 



1 4 

2 9 

4 1 

5 5 
G 10 
8 2 



1 
3 
4 



1 G 

2 11 

4 5 

5 10 

7 4 



8 9 9 



8 



6 7 

8 3 

9 11 



2 
3 
5 
10 



1 9 

3 6 

5 3 

7 

8 9 
10 G 



1 10 
3 8 
5 7 
7 5 
9 3 



1 11 
3 11 
5 10 

7 9 
9 9 



-By 
21 B 22 B 23 B 24 B 



11 in 11 8i 



2 
4 
6 
8 
10 
12 



Length! 



2 2 2 

4 4 4 

5 6 6 

111 1 01 1 

15 Inches Thick, 



2 

4 

6 

1 



2 
4 
6 
8 
10 



2 3 
4 6 
6 t 
8 11 
11 2 



12 10 13 5 



2 

4 

G 

1 1 



2 

4 

7 

1 1 



2 4 
5 10 
7 
9 4 
11 8 
14 



2 

5 

7 

1 1 



-By 



ft. 


in- 


15 B 


16 B 


17 B 


18 B 


19 B 


20 B 


21 B 


22 B 


23 B 


24 B 


25 B 


1 





1 7 


1 8 


1 9 1 11 2 2 1 


2 2 


2 4 


2 5 


2 G 


2 7 


2 


— 


3 2 


3 4 


3 7 3 9 4 


4 2 


4 5 


4 7 


4 10 


5 


5 3 


3 


— 


4 8 


5 


5 4 5 81 5 11 


G 3 


6 7 


6 11 


7 2 


7 G 


7 10 


4 


— 


6 3 


6 8 


7 1 


7 61 7 11 


8 4 


8 9 


9 2 


9 7 


10 


10 5 


5 


— 


7 10 


8 4 


8 10 


9 5 9 ll!]0 5 


10 11 


11 G 


12 


12 G 13 


6 


— 


9 5 


10 



2 


10 8 


11 3!ll 11 


12 G 


13 2 


13 9 


14 5 


15 


15 8 





1 


2 


2 


2! 2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


— 


2 


3 


3 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


5 


5 


5 


5 


— 


3 


5 


5 


5: 6 


6 


G 


7 


7 


7 


8 


8 


— 


6 


9 


10 


ii! 11 


1 0; 1 1 


1 2 


1 2 


1 2 


1 3 


1 3 



110 



LIGHTNING CALCULATOR. 



]^>ei)^lh 


IG Inches Thick, — I3v 


ft- 


in. 


16 B 


17 B 


18 B 


19 B 


20 B 


21 B 


22 B 


23 B 


24 B 


25 B 


26 B 


1 


1 9 


1 11 


2 


2 1 


2 3 


2 4 


2 5 


2 7 


2 8 


2 9 


2 10 


2 


— 


3 7 


3 9 


4 


4 3 


4 5 


4 8 


4 11 


5 1 


5 4 


6 7 


5 10 


3 


— 


5 4 


5 8 


6 


6 4 


6 8 


7 


7 4 


7 8 


8 


8 4 


8 8 


4 





7 1 


7 7 


8 


8 5 


8 11 


9 4 


9 9 


10 3 


10 8 


11 1 


11 7 


5 





8 11 


9 5 


10 0|10 7 


11 1 


11 8 


12 3 


12 9 


13 4 


13 11 


14 5 


6 


1 


10 8 


11 4 


12 12 8 


13 4 


14 14 8 


15 4 


16 


16 8 


17 4 





2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


3 


— 


2 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


5 


5 


5 


5 


6 


6 


— 


3 


5 


6 


6 


6 


7 


7 


7 


8 


8 


8 


8 


— 


G 


11 


11 


1 


1 1 


1 1 


1 2J 1 3 


1 3' 1 4 


1 5 


1 6 


LeiigLliI 


17 Inches Thick.— Bv 


ft- 


in. 


1TB 


18 B 


19 B 20 B 


21 B i22 B 

1 


23 B 


24 B 


25 B 


26 B 


27B 


1 





2 


2 2 


2 3 


2 4 


2 6 2 7 


2 9 


2 10 


2 11 


3 1 


3 2 


2 


— 


4 


4 3 


4 6 


4 9 


5 5 2 


5 5 


5 8 


5 11 


6 2 


6 5 


3 


— 


6 


6 5 


6 9 


7 1 


7 5 7 10 


8 2 


8 6 


8 10 


9 3 


9 7 


4 


— 


8 


8 6 


9 


9 5 


9 11 10 5 


10 10 


11 4 


11 10 


12 3 


12 9 


5 


— 


10 


10 8 


11 3 


11 10 


12 5 13 


13 7 


14 2 


14 9 


15 4 


15 11 


6 


1 


12 1 
2 


12 9 


13 6 


14 2 


14 11 


15 7 


16 4 


17 


17 9 


18 5 


19 2 





2 


2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


4 


— 


2 


4 


4 


4 


5 


5 


5 


5 


6 


6 


6f 6 


— 


3 


6 


6 


7 


7 


7 


8 


8 


9 


9 


9 


10 


— 


6 


1 


1 1 


1 1 


1 2 


1 3 


1 4 


14 15 


1 6 


1 6 


1 7 


Leiisth 


18 Inches Thick,— Bv 


ft. 


in. 


18 B 


19 B 


20 B 


21 B 


22 B 23 B 


24 B 


25 B 


26 B 


27B 


28B 


1 





2 3 


2 5 


2 e 


2 8 


2 9 2 11 


3 


3 2 


3 3 


3 6 


3 6 


2 


— 


4 6 


4 9 


5 


5 3 


5 6 5 9 


6 


6 3 


6 6 


6 9 


7 


3 


— 


6 9 


7 2 


7 6 


7 11 


8 3 8 8 


9 


9 5 


9 9 


10 2 


10 6 


4 


— 


9 


9 6 


10 


10 6 11 OJU 6 


12 


12 6 


13 


13 6 


14 


5 


— 


11 3lll 11 


12 6 13 2 13 9il4 5 


15 


15 8 


16 3 


16 11 17 6 


6 


— . 


13 6 14 3 


15 15 9 16 6jl7 3 


18 


18 9 


19 6 


20 3 21 





1 


2 2 


3 3 


3 3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


4 





2 


5 5 


5 5 


6 


6 


6 


6 


7 


7 


7 


— 


3 


7 7 


8 8 


8 


9 


9 


9 


10 


10 


11 


— 


6 


12 12 


1 3 1 4 1 5' 1 5 


1 6 


1 7 


1 8 


1 8 


1 9 


Length 


19 Inches Thick,— Bv 


ft- 


in. 


19 B 


20 B 


21 B 


22B 


23 B 


24 B 


25 B 


26 B 


27 B 


28 B 


29 B 


1 





2 6 


2 8 


2 9 


2 11 


3 


3 2 


3 4 


3 5 


3 7 


3 8 


3 10 


2 


— 


5 


5 3 


5 7 


5 10 


6 1 


6 4 


6 7 


6 10 


7 2 


7 5 


7 8 


o 


- 17 G 


7 11 


8 4 


8 9 


9 1 


9 6 


9 11 


10 4 


10 8 


11 1 11 6 


4 


— 


10 


10 7 


11 1 11 7112 2 


12 8 


13 2 13 9 


14 3 


14 9 15 4 


5 


— 


12 6 


13 2 


13 10 14 6 15 2 


15 10 


16 6 


17 2 


17 10 


18 6 


19 2 


6 


— 


15 1 


15 10 


16 8 
3 


17 5 18 3 

1 


19 


19 10 


20 7 


21 5 


22 2 


23 


— 


1 


3 


3 


3^0 3 


3 


3 


3 


4 


4 


4 


— 


2 


5 


5 


6 


61 6 


6 


7 


7 


7 


7 


8 


-■ — 


3 


8 


8 


6 


9| 9 


10 


10 


10 


11 


11 


1 Sl 


— 


6 


1 3 


1 4 


1 5 1 5! 1 6! 1 7 


IS 2 9' 


1 9 


1 10 


1 11 



LIGHTNING CALCULATOR. 



Ill 



2^nc!ie8 Thick,— B^^^""^~"^^"" 
20 B 21 B 22 B 23 B 24 B 25 B 26 B 27 B 28 B 29 B 30 B 



Length 
//. in 



2 9 

5 7 

8 4 

11 1 

13 11 

16 8 



3 

6 

8 

1 5 



2 11 

5 10 

8 9 

11 8 

14 7 

17 6 



3 

6 

9 

1 6 



3 

6 

9 

1 6 



3 2 

6 5 

9 7 

12 9 

16 

19 2 



3 4 

6 8 

10 

13 4 

16 8 

20 



3 
6 

10 

1 7 



3 
7 

10 

1 8 



3 6 
6 11 
10 5 
13 11 
17 4 
20 10 



3 

7 

10 

1 9 



3 7 
7 3 
10 10 
14 5 
18 1 
21 8 



4 
7 

11 

1 10 



3 9 

7 6 

11 3 

15 



18 

22 



4 
8 

11 

1 11 



3 11 

7 9 



11 
15 
19 
23 



4 

8 

1 
1 11 



4 

8 1 

12 1 

16 1 



20 
24 



4 

8 

1 

2 



4 2 

8 5 

12 8 

16 5 

20 i: 

25 I 

'. 
C i 

1 1 

2 1 



Length 


21 Inches Thick.— Bv 






/t 


'in. 


21 B 


22 B 


23 B 124 B 


25 B 


26 B 


27 B 


28 B 


29 B 


SOB 


SIB 


1 


__ 


3 1 


3 3 


3 4! 3 6 


3 8 


3 10 


3 11 


4 1 


4 3 


4 5 


4 7 


2 


— 


6 2 


6 5 


6 9 


7 


7 4 


7 7 


7 11 


8 2 


8 6 


8 9 


9 


3 


— 


9 2 


9 8 


10 1 


10 6 


10 11 


11 5 


11 10 


12 3 


12 8 


13 2 


13 7 


4 


— 


12 3 


12 10 


13 5 


14 


14 7 


15 2 


15 9 


16 4 


16 11 


17 6 


18 1 


5 


— 


15 4116 1 


16 9 


17 6 


18 3 


19 


19 8 


20 5 


21 2 


21 11 


22 7 


6 


— 


18 5 19 3 


20 2 


21 


21 11 


22 9 


23 8 


24 6 


25 5 


26 3 


27 2 





1 


3l 3 


3 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


— 


2 


6 


6 


7 


7 


7 


8 


8 


8 


8 


9 


9 


— 


3 


9 


10 


10 


11 


11 


11 


1 


1 


1 1 


1 1 


1 2 


— 


6 


1 6 


1 7 


1 8 


1 9 


1 10 


1 11' 2 


2 1 


2 1 


2 2 


2 3 


Length 


22 Inches Thick,— Bv 






ft- 


m. 


22 B 


23 B 


24 B 


25 B 


26 B 


27 B 


28 B 


29 B 


SOB 


31 B 


32 B 


1 





3 4 


3 6 


3 8 


3 10 


4 


4 2 


4 3 


4 5 


4 7 


4 9 


4 11 


2 


— 


6 9 


7 


7 4 


7 8 


7 11 


8 3 


8 7 


8 10 


9 2 


9 6 


10 


3 


— 


10 1 


10 7 


11 


11 6 


11 11 


12 5 


12 10 


13 4 


13 9 


14 3 


17 1 


4 


— 


13 5 


14 1 


14 8 


15 3 


15 11 


16 6 


17 1 


17 9 


18 4 


18 11 


19 7 


5 


— 


16 10 


17 7 


18 4 


19 1 


19 10 20 8 


21 5 


22 2 


22 11 


23 8 


24 5 


6 


— 


20 2 21 1 


22 


22 11 23 10 


24 9 


25 8 


26 7 


27 6 


28 5 29 4 


__ 


1 


3 4 


4 


4 4 


4 


4 


4 


5 


5 


5 


— 


2 


7 7 


7 


8 8 


8 


9 


9 


9 


9 


10 


— 


3 


10 11 


11 


OHIO 


1 


1 1 


1 1 


1 2 


1 2 


1 2 


— 


6 


18 19 


1 10 


1 11 2 


2 1 


2 2 


2 3 


2 4 


2 4 


2 6 


Length, 


23 Inches Thick,— By 






ju 


t?i. 


23 B 


24 B 25 B 


26 B 27 B 1 


28 B 


29 B 


30 B 


31 B 


32 B 


33 B 


1 





3 8 


3 10 4 a 


4 2 


4 4 


4 6 


4 8 


4 10 


4 11 


5 1 


5 2 


2 


— 


7 4 


7 8 


8 


8 4 


8 8 


8 11 


9 3 


9 7 


9 11 


10 3 


10 7 


3 


— 


11 


U 6 


12 


12 6 


12 11 


13 15 


13 11 


14 5 


14 10 


15 4 


15 10 


4 


— 


14 8 


15 4 


16 


16 7 


17 3 


17 11 


18 6 


19 2 


19 10 


20 5 


21 1 


5 


— 


18 4 


19 2 20 20 9' 


21 7 


22 4 


23 2 


24 


24 9 


25 7 


26 4 


6 


1 


22 1 


23 24 24 11 


25 11 


26 10 


27 10 


28 9 


29 9 


30 8 


31 8 


__ 


4 


4 


4 


4I 


4 


4 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


— 


2 


7 


8 


8 


8 


9 


9 


9 


10 


10 


10 


11 


— 


3 


11 


1 


1 


1 


1 1 


1 1 


1 2 


1 2 


1 3 


1 3 


1 4 


~' 


6 


1 10 


1 11 


2 2 ll 


2 21 


2 3 


2 4 


2 5 


2 6 


2 7 


2 8 



112 



LIGHTNING CALCULATOR. 



LeiiQith 


24 Inches Thick,— Bv 


■^^ 


ft. 


in 


24 B 


25 B 


26 B 


27 B j28 B 


!29B 

1 


30 B 


31 B 


32 B 


33B 


34 B 


1 





4 


4 2 


4 4 


4 6| 4 8 


4 10 


5 


5 2 


5 4 


5 6 


5 8 


2 


— 


8 


8 A 


8 8 


9 01 9 4 


9 8 


10 


10 A 


10 8 


11 


11 4 


3 


— 


12 


12 6 


13 


!13 6I14 


14 6 


15 


15 6 


16 


16 6 


17 


4 


— 


16 


16 8 


17 4 


|18 0,18 8 


19 A 


20 


20 8 


21 4 


22 


22 8 


5 


— 


20 


,20 10 


|21 8 


22 623 4 


24 2 


25 0] 25 10 


26 8 


27 6 


28 4 


6 


— 


24 


25 


|26 


27 0,28 

1 


29 
5 


30 31 


32 


33 


34 





1 


4 


4 


1 4 


51 5 


5 


5 


5 


6 


6 


— 


2 


8 


8 


1 9 


9 


9 


10 


10 


10 


11 


11 


11 


— 


3 


1 


1 1 


1 1 


1 2 


1 2 


1 3 


1 3 


1 4 


1 4 


1 5 


1 5 


— 


6 


2 


2 1 


2 2 


2 3 


2 4 


2 51 2 61 2 7 


2 8 


2 9 


2 10 


Length 


25 Inches Thick,— Bv 




ft- 


m. 


25 B 


26 B 


27 B 28 B 


29 B 
5 


30 B 
5 3 


31 B 


32 B 


33 B 

5 9 


34 B 


35 B 


1 





4 4 


4 6 


4 8 4 10 


5 5 


5 7 


5 11 


6 1 


2 


— 


8 8 


9 


9 S'i 9 9 


10 1 


10 5 


10 9 


11 1 


11 6 


11 10 


12 2 


3 




13 


13 7 


14 1114 7 


15 1 


15 8 


16 2| 16 8 


17 2 


17 9 


18 3 


4 




17 4 


18 1 


18 9|19 5 


20 2 


20 10 


21 6 


22 3 


22 11 


23 7 


24 4 


5 




21 8 


22 7 


23 5;24 4 


25 2 


26 1 


26 11 


27 9 


28 8 


29 G 


30 5 


6 


— 


26 1 


27 1 


28 2 [29 2 


30 3 


31 3 


32 4 


33 4 


34 5 


35 5 


36 6 





1 ^ 


4 


5 


5 5 


5 


5 


5 


6 


6 


6 


6 





2 


9 


9 


9 10 


10 


10 


11 


11 


11 


1 


1 


— 


3 


1 1 


1 2 


12 13 


1 3 


1 4 


1 4 


1 5 


1 5 


1 6 


1 7 


— 


6 


2 2 


2 3 


3 4 2 5 


2 6 


2 7 


2 8 


2 9 


2 10 


2 11 


3 


Length 


26 Inches Thick,— Bv 




/^ 


m. 


26 B 127 B 128 B 


29 B 


30 B 


31 B 


32 B 


33 B 34 B 


35 B 


36 B 


1 





4 sl 4 11 5 1 


5 3 


5 5 


5 7 


5 9 


6 6 2 


6 4 


6 6 


2 


— 


9 5i 9 9 10 1 


10 6 


10 10 


11 2 


11 7 


11 11 12 3 


12 8 


13 


3 


— 


14 1 14 8 15 2 


15 9 


16 3 


16 10 


17 4 


17 11 18 5 


19 


19 6 


4 


— 


18 9 19 6'20 3 


20 11 


21 S22 6 


23 1 


23 10 24 7 


25 3 


26 


5 


— 


23 6 24 0125 3 


26 2 


27 128 


28 11 


29 10 


30 8 


31 7 


32 


6 


— 


28 2 29 3^30 4 


31 5 32 6| 


33 7 34 8 


35 9 


36 10 1 37 11 


39 





1 


5 


5 5 


5 


5 


6 


6 


6 


6 


6 


7 


— 


2 


9 


10 10 


10 


11 


11 


1 


1 


1 


1 1 


1 1 




3 


1 2 


13 13 


1 4 


1 4 


1 5 


1 5 


1 6 


1 6 


1 7 


1 8 


— 


6 


1 4 2 5' 2 6 


2 7 


2 9l 


2 10 


2 11 


3 


3 1 


3 2 


3 3 


LeugtEl 


27 inches Thick,- By 




ft- 


in. 


27 B 


28 B 


29 B 


SOB 


31 B 


32 B 


33 B 


34 B 


35 B 


36 B 


37 B 


1 


5 1 


5 3 


5 5 


5 8 


5 10 


6 


6 2 


6 5 


6 7 


6 9 


6 11 


2 


— 


10 2 


10 6 


10 11 


11 3 


11 8 


12 


12 5 


12 9 


13 2 


13 6 


13 10 


3 


— 


15 2 


15 9 


16 4 


16 11 


17 5 


18 


18 7 


19 2 


19 8 


20 3 


20 10 


4 


— 


20 3 


21 


21 9 


22 6 23 3 


24 01 


24 9 


25 6 


26 3 


27 


27 9 


5 


— 


25 4 


26 3 


27 2 


28 2i29 1 30 O! 


30 11 


31 11 


32 10 


33 9 


34 8 


6 


— 


30 5 


31 6 


32 8 


33 9 


34 11 38 


37 2 


38 3 


39 5 


40 6 
7 


41 8 


._ 


1 


5 


5 


5 


6 


6 6 


6 


6 


7 


7 





2 


10 


11 


11 


11 


1 


1 


1 


1 1 


1 1 


1 2 


1 2 





3 


1 3 


1 4 


1 4 


1 5 


1 5 


1 6 


1 7 


1 7 


1 8 


1 8 


1 S 


— 


6 


2 6 2 8l 2 9l 2 lOl 2 111 


3 3 ll 


3 2 3 31 


3 5 


3 7 



LIGHTNING CALCULATOK. 



113 



Length 




ft 


in. 


28 B 


29 B 


30 B 


31 B 


32 B 


33B 


34 B 


35 B 


1 36 B 


37 B 38 B 


1 





5 fi 


8 


5 10 


6 C 


6 S 


6 5 


6 7 


6 IC 


7 


7 2 7 4 


2 


— 


10 11 


11 3 


11 8 


12 ] 


12 5 


12 10 


13 3 


13 1 


14 C 


14 5 14 10 


3 


— 


16 ^ 


16 11 


17 6 


18 1 


18 8 


19 3 


19 10 


20 t 


21 


21 'i 


1 21 11 


4 





521 9 


22 7 


23 4 


24 1 


24 11 


25 8 


26 6 


27 a 


28 


28 9| 29 7 


6 


— 


27 - 3|28 2 


29 2 


30 2 


31 ] 


32 1 


33 ] 


34 


35 


36 C 


> 36 11 


6 


— 


32 8 


33 10 
6 


35 
6 


36 2 
6 


37 4 
6 


38 6 


39 8 


40 10 


42 


43 5 


44 4 





1 


5 


6 


7 


7 


7 


7 


7 


— 


2 


11 


11 


1 


1 


1 


1 1 


1 1 


1 2 


1 2 


1 2 


1 2 


— 


3 


1 4 


1 5 


1 6 


1 6 


1 7 


1 7 


1 8 


1 8 


1 9 


1 10 


1 11 


—1 6 


2 9 


2 10 


2 11 


3 


3 1 


3 3 


3 4 


3 4 


3 6 


3 7 


3 8 


Leiigtn 


29 Inches Thick, — By 


ft- 


in. 


29 B 


30 B 


31 B 


32 B 


33 B 


34 B 


35 B 


36 B 


37 B 


38 B 


39 B 


1 





5 10 


6 1 


6 3 


6 5 


6 8 


6 10 


7 1 


7 3 


7 5 


7 8 


7 11 


2 


— 


U 8 


12 1 


12 6 


12 11 


13 4 


13 8 


14 1 


14 6 


14 11 


15 4 


15 9 


3 


— 


17 6 


18 2 


18 9 


19 4 


19 11 


20 7 


21 2 


21 9 


22 4 


23 


23 8 


4 


— 


23 i 


24 2 


25 


25 9 


26 7 


27 5 


28 2 


29 


29 10 


30 7 


31 5 


5 


— 


29 2 


30 3 


31 3 


32 3 


33 3 


34 3 


35 3 


36 3 


37 3 


38 3 


39 3 


6 


— 


35 1 


36 3 


37 6 
6 


38 8 
6 


39 11 


41 1 


42 4 


43 6 


44 9 


45 11 


47 2 





1 


6 


G 


7 


7 


7 


7 


7 


8 


8 


— 


2 


1 


1 


1 


1 1 


1 1 


1 2 


1 2 


1 3 


1 3 


1 3 


1 4 


— 


3 


1 6 


1 6 


1 7 


1 7 


1 8 


1 9 


1 9 


1 10 


1 10 


1 11 


1 11 


— 


6 


2 11 


3 


3 1 


3 3 


3 4 


3 5 


3 6 


3 8 


3 9 


3 10 


3 11 


I^eiigthi 30 Inclies 


:hicic,— By 


ft- 


in. 


SOB 


31 B 


32 B 


33 B 


34B 


35B 


36 B 


37 B 


38 B 


39 B 


40 B 


1 


6 3 


6 6 


6 8 


6 11 


7 1 


7 4 


7 6 


7 9 


7 11 


8 2 


8 4 


2 


— 


12 6 12 Hi 


13 4 


13 9 


14 2 


14 7 


15 


15 5 


15 10 


16 3 


16 8 


3 


— 


18 9 


19 5 


20 


20 8 


21 3 


21 11 


22 6 


23 2 


23 9 


24 5 


25 1 


4 


— 


25 


25 10 


26 8 


27 6 


28 4 


29 2 


30 


30 10 


31 8 


32 6 


33 4 


5 


— 


:31 3 


32 4 


33 4 


34 5 


a5 6 


36 6 


37 6 


38 7 


39 7 


40 8 


41 8 


G 


— 


37 6 


38 9 


40 


41 3 


42 6 


43 9 


45 


46 3 


47 6 


48 9 


50 




1 


6 


6 


7 


7 


7 


7 


8 


8 


8 


8 


5 




2 


1 1 


1 1 


1 1 


1 2 


1 2 


1 3 


1 3 


1 3 


1 4 


1 4 


1 1 


— 


3 


1 7 


1 7 


1 8 


1 9 


1 9 


1 ID 


1 11 


1 11 


2 


2 


2 2 


— 


6 


3 2 


3 3 


3 4 


3 5 


3 7 


3 8 


3 9 


3 10 


4 


4 1 


4 9 


Lengtli 


31 Inches Thick,— By 


ft- in. 


31 B 


32 B 


33 B 

7 1 


34 B 


35 B 


36 B 


37 B 


38 B 


39 B 


40 B 


41 B 


1 - 


6 8 


6 11 


7 4 


7 6 


7 9 


8 


8 2 


8 5 


8 7 


8 8 


2 - 


13 4 


13 9 


14 3 


14 8 


15 1 


15 6 


15 11 


16 4 


16 10 


17 3 


17 8 


3 


— 


20 


20 8 


21 4 


22 


22 7 


23 3 


23 11 


24 7 


25 2 


25 10 


26 6 


4 


— 


26 8 


27 7 28 5I 


29 3| 


30 2 


31 


31 10 


32 9 


33 7 


34 5 


35 4 


5 


— 


33 4 


34 5 35 6|36 7 


37 8 


38 9 


39 10 


40 11 


42 


43 1 


44 2 


6 


— 


40 1 


41 4 42 8'43 11 


45 3 


16 6 


47 10 


49 1 


50 5 


61 8 


53 





1 


7 


7 7 


7 


8 


8 


8 


8 


8 


9 


9 


— 


2 


1 1 


12 12 


1 3 


1 3 


1 4 


1 4 


1 4 


1 5 


1 5 


1 5 


— 


3 


1 8 


1 9 1 1.3 


1 10 


1 11 


1 11 


2 


2 1 


2 1 


2 2 


2 2 


^^ 


6 3 41 


3 5 3 80 


3 8 


3 9 


3 11 4 Ol 


4 1 


4 2 


4 4 


4 4 



114 



LIGHTNING CALCULATOR. 



J.'ei/gtli 


■^ 


32 


[nches Thick,— By 




ft- 


in. 


32 B 

7 1 


33 B 


34 B 


35 B 


36 B 


37 B 


38 B 


39 B 


40 B 


41 B 


42 B 


1 


7 4 


7 7 


7 9 


8 





8 3 


8 5 


8 8 


8 11 


9 1 


9 4 


2 


— 


14 


3 


14 8 


15 1 


15 7 


16 





16 5 


16 11 


17 4 


17 9 


18 3 


18 9 


3 


— 


21 


4 


22 


22 8 


23 4|24 





24 8 


25 4 


26 


26 8 


27 4 


28 


4 


— 


28 


5 


29 4 


30 3 


31 1132 





32 11 


33 9 


34 8 


35 7 


36 5 


37 4 


5 


— 


35 


7 


36 8 


37 9 


38 11 


40 





41 1 


42 3 


43 4 


44 5 


45 7 


46 8 


6 


— 


42 


8 


44 


45 4 


46 8 


48 





49 4 


50 8 


52 


53 4 


64 8 


56 





1 





7 


7 


8 


8 





8 


8 


8 


9 


9 


9 


9 


— 


2 


1 


2 


1 3 


1 3 


1 4 


1 


4 


1 4 


1 5 


1 6 


1 6 


1 6 


1 7 


: — 


3 


1 


9 


1 10 


1 11 


1 11 


2 





2 1 


2 1 


2 2 


2 3 


2 3 


2 4 


— 


6 


3 


7 


3 8 


3 9 


3 11 


4 





4 1 


4 3 


4 4 


4 5 


4 7 


4 8 



Len^thj 


33 Inches Thick,— By 




ft. 


tn. 


33 B 


34 B 


35 B 


36 B 


37 B 


38 B 


39 B 


40 B 


41 B 


42 B 


43 B 


1 


" 


7 7 


7 10 


8 


8 


3 


8 6 


8 9 


8 11 


9 2 


9 5 


9 « 


9 11 


2 


— 


15 2 


15 7 


16 1 


16 


6 


17 


17 5 


17 11 


18 4 


18 10 


19 3 


19 9 


3 


— 


22 8 


23 5 


24 1 


24 


9 


25 5 


26 2 


26 10 


27 6 


28 2 


28 11 


29 7 


4 


— 


30 3 


31 2 


32 1 


33 





33 11 


34 10 


35 9 


36 8 


37 7 


38 6 


39 5 


6 


— 


37 10 


39 


40 1 


41 


3 


42 5 


43 7 


44 8 


45 10 


47 


48 2 


49 3 


6 


— 


45 5 


46 948 2 


49 


6 


50 11 


52 3 


53 8 


55 


56 5 


57 9 


59 2 





1 


8 


8 


8 





8 


8 


9 


9 


9 


9 


10 


10 


— 


2 


1 3 


1 4 


1 4 


1 


5 


1 5 


1 5 


1 6 


1 6 


1 7 


1 7 


1 8 


— 


3 


1 11 


1 11 


2 


2 


1 


2 1 


2 2 


2 3 


2 4 


2 4 


2 5 


2 5 


— 


6 


3 9 


3 11 


4 


4 


2 


4 3 


4 4 


4 6 


4 7 


4 8 


4 10 


5 



Leugth ^^^^^^^^^^^^sTlujche^Tlnck^ 
//5. i«. 34 B 35 B 36 B 37 B 38 B 39 B 40 B 



8 

1 4 

2 
4 



8 3 
16 6 
24 10 
33 1 
41 4 
49 7 



8 

1 5 

2 1 
4 2 




9 
17 11 
26 11 
35 11 
44 10 
53 10 



9 

1 6 

2 3 
4 6 



18 5 
27 8 
36 10 
46 1 
55 3 



9 

1 6 

2 4 

4 7 



-By 
41 B 42 B 43 B 44 B 



9 5 
18 11 
28 4 
37 9 
47 3 
56 8 



9 

1 7 

2 4 
4 9 



9 
19 
29 
38 
48 
58 



10 

1 7 

2 5 
4 10 



9 11 
19 10 
29 9 
39 8 
49 7 
59 6 



10 

1 8 

2 6 
5 



10 
20 
30 
40 
50 



60 11 



10 

1 8 

2 6 
5 1 



10 4 
20 10 
31 2 
41 7 
51 11 
62 4 



10 

1 9 

2 7 
5 2 



Lengthi 


35 Inches 


Thick,— By 




ft- 


tn 


35 B 


36 B 


37 B 


38 B 


39 B 


40 B 


41 B 


42 B 


43 B 


44B 


45 B 


1 


^ 


8 6 


8 9 


9 


9 3 


9 6 


9 9 


10 


10 6 


10 5 


10 8 


10 10 


2 


— 


17 


17 6 


18 


18 9 


19 


19 5 


19 11 


20 5 


20 11 


21 5 


21 11 


3 


— 


25 e 


26 3 


27 


27 9 28 6 


29 2 


29 11 


30 8 


31 4 


32 1 


32 9 


4 





34 


35 


36 


36 11 37 11 


38 11 


39 10 


40 10 


41 10 


42 9 


43 9 


5 


_. 


42 6 


43 9 


45 


46 2 47 5 


48 7 


49 10 


51 1 


52 3 


53 6 


54 8 


6. 




51 1 


52 6 


54 


55 5 


56 11 


58 4 


59 10 


61 3 


62 9 


64 2 


65 8 





1 


9 


9 


9 


9 


9 


10 


10 


10 


10 


11 


11 


— 


2 


1 5 


1 6 


1 6 


1 6 


1 7 


1 7 


1 8 


1 8 


1 9 


1 9 


1 10 


— 


3 


2 2 


2 2 


2 3 


2 4 


2 4 


2 5 


2 6 


2 7 


2 7 


2 8 


2 8 




6 


4 3 


4 5 


4 6 


4 7 


4 9 


4 10 


5 


5 1 


5 3 


5 4 


5 6 





























LIGHTNING CALCULATOR. 



115 



Length 


36 Inches Thick, By 


ft. 


in. 


36 B 


37 B 


38 B 


39 B 


40 B 


41 B 


42 B 


43 B 


44B 


45 B 


46 B 


1 





9 


9 3 


9 6 


9 9 


10 


10 3 


10 6 


10 9 


11 


U 3 


11 6 


2 


— 


18 


18 6 


19 


19 6 


20 


20 6 


21 


21 6 


22 


22 6 


23 


3 


— 


27 


27 9 


28 6 


29 3 


30 


30 9 


31 6 


32 3 


33 


33 9 


34 6 


4 


— 


36 


37 38 


39 40 


41 


42 


43 


44 


45 


46 


5 


— 


4.) 


46 3 47 6 


48 9 50 


51 3 


52 6 


53 9 


55 


56 3 


57 6 


6 


— 


54 


55 657 

1 


58 6 60 


61 6 


63 


64 6 


66 


67 6 


69 


_rr 


1 


9 


9 


10 


10 


10 


10 


11 


11 


11 


11 


1 


— 


2 


1 6 


1 7 


1 7 


1 8 


1 8 


1 9 


1 9 


1 10 


1 10 


1 11 


1 11 


— 


3 


2 3 


2 4 


2 5 


■2 5 


2 6 


2 7 


2 8 


2 8 


2 9 


2 10 


2 11 


— 


6 


4 6 


4 8 


4 9 


4 11 


5 


5 2 


5 3 


5 6 


5 6 


5 8 


5 9 



Length 


37 Inches Thick, — By 


ft- 


Ml. 


37 B 38 B 

1 


39 B [40 B 41 B 


42 B 


43 B 


44B 


45 B 


46 B 


47 B 


1 





9 6 


9 9 


10 


10 3 


10 6 


10 10 


11 1 


11 4 


11 7 


11 10 


12 1 


2 


— 


19 


19 6 


20 1 


20 7 


21 1|21 7 


22 1 


22 7 


23 2 


23 8 


24 2 


3 


— 


28 6 


29 4 


30 1 


30 10 


31 7 


32 5 


33 2 


33 11 


34 8 


35 6 


36 3 


4 


— 


38 


39 1 


40 1 


41 1 


42 2 


43 2 


44 2 


45 3 


46 3 


47 3 


48 4 


5 


— 


47 6 


48 10150 1 


51 5152. 8 


54 


55 3 


56 6 


57 10 


59 1 


60 5 


6 


— 


57 1 


58 7 


60 2 


61 8 


63 3 


64 9 


66 4 


67 10 


69 5 


70 11 


72 6 





1 


10 


10 


10 


10 


11 


11 


11 


11 


1 


1 


1 


■ — 


2 


1 7 


1 8 


1 8 


1 9 


1 9 


1 10 


1 10 


1 11 


1 11 


2 


2 


— 


3 


2 5 


2 5 


2 6 


2 7 


2 8 


2 8 


2 9 


2 10 


2 11 


2 11 


3 


— 


6 


4 9 


4 11 


5 


5 2 


5 3 


5 5 


5 6 


5 8 


5 9 


5 11 


6 



Jjeiigth 


38 Inches Thick, — Bv 


ft. 


xn. 


38 B 
10 


39 B 


40 B 


41 B 


42B 


43 B 


44B 


45 B 


46 B 


47 B 


48 B 


1 


10 4 


10 7 


10 10 


11 1 


11 4 


n 7 


11 11 


12 2 


12 5 


12 8 


2 


— 


20 1 


20 7 


21 1 


21 8 


22 2 


22 8 


23 3 


23 9 


24 3 


24 10 


25 5 


3 


— 


30 1 


30 11 


31 8 


32 6i33 3 


34 1 


34 10 


35 8 


36 5 


37 3 


38 


4 


— 


40 1 


41 2 


42 3 


43 3 44 4 


45 5 


46 5 


47 6 


48 7 


49 7 


50 8 


5 


— 


50 2 


51 6 


52 9 


54 155 5 


56 9 


58 1 


59 5 


60 8 


62 


63 4 


6 


— 


60 2 


61 9 


63 4 


64 11 


66 6 


68 1 


69 8 


71 3 


72 10 


74 5 


76 





1 


10 


10 


11 


11 


11 


11 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 1 


— 


2 


1 8 


1 9 


1 9 


1 10 


1 10 


1 11 


1 11 


2 


2 


2 1 


2 2 


— 


3 


2 6 


2 7 


2 8 


2 8 


2 9 


2 10 


2 11 


3 


3 


3 1 


3 1 


— 


6 


5 


5 2 


5 3 


5 5 


5 7 


5 8 


5 10 


5 11 


6 1 


6 2 


6 3 



Length 


39 Inches Thick,— By 


/f. 


in. 


39 B 


40 B 


41 B 


42B 


43 B 


44 B 


45 B 


46 B 


47 B 


48 B 


49 B 


1 


10 1 


10 10 


11 1 


12 5 


11 8 


11 11 


12 2 


12 5 


12 9 


13 


13 3 


2 


— 


{21 2 


21 9 


22 3 


22 9 


23 4 


23 10 


24 5 


24 111 25 6 


26 


26 7 


3 


— 


31 8 


32 6 


33 5 


;:4 2 


34 11 


36 9 


36 7 


37 5 


37 2 


39 


39 10 


4 


— 


VI 3 


43 4 


44 5 


45 6 


46 7 


47 8 


47 9 


49 10 


50 11 


52 


52 


5 


— 


52 10 


54 2 


r;5 6 


5(1 11 


58 3 


59 7 


60 11 


62 4 


63 8 


65 


66 4 


6 


.1. 


33 5 


65 


66 8 
11 


68 3 
11 


69 11 
I 


71 6 


73 2 


74 9 


76 5 


78 


78 8 





3 11 


11 


1 


1 


1 


1 1 


I 1 


1 1 


■ — 


2 


I 6 


1 10 


I 10 


1 11 


1 11 


2 


2 


2 1 


2 1 


2 2 


2 . 2 


— 


3 


i 8 


2 9 


2 9 


2 10 


2 11 


3 


3 1 


3 1 


3 2 


3 3 


3 "F 


^ 


6 


5 3 


5. 5 


5' 7 


5 8 


5 10 


6 6 1 


3 


6 4 


6 6 


6 7 



116 SIZE AND COST OF VESSELS, ETC. 

Mr. Moorsom's Formula to Approximate Register Toxxaor 
UNDER ANY PROPOSED DIMENSIONS.— To shipbuilders who may wish to 
know, before the construction of an intended design, the approximate 
register tonnage under any proposed principal dimensions, tlie following 
formula (whicli has received the approbation of Messrs. Martin and Rit- 
chie, the two chief surveyors at Lloyd's, who, from their great experience 
and intelligence, are authorities on the subject) will be found useful, as it 
gives the tonnage, on an average, generally speaking, within about 2Vi 
per cent. 
Let L represent the inside length on upper deck from plank at bow to 

plank at stern, 
" B represent the inside main breadth from ceiling to ceiling. 
" D represent the inside midship depth from upper deck to ceiling at 
timber strake. 

Then the register tonnage of any ship will be equal to ~ 

multiplied by the decimal factor opposite the class in the following table 
to which she belongs : 

Sailing Ships. ] ^^^^""^ fli ^"^^^ ^i'^P^' f ^ ^<*^™ % 

^ ^ ( Ships of the present usual form 7 

Steam Vessels ( Ships of two Decks 65 

and Clippers. ( Ships of three Decks. 68 

Yachts ( Vessels above 60 tons 5 

( Vessels, small 45 

Cost of English Merchantmen per ton. — 1. Tonnage, 650. 
Material, wood ; date, 1865. Wood in hull, masts aud spars, $41 ; 
vellow metal, iron-bolts and labor, $10.30 ; joiner work and labor. 
|5.15: labor on hull, $20; boats, etc.— outfit, $12.30 ; rope and 
sails, $8 ; anchors, chains and tanks, $4.25 ; yellow metal sheathing, 
$4. Total, $105. 2. Iron 3ferchantman, of 500 Tons : Cost, $88 per 
ton. 3. Iron-Passenger Ship, or Steamer, 800 Tons : Cost, $125 per 
ton. 4. Another Iron-Steamer, or Ship, of 1500 Tons : Cost, $147 
per ton. 5. Another Iron-Passenger Steamer, of 1500 Tons : Cost, 
$122 per ton, as follows: Material for hull, $29.50; labor, $14.50 ; rent, 
machinery, tools, etc., $14.50 ; fittings and launching, $14.25 ; wood, 
work, $12.25 ; equipment, $17 ; cabins and fitting, $20. Total, as 
above, $122. 

In the case of steam vessels, the vessel built of iron is more buoy- 
ant than the vessel built of wood by about 16 per cent, of the weight 
of the wood hull, or nearly 9 per cent, of the weight of the ca^-go. 
In the case of sailing vessels, the iron hull is still more buoyant than 
the wood hull by about 14.9 -|- 8.33 per cent. = 23.2 percent., or 
about 23 per cent, of the weight of the wood hull, or 13 per cent, of 
the weight of the cargo. 

To Find the Meridian. — Take a piece of board, or any similar 
material, and describe on it a number of concentric circles. Place 
this in the sun, over the centre of a plummet. Observe the short- 
est shadow from the plummet ; the sun will then be on the merid- 
ian ; draw a line to the centre of the circle, and that will be the true 
meridian line. This will do to mark the apparent time, or to correct 
the compass for variation. 

Captain Boyton's New Devices to Save Life from the 
Piers, and to Throw a Line from a Ship. — The following are 
Captain Boyton's statements, as extracted from the New York Stm : 
" My invention is simply this : Here is a wooden bobbin, to which 60 
feet of the strongest Manilla line is attached by one end, and a 
four-DTonged steel grappling iron fits in the liollow part of the 



SCIENTIFIC FACTS, FTC. 



117 



wcod. The whole is enclosed iu a leather case, aud does not weigh 
a pound. If every policeman on duty had one of these, the saving 
of persons from drowning in the rivers would be lessened 80 per 
cent: If the person in the water accidentally fell in, the officer 
could hold the grappling iron in his hand, and throw the bobbin, 
Avhich floats, out to the struggling person. If the case was one of 
attempted suicide, or where the person was too drunk to make any 
effort to save himself, he could throw out the grapple, and liaul him 
in. I pifopose to give the police force of this city and Philadelphia 
tiie right to manufacture these for themselves ; aud, I suppose, they 
can make them for fifty cents a piece. 

" My other invention is equally simple : ^Yhen a ship is driven on 
a lee-shore, and her back is being broken by the sea beating against 
her, the efforts of the coast-guard to throw a rope on board by 
means of a rocket or mortar frequently fail, owing either to the 
wind coming into the shore blowing the rocket back or to one side. 
Now, here is a box, four feet by tliree, which can be easily placed 
under the table in the cabin of any vessel. It contains a long, fine, 
strong line attached to a rocket, of peculiar construction. The 
ship is driven on shore, and the coast-guard men are there, un- 
able to establish communication between the vessel and the land. 
The captain brings this box on deck, opens it, and adjusts the 
rocket to the angle of the box-cover, and fires it off. The rocket, 
by its own force, and that of the wind blowing in shore, is carried 
to land. In addition to the tail of fire shown by it passing through 
the air, the rocket on falling on the ground bursts, and burns a 
brilliant red light for ten minutes. This is seen by the coast-guard 
men, who fix the cable to tVie line, and it is thus hauled aboard, 
and the crew saved." A common felt-hat may be made use of as a 
life-preservsr. Place the hat upon the water rim downwards, and 
with the arm around it, pressing it slightly to the breast, the com- 
pressed air within will sustain a man for hours. 

Natural, Mechanical, and Scientific Facts. 



Comparative Yield of Various Vegetables. 
Pounds Weight Per Acre. 



Productions in 



Hops. . 
Wheat. 
Barley. 
Oats... 
Peas . . . 
Beans . 
Plums. 



Lbs. 


per ac. 


442 


1 260 


1 600 


1 840 


1 920 


2 000 


2 000 



Cherries . 
Onions . . , 

Hay 

Pears 

Grass ... 
Carrots . . 
Potatoes 



Lbs. 


per ac. 


2 000 


2 800 


4 000 


5 000 


7 000 


6 800 


7 500 



Apples 

Turnips 

Cinque-foil grass 
Vetches, Green.. 

Cabbages 

Parsnips 

Mangel Wurzel 



Lbs. 
per ac. 

8 000 

8 420 

9 600 
9 800 

10 900 

11 200 
22 000 



One acre will produce 224 lbs. mutton, 186 lbs. beef, 2900 Ib.s. 
milk, 300 lbs. butter, and 200 lbs. cheese. A fair crop of potatoes, 
from 16 bushels of seed, is 340 bushels. 

Paris Green, for potato bugs, and other enemies of the farmer, may 
be made as follows: Dissolve 2 lbs. sulphate of copper in 1 gal. hot 
water, in a stone jar. In another jar put 1 lb. of white arsenic and 2 
lbs. pearlash in M lbs. hot water, and stir till dissolved. Mix when 
required in the proportion oi 1 part of the former to 5 of the latter, an^ 
use with a sprinkler. It is certain deatli to vermin. 



118 SCIENTIFIC FACTS, ETC. 

The average growth of trees during 12 years, as determined by a 
committee of ithe Illinois Horticultural Society, when planted in belts 
and groves, is as follows: White maple, 1 It. diam. and 30 ft. high; 
Ash-leaf maple, 1 ft. diam. and 20 ft. high ; White willow, VA ft. diam. 
and 40 it. high; Yellow willow, VA ft. diam. and 35 ft. high; Lom- 
bardy poplar, 10 ins. diam. and 40 ft. high; Blue and White Ash, 10 ins. 
di^m. and 20 ft. high; Chestnut, 10 ins. diam. and 20 ft. high; BlacK 
Walnut and Butternut, 10 ins. diam. and 20 ft. high ; Elm, 10 ins. diam. 
and 20 ft. high; Birch (varieties), 10ms. diam. and 25 ft. high; Larch, 
8 ins. diam. and 24 ft. high. The different varieties of evergreens will 
make an average growth of 18 to 20 ins. in height annually. The long- 
evity of various trees, as estimated by Mr. Don, Secretary and Li- 
brarian of the LinmBan Society-, are as follows: The Dragon's blood 
tree, 4,000 years; Baobab tree, of Senegal, 5,150 vears; Decidiou.i 
Cvpress, 6,000; Ash, 400; Yew, 3,000; Oak, 1,600; Cedar of Lebanon, 
3,000; Juniper, 380; Lime,' 583; Olive, 2,500; Apple tree, 80 to 175; Pear 
tree, 260; Orange, 1,500; Oriental plane, 1,200; Scotch fir, 90 to 12e; 
Larch, 270; olive, 2,500; Ivy, 600; Balm of Giiead, 30 to 50; Brazil vine 
palm, 150; Brazil cabbage palm, 600 to 700; Date palm, 200 to 300; 
Cocoa nut palm, 330; Oriental plane, 1,200. 1 lb. of catechu is equiva- 
lent for tanning purposes to 7 to 8 lbs. of oak bark. Terra japonica is. 
mimosa catechu. 

Relative Hardness of Woods. — Taking shell bark hickory as 
the highest standard of our forest trees, and calling that 100, other 
trees will compare with it for hardness as follows : — 



Shell bark Hickory 


100 


Red Oak, 


69 


Wild Cherry, 


55 


Pignut Hickory, 


96 


White Beech, 


65 


Yellow Pine, 


54 


White Oak, 


84 


Black Walnut, 


65 


Chestnut, 


52 


White Ash, 


77 


Black Birch, 


62 


Yellow Poplar, 


51 


Dogwood, 


75 


Yellow Oak, 


60 


Butternut, 


43 


Scrub Oak, 


73 


Hard Maple, 


56 


White Birch, 


43 


White Hazel, 


72 


White Elm, 


58 


White Pine, 


SO 


Apple Tree, 


70 


Red Cedar, 


56 







• Timber intended for posts, is rendered almost i)roof against rot by 
thorough seasoning, charring, and immersion in hot coal tar. 

The slide of Alpnach, extending from Mount Pilatus to Lake 
Lucerne, a distance of 8 miles, is composed of 25,000 trees, stripped of 
their bark, and laid at an inclination of 10° to 18°. Trees placed in 
the slide rush fropi the mountain into the lake in 6 minutes. 

The Alps comprise about 180 mountains, from 4000 to 15,732 feet 
high, the latter being the height of Mont Blanc, the highest spot in 
Europe. The summit is a sharp ridge, like the roof of a house, con- 
sisting of nearly vertical granite rocks. The ascent requires 2 days, 
6 or 8 guides are required, and each guide is paid 100 francs (£4). It 
was ascended by 2 natives, Jacques Belmat and Dr. Packard, Aug. 
8, 1786, at 6 a.m. They staid up 30 minutes, with tlje thermometer 
at 14° below the freezing point. The provisions froze in their pockets ; 
their faces were frostbitten, lips swollen, and their sight much weak- 
ened,- biitthey soon recovered on their descent. De Saussnre records 
in his ascent, August 2, 1760, that the color of the sky was deep bluej. 
the stars vrere visible in the shade ; the barometer sunk to 16.08 inches 
(being 27.08. in Geneva); the thermometer was 26J^°, in the sun, ,29° 
(being 87° at Geneva). The thin air works the blood into a high fever; 



SCIENTIFIC FACTS, ETC. 119 

you feel as if you hardly touched the ground, and you can scarcely 
make yourself heard. A Frenchwoman, Mademoiselle d'Au<2:eville, 
ascended in September, 1840, being dragged up the last 1200 feet by 
the guides, and crying out, " If I die, carry rae to the top." When 
there, she made them lift her up, that she might boast she had been 
higher tlian any man in Europe. The ascent of these awful solitudes 
is most perilous, owing to the narrow paths, tremendous ravines, icy 
barriers, precipices, etc. In many places every step has to be cut in 
the ice, the party being tied to each other by ropes, so that if one slips 
he may be held up by the rest, and silence is enforced, lest the noise 
of talking should dislodge the avalanches of the Aiguille du Midi. 
The view from the mountain is inexpressibly grand. On the Alps, 
the limit of the vine is an elevation of 1()00 feet; below 1000 feet, figs, 
oranges, and olives, are produced. The limit of the oak is 3800 ft., of 
the chestnut 2800 ft., of the pine 6500 feet, of heaths and furze to 8700 
and 9700 it; and perpetual snow exists at an elevation of 8200 feet. 

On the Andes, in lat. 2°, the limit of perpetual snow is 14,760 ft. In 
Mexico, lat. 19°, the limit is 13,800 ft. ; on the peak of Teneriffe, 11,454 
ft. ; on Mount Etna, 9000 ft. ; on Caucasus, 9900 ft, ; on the P^^re- 
nees, 8400 ft. ; in Lapland, 3100 ft; in Iceland, 2890 ft The walnut 
ceases to grow at an elevation of 3600 ft. ; the yellow pine at 6200 
ft. ; the Ash at 4800 ft. ; and the Fir at 6700 ft The loftiest inhabited 
spot on the globe is the Port House of Ancomarca, on the Andes, in 
Peru, 16,006 feet above the level of the sea. The 14th peak of the 
Himalayas, in Asia, 25,659 feet high, is the loftiest mountain in the 
world. 

Lauterbrunnen is a deep part of an Alpine pass, where the sun 
hardly shines in winter. It abounds with falls, the most remarkable 
of wliich is the Staubbach, which falls over the Balm precipice in a 
drizzling spray from a height of 925 feet; best viewed in the morning 
sun or by moonlight. In general it is like a gauze veil, with rain- 
bows dancing up and down it, and when clouds hide the top of the 
mountain, it seems as if poured out of the sky. 

In Canada, the falls of Moutmorenci are 250 feet high, the falls of 
Niagara (the Horse Shoe Falls) are 158 feet high and 2000 feet wide, 
the American Falls are 164 feet high and 900 feet Avide. The Yose- 
raite Valley Falls are 2600 feet high, and the Ribbon Falls of the 
Yoseraite are 3300 feet high. The water-faE of the Arve, in Bavaria, 
is 2000 feet. 

The Periods of Gestatiox are the same in the horse and ass, 
or 11 ihonths each ; camel, 12 months ; elephant, 2 years ; lion, 5 
months ; buffalo, 12 months ; in the human female, 9 months ; cow, 
9 months ; sheep, 5 months ; dog, 9 weeks ; cat, 8 weeks ; sow, 16 
weeks ; she wolf, from 90 to 95 days. The goose sits 30 days, swans 
42, hens 21, ducks 30, peahens and turkeys 28, canaries 14, pigeons 
14, parrots 40. 

Ages Of Animals, &c, — ^Elephant, 100 years and upwards^ 
Rhinoceros, 20 ; Camel, 100 ; Lion, 25 to 70 ; Tigers, Leopards, 
Jaguars, and Hyenas (in confinement), about 25 years ; Beaver, 50 
years ; Deer, 20"^; Wolf, 20 ; Fox, 14 to 16 ; Llamas, 15 ; Chamois, 25 ; 
Monkeys and Baboons, 16 to J.8 years ; Hare, 8 ; Squirrel, 7 ; Rab- 
bit, 7 ; "^Swine, 25 ; Stag, under 50 ; Horse, 30 ; Ass, 30 ; Sheejo, under 
H>-;-.G0w,-2O^.Ox, 30 ; Swans, Parrots and Ravens, 200 ; Eagle, 100- ; 
Gefese,-80 ; Hens aiid Pigeons, 10 to' 16 ;. Hawks, 30.to 40 ; Crane; 34- •; 



120 SCIENTIFIC FACTS, ETC. 

Blackbird, 10 to 12 ; Peacock, 20 ; Pelican, 40 to 50 ; Thrush, 8 to 10 ; 
Wren, 2 to 3 ; Nightingale, 15 ; Blackcap, 15 ; Linnet, 14 to 23 ; Gold- 
finch, 20 to 24 ; Redbreast, 10 to 12 ; Skylark, 10 to 30 ; Titlark, 5 to 
6 ; Chaffinch, 20 to 24 ; Starling, 10 to 12 ; Carp, 70 to 150 ; Pike, 30 
to 40 ; Salmon, 16 ; Codfish, 14 to 17 ; Eel, 10 ; Crocodile, 100 ; Tor- 
toise, 100 to 200 ; Whale, estimated, 1,000 ; Queen Bees live 4 years ; 
Drones, 4 months ; Worker Bees, 6 months. 

The melody of singing birds ranks as follows : The nightingale 
first, then the linnet, titlark, sky lark, and wood lark. The jmocking 
j bird has the greatest powers of imitation ; the robin and goldfinch 
are superior in vigorous notes. Gardner's notation of thp music of 
I birds affords conclusive proof that most of the best ideas of the great 
composers were derived from these melodious warblers. One well 
known bird in the Canadian woods takes great delight in calling out, 
Whip poor Will, Whip poor Will ; the red-eyed fly-catcher seems to 
say, Tom Kelly ! Whip ! Tom Kelly ! 

The condor of Peru has spread wings 40 feet, feathers 20 feet, 
quills 8 inches round. 

In England, a quarter of wheat, comprising 8 bushels, yields 14 
bushels 2^ pecks, divided into seven distinct lands of flour, as fol- 
lows : Fine flour, 5 bushels 3 pecks ; bran, 3 bushels ; twent3--peuny, 
3 bushels ; seconds, 2 pecks ; pollard, 2 bushels ; fine niiddluigs, 1 
peck ; coarse ditto, 1 peck. 

Fourteen pounds of oats produce 8 lbs. of oatmeal. 
In America, 1 bushel of buckwheat, or 50 lbs., will produce 25 
lbs. of buckwheat meal ; more may be obtained, but the quality will 
be impaired. 

A 20-inch Harrison light vertical burr-mill will grind 54 bushels 
of corn per hour. Revolutions per minute, 1300 ; 20 horse power 
will drive two such run of stones. 

In England, 2 bushels of seed wUl produce 18 of wheat in fair 
crops. 

The ancient Greek phalanx comprised 8000 men, forming a square 
battalion, with spears crossing each other, and shields united. 

The Roman legion was composed of 6000 men, comprising 10 
cohorts of 600 men each, with 300 horsemen. 

The ancient battering ram was of massive timber, 60 to 100 feet 
long, fitted with an iron head. It was erected under shelter to pro- 
tect the 60 or 100 men required to work it. The largest was equal in 
force to a 36-lb. shot from a cannon. 

Pile Driving on Sandy Soils. — The greatest force wUl not 
effect a penetration exceeding 15 feet. 

Vakious Sizes of Type. — It requires 205 lines of Diamond type 
to make 12 inches ; of Pearl, 178 ; of Ruby, 166 ; of Nonpareil, 143 ; 
of Minion, 128 ; of Brevier, 112| ; of Bourgeois, 102^ ; of Long 
Primer, 89 ; of Small Pica, 83 ; of Pica, 71^ ; of English, 64. 

To supply a population estimated at over 40,000,000, there were in 
existence in the United States and Territories during July, 1876, tho 
enormous number of 8129 newspapers and periodicals, embracing 
738 daily, 70 tri-weekly, 121 semi-weekly, 6235 weekly, 33 bi-weekly, 
105 semi-monthly, 714 monthly, 13 bi-monthly, and 67 quarterly pub- 
lications. Of these, the New York Sun has the largest circulation, 
having circulated 46,799,769 copies during the year ending March, 
1876 ; weight of white i^aper consumed, 3,426,610 pounds. Its dailj 



SCIENTIFIC FACTS, ETC 121 

circulation is over 138,000, weekly 85,000. To supply this demand 
it requires the combined results of the labor and brains of 249 men, 
a weekly expenditure of about Sl6,000, and the services of seven 
ponderous Bullock printing presses, having a capacity of 1400 copies 
per minute. Another press, of double size, with a capacity of 50,000 
copies per hour, has been ordered. Each press prints two comi^lete 
copies at one impression, not from tA'pe, but from cylindrical stereo- 
type plates which revolve with the press cylinder. 

Wire ropes for the transmission of power vary in size from § to | 
inch diam. for from 3 to 300 horse power ; to promote flexibility, the 
rope, made of iron, steel, or copper wire, as may be preferred, is 
provided with a core of hemp, and the speed is 1 mile per minute, 
more or less, as desired. The rope should run on a well-balanced, 
grooved, cast iron wheel, of from 4 to 15 feet diam., according as the 
transmitted power ranges from 3 to 300 horse ; the groove should be 
well cushioned with soft material, as leather or rubber, for the forma- 
tion of a durable bed for the rope. With good care the rope will 
last from 3 to 5 years. 

In paper making, 10 cylinders for preparing the pulp, making 200 
revolutions per minute, 1 paper making machine, cutting machines, 
pump and accessories, consumed 50 horse power. The machine made 
13 yards of paper per minute, and the produce was 1 ton of paper 
per day of 24 hours. In another instance, 28 pulping cylinders and 3 
paper making machines produced 2 to 3 tons of paper per day of 24 
hours, and consumed 113 horse-power. A Leffel Turbine Wheel, 10 
ins. in diameter, strongly built of fine brass and steel, with German 
silver buckets, is now performing the work of a 120 horse power 
engine which it superseded ; it has a head of 228 feet. 

The St. Gothard Tunnel, nnder the Helvitic Alps, will be, when 
finished, 9.3 miles long, and will cost 289,000,000 francs. 

CoATHUPES Rule for Length of Gun Barrels. For the best 
shooting, the length of the barrel, measured from the vent hole, should 
be not less than 43 times the diameter of its bore, nor more than 47. 

Proportions of Gunpowder as made by the English Government, is, 
nitre, 75; charcoal, 15; sulphur, 10. That of the French, nitre, 77; 
charcoal, 14, sulphur, 9. A 13 inch Armstrong gun, with a charge of 
90 lbs., ball 344.5 lbs. , velocity 1760 ft. per second, penetrated 11 inches 
of solid iron plates at a range of 200 ft. No field piece should be load- 
ed with more powder than a fifth or sixth of the weight of its ball. 
A 32 pounder with a charge of 8 lbs. will penetrate 15.25 ins. of hard 
brick, or 12 ins. of hard freestone, or 3*5 ins. of granite, at a range of 
200 feet. 

Cannon balls go furthest at an elevation of 30°, and less as the balls 
are less ; the range is farthest when fired from west to east in the 
direction of the earth's motion, which for the diurnal rotation on its 
axis, is at the rate of 1037 miles per hoiu', and in its orbit, 66,092 miles. 

The air's resistance is such, than a cannon ball of 3 lbs. weight, 
diameter, 2.78 ins. moving with a velocity of 1800 ft. per second, is 
resisted by a force equal to 156 lbs. 

Estimated Thrust of Screw Propeller with engines of 
1000 Horse Power, 20,000 lbs. 

Brick-layers ascend ladders with loads of 90 lbs., 1 foot per seoMid. 
There are 484 bricks in a cubic yard, and 4356 in a rod. 

A power of 250 tons is necessary to start a vessel weighing 30C0 tons 



122 SCIENTIFIC FACTS, ETC. 

over greased slides ou a mariue railway, wheu iu motion, 150 tons only 
is required. 

A modern dredging machine, 123 ft. long, beam 26 ft., breadth over 
all, 11 ft., will raise 180 tons of mud and clay per hour, 11 feet from 
water-line. 

In tanning, 4 lbs. of oak bark make 1 lb. of leather. 

Flame is quenched in air containiu:^ 3 per cent, of carbonic acid ; the 
same per ceutage is fatal to animal life. 

100 parts of oak make nearly 23 of charcoal; beech, 21; deal, 19; 
apple, 23.7; elm 23; ash, 25; birch, 24; maple, 22.8; willow, 18; pop- 
lar, 20 ; red pine, 22.10 ; white pine, 23. The charcoal used in gun- 
powder is made from willow, alder, and a few other woods. The 
charred timber found in the ruins of Herculaneum has under- 
gone no change in 1800 years. 

Four volumes of nitrogen, and one of oxygen compose atmospheric 
air in all localities on the globe. 

Air extracted from pure water, under an air pump, contains 34.8 
per cent, of oxygen. Fish breathe this air, respiring about 35 times 
per mmute. The oxjdiydrogen lime light may be seen from moun- 
tams at the distance of 200 miles round. 

Lightning is reflected 150 to 200 miles. 

1000 cubic feet of 13 candle gas is equivalent to over 7 gals, of sperm 
oil; 52.9 lbs. of tallow candles; and over 44 lbs. of sperm candles. 

The time occupied by gas in travelling from a gas well (in Penn- 
sylvania) through 32 miles of pipe was 22 minutes, jpressure at the 
well was 55 lbs. per inch, pressure at discharge 49 lbs. 

The flight of wild ducks is estimated at 90 miles per hour, that of 
the swift at 200 miles, carrier pigeons 38 miles, swallows GO miles, 
migratory birds have crossed the Mediterranean at a speed of 120 
miles per hour. 

Were it not for dry rot, ships would last on the average about 30 
years, as it is their average duration, when built of ordinary timber, 
is 7, 8 and 9 years. 

Calomel is composed of 50 grs. of mercury and lOi of chlorine 
gas. 

Carbon is the base of organic structures, and Silica of mineral. 

At birth, the beats of the pulse are from 165 to 104, and the inspira- 
tions of breath, from 70 to 23. From 15 to 20, the pulsations are from 
90 to 57, the inspirations, from 24 to 16, from 29 to 50, the pulsations 
are 112 to 56, the inspirations, 23 to 11. In usual states it is 4 to 1. 
The action of the heart distributes 2 ozs. of blood from 70 to 80 times 
in a mmute. 

Daniell makes the heat in a common parlor fire 1141°. Solids be- 
come incandescent iu the dark, at G00<5 or 700°, but not in daylight 
tUl 800° or 1000° . 

Sea water is seldom below 40°, springs about 45°; and pools and 
small rivers are as the atmosphere. The lowest lieat for fermenta- 
tion is 57.5, the highest 77°. The lowest for drying herbs, etc., 77° 
and the highest 122°. 

The mean heat of the human body is 98° and of the gkin 90© 
Tea and coffee are usuall}'^ drank at 110°. 

The explosion of nitro-glycerine is so sudden that it acts against 
the air as against a solid body, thus forming a deep chasm iu the 
earth, . . : / 



SCIENTIFIC FACTS, ETC. 



J 23 



T)EcrrMAL Notation, &c.— The. ^rs^ figure to the right of the point is 
alwaj'S tenths, the seco?ifMigure from the point is always hundredtlis, the 
third is thousandtlis, i&c, thus 4.5, is 4 units and o tentha ; 9.24 is 9 units 
and 24 hundreths ; or 8.610 is 8 units and (310 thousandths. Again, .1 is 
1-10, .01 is 1-100, and .001 is 1-1000. The Arithmetical Signs and their 
signification can be formed by consulting the Tabular part of this work. 

Value of Metals. — The iollowiug table, transcribed from the 
Iron Age, may be considered as showing the value of 44 different 
Icinds of metal during July, 1876. The prices of the rarer met?xls hav*» 
been taken from Trommsdorff's and Schuehardt's last price list, and 
the initials indicate the authorities consulted. The avordupois lb. is 
assumed as being equal to 453 grammes, and the mark to 24c. gold : — 



Metal. 



Vanadium, cryst. fused . . . 

Kubidium, wire 

Calcium, electrolytic 

Tantalum, pure 

Cerium, fused globules 

Lithiurr. globules 

Lithium, wire 

Erbium, fused 

Didgmiura, fused 

Strontium, electrolytic . . . 

Indium, piue 

Kuthenium, pure 

Columbium, fused 

Rhodium 

Barium, electrolytic. ...... 

Thallium 

Osmium . . 

Palladium 

Iridium ... 

Urarium 

Gold 

Titanium, fused 

Tellurium, fused 

Chromium, fused 

Platinum, fused 

Manganese, fused 

Molybdenum . . , 

Magnesium, wire and tape 

Potassium, globules 

Silver 

Aluminum, bar 

Cobalt, cubes 

Nickel, cubes 

Cadmium 

Sodium 

Bismuth, crude ...... 

Mercury 

Antimony 

Tin 

Copper 

Araenic 

Zinc 

Lead 

Irou , 



Value in 


Price 


in 


Au- 


gold per lb. 


gold per 


thor- 


Avord. 


gramme. 


ity. 


§4,792.40 


§10.80 


S 


3,261.60 


7.20 


S 


2,466.20 


5.40 


S 


2,446.20 


5.40 


s 


2,446.20 


5.40 


s 


2,228.76 


4.92 


s 


2,935.44 


6.48 


s 


1,671.57 


3.93 


s 


1,630.08 


3.60 


s 


1,576.14 


3.48 


s 


1,.522.08 


3.36 


T 


1,304.61 


2.88 


T 


1.250.28 


2.76 


s 


1,032.84 


2.28 


T 


924.12 


2.01 


S 


738.39 


1.63 


T 


6.52.32 


1.44 


T 


498.30 


1.10 


T 


466.59 


1.03 


T 


431.88 


96 


T 


299.72 




.. 


239.80 


52 




196.20 


43 


, ^ 


196.20 


43 


,, 


122.31 


27 


., 


108.72 


24 


T 


54..34 


12 


T 


45.30 


10 


T 


22.65 


05 


T 


18.60 






16.30 


036 


S 


12.68 


028 


S 


3.80 


008 


T 


3.26 


007 


T 


3.20 


007 


T 


1.95 


0043 


S 


1.00 


.... 


, , 


36 






T 


25 


... 






22 






Prices 


15 






taken 


10 






from 


6 






recent 






quota, 
tioni 



124 SCIENTIFIC FACTS, ETC. 

Arsenical Soap for the Skins of "Wild Animals.— The skins 
must be well scraped and divested of all fat, aud well rubbed with the 
followiu^ soap. Lime, 1 oz. ; camphor, 1 oz, ; arsenic, 1 oz. ; alum, 1 oz. 
Mix all thoroughly with 1 lb. of yellow soap. This will prove a good 
preservative. 

Positive Cure for Foot Rot in Sheep. — This is caused by 
exposure to bad weather, more especially to wet pasturage, etc. When 
lame, pass them through a trough coutaiuing a warm solution of 
arsenic, of nearly the following strength: 4 ozs. arsenic, 4 ozs. of 
soda ash or pcrtash, 1 gal. of water. Boil till dissolved; keep it 
about three inches deep, so as to cover the foot as the sheep walk 
through; the trough should be about 20 feet long, and just wide 
enough to admit one sheep walking after the other. 

A74 gun ship consumes 2000 tons or trees, the produce of 57 acres 
for a century. 

The deepest coal mine in England is, or was, at Killingworth, 
near Newcastle, and the mean annual temperature, at 400 j'^ards be- 
low the surface, is 77°, and at 300 yards, 70°, while at the surface it 
is but 48°, being 1° of increase for every 15 yards. This explains 
the origin of hot springs, for, at 3300 yards, the heat would be equal 
to boiling water, taking 20 yards to a degree. The heat of the Bath 
waters is 116°, hence they would appear to rise 1,320 yards. 

Peron relates, that at the depth of 2144 feet in the sea, the ther- 
mometer falls to 45°, when it is 86° at the surface. 

Swemberg and Fourier calculate the temperature of the celestial 
spaces at 50 deg. centigrade below freezing. 

In Northern Siberia, the ground is frozen permanently to the 
depth of 660 feet, and only thaws to the extent of 3 or 4 feet m sum- 
mer. Below 660 feet mternal heat begins. 

River water contains about 30 grs. of solid matter in every cubic 
foot. Fresh water springs of great size abound under the sea. Per- 
haps the most remarkable springs exist in California, where they are 
noted for producing sulphuric acid, ink, and other remarkable pro- 
ducts. 

St. Winifred's Well, in England, evolves 120 tons of water per 
minute, furnishing abundant water power to drive 11 mills within 
little more than a mile. 

The Nile has a fall of 6 ins. in 1000 miles. The rise of the river 
commences in June, continuing until the middle of August, attaining 
an elevation of from 24 to 26 ft. and flowing the valley of Egypt, 12 
miles wide. In 1829 it rose to 26 cubits, by which 30.000 persons 
were drowned. It is a terrible climate to live in, owing to the fester- 
ing heat, and detestable exhalations from the mud, etc., left on the 
retiring of the Nile, which adds about 4 inches to the soil in a cen- 
tury, and enroaches on the sea 16 feet every year. Bricks have been 
found at a depth of 60 feet, showing the vast antiquity of the coun- 
try. In productiveness of soil it is excelled by no ccher in the world. 

Belzoni considered the tract between the first and second cata- 
racts of the Nile, as the hottest on the globe, owing to there being no 
rain. The natives do not credit the phenomenon of water falling 
from above. Hence it is, that all monuments are so nicely preserved. 
Buckingham found a building left unfinished about 4000 years ago 
and the chalk marks on the stones were still perfect. 

Porapey's Pillar is 92 ft. high, aud 27^ round at the base. 



SCIENTIFIC FACTS, ETC. 125 

The Freuch removed a red granite column 05 ft. high, weiring 
210 tons, from Thebes and carried it to Paris. The display of costly 
architectural rnins at Thebes is one of the most astonishing to be 
seen anywhere in the world. The ruins and costly buildings, in old 
Eastern countries, are so vast in their proportions and so many in 
number, that it would require volumes to describe them. 

Babel, now called Birs Nimroud, built at Babylon by Belns, was 
used as an observatory, and as a temple of the Sun. It was com- 
posed of 8 square towers, one over the other, in all 670 ft. high, and 
the same dimensions on each side, on the ground . 

The Coliseum at Rome, built by Vespasian for 100,000 spectators, 
was in its longest diameter 615.5 feet, and in the shortest 510, em- 
braced 5^ acres, and was 120 feet high, 

Eightaqueducts supplied aiicient Rome with water, delivering 40 
millions of cubic feet daily. That of Claudia was 47 miles long, and 
100 feet high, so as to furnish the hills. Martia was 41 miles, of 
which 37 were on 7000 arches, 70 feet high. These vast erections would 
never have been built had the Romans known that water always rises 
to its own level. 

The Temple of Diana, at Ephesus, was 425 feet long, and 225 
broad, with 127 columns, 60 feet high, to support the roof. It was 
220 years in building. 

Solomon's Temple, built B . C. 1014, was 60 cubits, or 107 feet in 
length, the breadth, 20 cubits, or 36 feet, and the height, 30 cubits, 
or 54 feet. The porch was 36 feet long and 18 feet wide. 

The largest of the Egyptian pyramids is 543 feet high, 693 feet on 
the sides, and its base covers 11 acres. The layers of stones are 208 
in number ; many stones are over 30 feet long, 4 broad, and 3 thick. 
The Temple of Ypsambul, in Nubia, is enormously massive, and 
cut out of the solid rock. Belzoui found in it 4 immense figures 65 ft. 
high, 25 ft. over the shoulders, with a face of 7 ft. and the ears over 
8 ft. 

Sesostris erected in the temple in Memphis, immense statues of him- 
self and his wife, 50 ft. high, and of his children, 28 ft. 

In the Temple of the Sun, at Baalbec, are stones more than 60 ft. 
long, 24 ft. thick, and 16 broad, each embracing 23,000 cubic feet, cut, 
squared, sculptured, and transported from neigh boring quarries. Six 
enormous columns are each 72 ft. high, composed of 3 stones, 7 ft. in 
diameter. Sesostris is credited with having transported from the 
mountains of Arabia, a rock 32 feet wide, and 240 ft. long. 

The engineering appliances used by the ancients in the movement 
of these immense masses are but imperfectly understood at the 
present day. 

During modem times, a block of granite weighing 1217 tons, now 
used as the pedestal of the equestrian statute of Peter tlie Great, at 
St. Petersburg, was transported 4 miles by land over a railway and 13 
miles hi a. vast caisson by water. The railway consisted of two lines 
of timber furnished with hard metal grooves ; between these grooves 
were placed spheres of hard brass about 6 ins. diameter. On tliese 
spheres the frame with its massive load was easil}'" moved by 60 men 
working at capstans with treble-purchase bloclc . 

In 1716, while yet but 28, the illustrious Swedenborg contrived to 
transport (on rolling machines of his own invention), over valleys and 
mountiiins, 2 galleys, 5 large boats, and 1 sloop, from Stromstadt to 



126 FRENCH MEASURES, ETC. 

Ider^ol( which divides Sweden from Norway on the South), a distance 
of 14 miles ; by which means, Charles XII. was able to carry on hia 
plans, and, under cover of the galleys and boats, to transport on pon- 
toons, his heavy artillery to the very walls of Frederickshall. 

As an exponent of the laws of friction, it may be stated that a square 
stone, weighing 1080 lbs. which required a force of 758 lbs. to drag it 
along the floor of a quarry, roughly chiselled, required only a force of 
22 lbs. to mov e it when mounted on a platform and rollers over a phink 
floor. 

Water is the absolute master, former, and secondary agent of the 
power of motion in every thing terrestrial. It is the irresistible power 
which elaborates everything, a;nd the waters contain more organized 
beings than the land. 

Rivers hold in suspension 100th of their volume (more or less) of 
mud, so that if 36 cubic miles of water (the estimated quantity) flow 
daily into the sea, 0. 36 cubic miles of soil are daily displaced. The 
Rhine carries to the sea every day 145.980 cubic feet of mud. The 
Po carries out the land 228 ft. per annum, consequently Adria, which 
2500 years ago, was on the sea, is now over 20 miles from it. 

The enormous amount of alluvium deposited by the Mississippi is 
almost incalculable, and renders necessary the extensive engineering 
operations, which are now (1876) being prosecuted in order to remove 
the impediments to mi vigation. 

French Measures with the English EQurvALENTS. Measures 
OF LiByGTS^—Mi/rimefer, ectuivalent to 10,000 meters, or to 6 miles, 1 fur- 
long, 2Sy2 poles. Kilometer, 1,000 meters, or to 3,280 ft. aud 10 ins. 
iTtectomet"]', 100 meters, 328 ft. aiid 1 inch. Decameter, 10 meters, equal 
to 32 and 4-5ths ft. Meter, the unit of the French measure of length, 
equaL to 39..3& inches. Decimeter, 1-10 of a meter, equal to 3.97 inches. 
Centimeter, 1-100 of a meter, or .39371 inch (nearly 2-5 ths inch). Millimeter, 
1-lOOOth of a meter, or .0391 inch. 

Surface Measures. — Myrlare, 100,000 square meters, equal to 246 
acres, 3 roods, and 20 poles. Hectare, 10,000 square meters, equal to 
11.930 English square yards, or to 2.471 acres. Are, 100 square meters, or 
119.6 square yards. Centare, 1 square meter, or 1550 square inches. 

Measures of Volume. — Kllollteror Steere, the unit of measure forsolid 
bodies, 1,000 liters, or 1 cubic meter, equal to 35.3171 cubic ft., or to 1.. 308 cubic 
yards, or to 264.17 gallons. Hectoliter, 100 liters, or 1-lOth cubic m^eter, equal 
to 2 bush., aud 3.35 pecks, or 26.417 gals. Decaliter, 10 liters, or 10 cubic deci- 
meters, equal to 610.28 cubic inches, or to 9.08 qts., or to 2 aud 1-5 Imperial 
gals. Liter, 1 cubic decimeter, a unit of capacity, equal to a little less than 
an English quart, or precisely .908 qt. Deciliter, 1-lOth liter, or 1 cubic deci- 
meter, 6.1022 cubic inches, equal to 0.176 pint, or .845 gill. CentilUter, 
1-lOOth liter, or 10 cubic decimeters, equal to .6102 cubic inch, or .338 fluid 
oz. Milliliter, l-lOOOth liter, or 1 cubic centimeter, equal to .061 cubic 
inch, or .27 fluid drm. 

Measures of Weight.— J/iZZier or Tonneau, 1,000.000 grains, or 1 
cubic meter of water at its maximum density, equal to 2204.6 lbs. 
avoirdupois. Quintal, 100,000 grains, or 1 hectoliter of water, equal to 
220.46 lbs. avoirdupois. Myrigram, or 10,000 grains, or 10 liters of water, 
equal to 22.046 lbs. avoirdupois. Kilogram or Kilo, 1000 grains, or 1 liter of 
water, equal to 2 lbs. 3 ozs. 65 drs. (2.206 lbs.) avoirdupois. Hectogram, 
100 graius, or 1 deciliter of water, equal to 3.5277 ozs. avoirdupois. 
Gram, the unit of weight, being the weight of 1 cubic centimeter of 
water, or about 15% grains troy. Decigram, 1-10 grain, or 1-10 of a cubic 
centimeter of water, equal to 1.5432 grains troy. Centigram, 100th gram, 
or 10 cubic millimeters of water, or equal to 1-543 grains trov- Milligram, 
I-IOOO gram, or 1 cubic millimeter of water, equal to .0154 graius troy. 



WEIGHTS OF METALS, ETC. 127 

For surface measurement, tlie square dekameter is used under tlie term of 
Ahe. 

Number of Cubic Feet in a Tox (Avoirdupois) of Differext 
Materials.— Cast Iron, 4-98 ; \VrouG;ht Iron, 4.59 ; Bar Iron, 4-69 ; Steel, 
eoft, 4-57 ; Steel, Hard, 4-59 ; Copper, Sheet, 4-G2 ; Copper, Cast, 404 ; Brass, 
4.17 ; Lead, 3-15 ; Tin, Cast, 4-91 ; Zinc, Cast, 49-8 ; Granite, 13-514 ; Marble, 
13-343; Paving Stone, 14-83; Millstone, 14-42; Grindstones, 17 ; Common 
Stone^ 14-22; Fire Brick, 16.284 ; Briclc, Mean, 21-;)G1 ; Anthracite Coal, 
21-284 and 21-958 ; Cannel Coal, 2 i-6)9 ; Cotton Bale, Mean, 154-48 ; Pressed 
ditto, from 89-6 to 1-14 ; Haj'. Bale, 23517 ; Bale, Mean, 154-48 ; Hay,Pressed 
89-6 ; Clav, 158-00; Common Soil, 16-335 ; Mud, 21-987 ; Loose Sand, 23-893 ; 
Earth with Gravel, 16-742 ; India Ilubber,.3a6) ; Plaster of Paris. 21'3 ; Glass 
12-44 ; Ice, 38-58 ; Chalk (British), 17'92 ; Tallow, 38 ; Oil, 39 ; Fresh Water, 
35-84 ; Salt Water, 34-931- 

Weight of Various Materials ix Lbs. (Avoirdupois) per Cubic 
Foot.— Pure Gold, 1203-G; Standard Gold, 1102-9 ; Hammered Gold, 1210-11 ; 
Pure Silver, 654-6 ; Hammered Silver, 656-9 ; Stundard Silver, 658-4 ; Cast 
Brass, 521-8; Brass Wire, 534; Bismuth, Cast, 613-9; Antimony, 418-9; 
Bronze, 513-4 ,- Cobalt, Cast, 488-2 ; Copper, Cast, 549-3 ; Copper, Sh.;et. 557-2; 
Copper, Wire, 554-9 ; Wrought Iron, 48(;-75 : Iron P'alcs. 481-5 ; Cast Iron, 
450-4; Gun Metal, 543-75; Cast Lead. 709-5 ; Kolle.] do.,71J-75; li«d Le;a<l. 
55875 ; I'in, 455-7 ; Platinum, Pure, 1218-8 ; Hammered do., l-I.*71, .Mer'ury. 
eO^", Fluid, 848 ; mercury. Solid, 977 : Nickel, Cast, 487-9 ; Sicel, Plates, 480-75; 
Steel, Soft, 489-6; Type Metal, 653-1; Zinc, Cast, 439; Granite. 165-75; Mill- 
stone, 155-3; Marble, Mean, of nineteen Kinds. 180; Grindstones, 133-9; 
Firebrick, 137'5;Tile, 114-44; Brick. Mean, 102; Clay, 120; Limestone, Mean, 
of seven sorts, 184-1; Loose Earth or Sand, 95; Coarse Sand, 112-5; Ordi- 
nary Soil, 124; Mud, 102; Clay and Stones, 160; Slate, 167 to 181-25; Plaster 
of Paris. 73-5; Plumbago, 131-35; Anthracite Coal, from 89-75 to 102*5; Can- 
nel Coal, from 77-33 to 82-33; Charcoal from Hard Wood, 18-5; ditto from 
Softwood, 18; Port Wine, 62-31 ; Fresh Water, 62-5; Sea Water, 64-3; Dead 
Sea Water, 77-5; Vinegar, 67-5 ; Alum, 107-10; Asbestos, Starry, 192-1; Ice at 
32°, 57-5; Sulphur, 127-1; Peat, 375 to 83-1; Marl, Mean, 109-33; Hydraulic 
Lime, 171-60; quartz, 16625 ; Rock Crystal, 17094; Salt, Common, 133.12 ; 
Lard, 59-20; Whale Oil, 57-70; Olive Oil, 57-19. 

Weight of a Cubic Ixch of Various Metals in" Pouxds.— 
Hammered Gold, .701 lbs : Cast do. (pvire), .698 ; 20 Carats Fine do., .507 ; 
Hammered Silver, ..382 ; Pure do., .378 ; Cast Steel, .287 ; Cast Iron, .263 ; 
Sheet Iron, .279 ; Kolled Platinum,_.797; Wire do-, .762; Hammered do, J:i5 ; 
Sheet Copper, .323 ; Sheet Brass, .304 ; Lead, .410; Cast Tin, .264 ; Cast 
Zinc, .245, 

Sundry CoMMERCiAii Weights,— A ton of wool is 2 stones of 14 lbs. 
each. A pack of wool is 240 lbs. A sack of wool is 22 stone of 14 lbs., or 
308 lbs. In Scotland, it is 24 of 16 lbs. A keel of 8 Newcastle chaldrons 
is 1514 London chaldrons. 56 or 60 lbs. is a truss of hay, 40 lbs. a truss 
of straw ; 36 trusses a load. A bushel of rock salt Is 65 lbs. ; of crushed 
salt, 56 lbs.; of foreign salt, 84 lbs. A tierce of beef, in Ireland, is 304 lbs.; 
and of pork, 320 lbs. A fodder of lead is 1914 cwt. in London and 21 cwt. 
in the North. A man's load is 5 bushels, a market load 40, or 5 quarters. 
A last is 10 quarters of corn, or 2 cart loads, 12 sacks of wool, 21 barrels 
of gunpowder, 12 barrels of ashes, herring, soap, &c., and 18 barrels of 
salt. A hundred of salt is 126 barrels. 

SuxDRY Measures of Length — The hair's breadth is the smallest, 
of which 48 are an inch. Four barley-corns lai<l breadthways, are % of 
an inch, called a dlgif, and 3 barley-corns lengthwai/s are an inch. An 
Inch is divided into 12 lines and by mechanics into Sths. A nail used in 
cloth measure, is 2V4 ins. or the 16th of a yard. A palm is 3 ins. and a 
gpan 9 ins. (See Talne of Measures of length, for other designations.) An 
English Statute mile is 1760 yds. or 5280 ft., an Iri^h mile 2240 yds., a 
Scotch mile 1984 yds. ; 80 Scotch miles being equivalent to 91 English, 
and 11 Irish to 14 English. 



128 WEIGHTS AND MEASUKKS. 

MEASURES OF LENGTH. 



4 In. make 1 Hand. 
T.92 In. " 1 Link. 
18 In. " 1 Cubit. 
12 In. •' 1 Foot. 
6 Ft. " 1 Fathom. 



3 Feet make 1 Yard. 

SVa Yds. " 1 Kod or Pol«. 
40 Poles *' 1 Furlong. 

8' Fur. " IMile. 
69 1-12 :Miles make 1 Degree, 

60 Geograpliical Miles makes 1 Degree. 



MEASURES OF SURFACE. 
144 Square Inches make 1 Square Foot. 
9 Square Feet " 1 Square Yard. 
301/4 Square Yards " 1 Rod, Perch or Pole, 
40 Square Rods " 1 Square Rood. 
4 Square Roods " 1 Square Acre, or 43,560 sq. fti 
10 Square Chains " 1 Square Acre. 
WO Square Acres " 1 Square Mile. 

Guiiter's Chain equal to 22 Yards or 100 Links. 



[MEASURES OF SOLIDITY. ] 

1728 Cubic Inches make 1 Cubic Foot. ■ 

27 Cubic Feet " 1 Cubic Yard. ! 

.1 



AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT. - 

27^ Grains make 1 Drachm (dr.) or 27^ Grains. j 

16 Drachms " 1 Ounce (oz.) or 437^^ *' | 

16 Ounces " 1 Pound (lb.) or 7000 •• < 

28 Pounds " 1 Quarter (qr.) I 

4 Quarters " 1 Hundi-ed- Weight (cwt.) * 

20 Cwts. « ITon. 



TROY WEIGHT. 

24 Grains make 1 Pennyweight, or 24 Grains. 
20 Pennvwts '• 1 Ounce, or 480 " 

12 Ounces « 1 Pound, or 5760 " 

APOTHECARIES' WEIGHT. 

20 Grains make 1 Scruple. I 8 Drachms make 1 Ounce. 

3 Scruples " 1 Drachm. | 12 Ounces *' 1 Pound. 

45 Drops=l teaspoonf ul or a fluid Drachm; 2 tablespoonf uls=l oB. 

DIAMOND WEIGHT. 
16 Parts make 1 Grain (8-lOths Grain, Troy). 
14 Grains " 1 Carat (3 l-5th Grains, Troy). 



LIQUID MEASURE. 

2 Gallons make 1 Peck. 
3114 Gallons " 1 Barrel. 
54 Gallons " 1 Hhd. 



4 Gills make 1 Pint. 
a Pints " 1 Quart. 
4 Quarts " 1 Gallon. 

DRY MEASURE. 
8 Quarts maTce 1 Peck. I 8 Bushels make 1 Quarter. 

4 Pecks " 1 Bushel. | 36 Bushels " 1 Chaldron. 

1 Bushel equal to 28151/3 cubic in. nearly. 
A bushel of Wheat is on an average 60 lbs.; Barley or Buckwheat, 
46 lbs. ; Indian Corn or Rye, 56 lbs. ; Oats, 30 lbs. ; Salt, 70 lbs. 14 lbs. or 
Lead or Iron make 1 Stone ; 21% Stone, 1 Pig. 1 Bbl. of Flour con taint 
196 lbs. ; Beef or Pork, 200 lbs. The Imperial Gallon is 10 lbs. avoirdu- 
pois of pure water ; the Pint 1 1-4 lbs. 1 Gal. Sperm Oil weighs, 7\L 
lbs. ; 1 do. of Whale Oil, 7 lbs. It ozs. ; 1 do- of Linseed, 7% lbs. ; 1 do. of 
Olive, 71/2 ll^s- ; 1 •io- Sptis. of Turpentine, 7 lbs. 5 ozs. ' Proof Spirits 
7 lbs. 15 ozs. ; 1 do. of Ale, 10,5 lbs. 



SCRIPTURE MEASDRES, ETC 



129 



Scripture Measttres of Lekgth.— The great Cubit was 21-888 ins. 
«:1.824 ft. and the less 18 ins. A Span the longer=';'2 a cubit=10.i>44 in8.= 
.912 ft. A span the less =14 of a cubit=7.296 ins. =.608 ft. A hand's 
breadtii«=i^ of a cubit=3.G84 ins.=.304ft. A finger's breath=1.2-l of a 
Cubit=.912 ins.=.07G ft. A fathom=4 cubits=7.29G ft. EzekieVs Reed= 
6 cubita=:10.914 ft. The mile=4000 cubits=7296 ft. The Stadium, 1-10 of 
their mile=400 cubits=729.6 ft. The Parasang, 3 of their miles=12,000 
cubits, or 4 English miles and 580 ft. 33.164 miles was a day's journey — 
some ssy 24 miles; and 3500 ft. a Sabbath day's journey; some authorities 
Bay 3648 ft. 

Scripture Measures of Capacity.— The Chomer or Homer in King 
James' translation was 75.625 gals, liquid, and 32-125 pecks dry. The 
Ephah or Bath was 7 gals. 4 pts., 15 ins. sol. The Seah, 1^ of Ephah, 2 
gals. 4 pts., 3 in. sol. The Hin=i^ of Ephah, 1 gal., 2 pts., 1 in, sol. The 
Omer=l-10 of Ephah, 5 pts. , 0.5 ins. sol. The Cab=l-18 of Ephah, 3 pts., 
10 ins. sol. The Log=7-J* of Ephah, y^ pt., 10 ins, sol. The metretes of 
Syria {John ii. 6)=Cong. Rom, ly^ pts. The Cotyla Eastern=l-100 of 
Ephah, 14 pt. 3 in. sol. This Cotyla contains just 10 ozs, Avordupois of 
rain water, Omer, 100 ; Ephah, 1000 ; Chomer or Homer, 10,000. 

Scripture Weights and Coins, — The following are the Hebrew 
weights and their equivalents in Troy weight ; also their value in pure 
Gold and Silver: — 



TheGerah=Ji^ofa 

Shekel....^...... 

The Bekah = V, 

Shekel 

The Shekel 

The Man eh, or 

Mini =60 Shekels 
The Talent = 3000 

Shekels 



lbs. ozs. dwt. gr, 
11 



4 131/4 
9 21/2 



2 3 6 
113 10 1 



IOV4 
10% 



Pure 
Gold. 



Pure 
Silver. 



§ cts. 
47 



69 
38 



562 84 
28,142 25 



Cts, 
03 



30 
59 



35 32 
1,766 23 



English 
Money . 



£ s, d. f. 

11/2+ 

1 2ya-f- 
2 41 

7 15 

353,1110 oh. 



s. d. 


far. 


$ 


cts. 





0.75 





00.343 





1.50 





00.687 


7 


2. 





13.75 


2 6 


0. 


13 


75. 



Roman money mentioned in the New Testament reduced to English 
and American Standard: — 

£ 

A Mite 

A Farthing, about 

A Penny, or Denarius 

APound, or Mina 3 

Note — The above determinations of Scripture Measures, Weights, 
&c., are principally by the Rt. Rev. Richard, Bishop of Peterborough, 

Gutter's Chain, Land jMeasurement, &c,— 7-92 inches constitute 
1 link ; 100 links 1 chain, 4 rods or poles, or QQ feet, and 80 chains 1 mile. 
A square chain is 16 square poles, and 10 square chains are 1 acre. Four 
roods are an acre, each containing 1210 square yards, or 34.785 yards, or 
34 yards 28 inches each side. 

Forty poles of 30.25 square yards each is a rood, and a pole is 5l^ yards 
each way. 

An acre is 4840 square yards, or 69 yds. 1 ft., 8% ins. each way ; and 2 
acres, or 9680 square yds. are 98 yds. 1 ft., 2 ins. each way ; and 3 acres are 
120^4 ytls. each way. A square mile, or a U, S, section of Land, is 640 
acres; being 1060 yds. each way ; half a mile, or 880 yds. each way, is 160 
acres ; a quarter of a mile or 440 yds. each wav, is a park or farm of 40 
acres ; and a furlong, or 220 yds. each way, is 10 acres. 

Any length or breadth in yds. which multiplied make 4840 is an acre ; 
any which makes 12-10 is a rood, and 30.25 is a pole. 

An English acre is a square of nearly 70 yds, each way, a Scotch, of 77*4 
yds. and an Irish of 88l^ yds. 

9 



130 



STRENGTH OF MATERIALS, ETC. 



Nautical Distances, Log Lixes.— A nautical mile, the 60th of a 
degree, is 2026.5 yards ; a marine league, or 20 to a degree, is 6079.5 yards. 
Log-lines are divided into spaces of 50 feet, and the way measured by a 
half minute sand-glass, which bears nearly the same proportion to an 
hour, which 50 feet bears to a mile, the number of knots which run ofE 
the reel in half a minute showing the number of miles the vessel sails in 
an hour. The line should be about 150 fathoms long, having 10 fathoms 
between the ship and first knot for stray line. Estimating a mile at 
G139.75 feet, and using aSO^^ glass, 1 knot=51 ft. 1.95 ins. and 1 fathom, 5 
ft. 1.395 ins. Or if a 28^^ glass is used, and 8 divisions, the result will bo 
thus ; 1 knot=47 ft. 9.024 ins. and 1 fathom=5ft. 11.627 ins. 

BowDiTCii's Navigator computes 6120 ft. to a sea mile, which if 
taken as the length with a 28''/ glass, will make the divisions 47.6 ft. and 
5.95 ft. 

Tensile Strength of Materials, Showing the Strength or 
Force required to Tear Asunder 1 Square Inch, 

Iron Wire, wrought, 
Swedish bar Iron, 
Russian " " 
Mean of English Iron, 
Gun Metal, mean of Iron, 
Clyde, No. 1, " 

Stirling, mean of *' 

American, mean of " 
Low Moor, No. 2, cast ** 
Crank Shaft " 

American boiler, 

plates. Iron, 
English plates, mean, 

" " lengthwise, 

" " crosswise, 

German piano steel Wire, 
Cast Steel, maximum, 

" " mean, 
Steel, 100,000 1 

Chrome Steel, mean, 
Shear " 
American Tool Co., 

Blistered Steel, soft, 

Razor '* 

Steel plates, lengthwise, 

" " crosswise. 
Yellow metal, 
Cast Copper, 
American Copper, 
Brass Wire, 

Remarks. — Owing to the damage inflicted by the hot tar, tarred ropes 
are 25 per cent, weaker than white ropes. Hemp rope is stronger than 
Manilla, but tarred hemp and manilla are nearly of equal strength. 
Manilla ropes are from 25 to 30 per cent, weaker than white ropes. 
Twisted hempen cords will sustain the following weights per square 
inch of their section : 1/4 inch to 1 inch thick, 8746 lbs. ; 1 to 3 ins. thick, 
6860 lbs. ; 3 to 5 ins. thick, 5345 lbs. ; 5 to 7 ins. thick, 4,860 lbs. Ropes of 
4 strands up to 8 ins. are about 17 per cent, stronger than those having 
but 3 strands. One-eighth of an inch in diameter of iron will sustain 
more than 1 inch in circumference of hemp rope. In Tredgold's and 
Duleau's experiments, a piece of the best bar iron, 1 inch square, bore a 
weight of 77,373 lbs., while a similar piece of cast iron would be torn 



Lbs. 




Lbs. 


103,000 


Copper Bolts, 


38,000 


72,000 


" Wire, 


60,000 


59,500 


Brass, 


42,000 


53,900 


Gold, 


20,498 


37,232 


Gold, 5 pts., copper, 


1 pt., 60,000 


16,125 


Silver cast, 


40,997 


23,468 


Bronze, 


17,698 to 56,788 


25,764 


Tin cast, block, 


5,000 


45,970- 


" Banca, 


2,122 


14,076 


Platinum Wire, 


5,300 


44,750 


Zinc, 


7,000 


f 48,000 
' 62,000 


Sheet Lead, 


3,000 


Antimony, 


1,060 


51,000 


Bismuth, cast, 


3,120 


53.800 


Ivory, 


16,070 


48,800 


Manilla Rope, 


9,300 


268,800 


Tarred Hemp Rope, 


15,000 


142,000 


Wire, Rope, 


37,000 


88,000 


Whalebone, 


7,600 


130,000 


Leather Belting, 


333 


170.980 


Gutta-percha, 


3,500 


124;000 


Slate, 


12,000 


179,980 


Well-burned Brick, 


750 


( 133,000 
■ 104,000 


Inferior " 


100 to 290 


Portland Stone, 


857 to 1,000 


15,000 


CroMai Glass, 


42,346 


96,300 


Limestone, 


670 to 2,800 


93,700 


Hydraulic Lime, 


140 


48,700 


" Cement, 


234 


19,000 


Portland " 


6 mos. 414 


24,250 


Plaster of Paris, 


72 


50,000 







STRENGTH OF MATERIALS, ETC 



131 



asTtnder by a weight of from 16,243 to 19,464 lbs., and 1 square inch of iron 
wire would sustain a mean weight of 126,340 lbs. In sixteen experiments 
by Mr. Fairbairn and Sir. Hodgkinson, on cast iron, the average strain 
that one square inch sustained was T^/^ tons, the weakest bearing 6 tons, and 
the strongest 9% tons. Telford's andBrown's experiments show that mal- 
leable iron will bear, on an average, 27 tons, the weakest being 24 and the 
strongest 29 tons, 

Hodgkinson's and Fairbairn's experiments prove that cast iron can 
sustain a compression of from 36V2 to 60 tons to the square inch. In this 
respect malleable iron is inferior to cast. With 12 tons to the square 
inch it yields, contracts in length, and expands laterally, though it will 
bear 27 tons, or niore, without actual fracture. Rennie crushed cast iron 
with a weight of. 93,000 lbs. 

Stkexgth of Shafts. — 44 lbs., acting at a foot radius, will twist off 
the neck of a shaft of lead 1 inch diam., and the relative strengths of other 
materials, lead being 1, is as follows : — Tin, 1-4 , copper, 4'3 ; yellow brass, 
4-6 ; gun metal, 5 ; cast iron, 9 ; Swedish iron, 9-5 ; English iron, 10-1 ; 
blistered steel, 16-16 ; shear steel, 17 ; cast steel, 19 "o. The strength of a 
shaft increases as the cube of its diameter. 

A weight of 36,000 lbs. attached to a bar of iron 1 inch square and 1,000 
inches in length, will draw it out 1 inch ; 45,000 will stretch it 2 inches ; 
54,000 lbs., 4 inches ; 63,000, 8 inches ; and 72,000, 16 inches, where it will 
finally break. — P7-of. Leslie. 

Strexgth of Cast Iron Beams.— 72jtZe. Multiply the sectional area 
of the bottom flanges in square inches by the depth of the beam in inches, 
and divide the product by the length between the support also in inches. 
Then 514 times the quotient will be the breaking weight in pounds. 

TABIiE SHOWING THE CRUSHIXG STRENGTH OF VARIOUS MATERIAIiS 
ON A BASIS OF 1 SQUARE INCH. 



Materials. 



Crushing 
Weight. 



Quincy Granite, 
Aberdeen " 
Arbroath " 
Portland Cement, 

" Mean, 
Stourbridge Firebrick, 

Hard Brick, 

Common " 

" " Masoniy, 

Marble, Lee, Mass., 
" Italian, 
" Baltimore, small. 



Lbs. 

15,300 

10,360 

7,884 
15,000 
. 8,300 

1,717 
( 4,368 
( 2,000 
j 4,000 
I 800 

fSOO 

(500 
22,702 
12,624 
18,061 



Materials. 



Crushing 
AVeight. 



Lbs. 

Marble, Baltimore, small, 8,057 

Stock Brick, 2,167 

Portland Cement, 1 sand 1, 1,280 

" " 1 sand 4, 1,244 

Gneiss, 19,600 

Good Mortar, 240 

Common '• 120 

Roman Cement, 342 

Sandstone, Seneca, 10,762 

" Acquia Creek, 5,340 

" Adelaide, 2,800 

Brick, Sydney, 2,228 

Clay, fine, roiled and baked, 400 

Portland Oolite, 3,850 



Nearly all granites commence to crumble under a superstructure of 
200 feet elevation. 

1 cask of lime (240 lbs.), will make from 7*8 to 8*15 cubic ft. of stiff paste. 
Bricks should be thoroughly wet previous to use. Brick walls should be 
washed down with diluted sulphuric acid when finished. 

A good Mastic is burnt clay, 93 parts, litharge, 7 parts, all ground very 
fine, and thoroughly dried by artificial heat, mix with linseed oil and 
apply, after giving the surface to which it is to be applied 2 or 3 coats of oil. 

Soot will not adhere to chimneys coated with mortar to which salt haa 
been added in the proportion of 1 peek of salt to 3 of mortar while tem- 
pering. 



132 



FACTS FOR BUILDERS, ETC. 



Table to find the number of Brick required to construct 
ANY Building, embracing walls, from 4 inches to 20 inches 

THICK, reckoning 7 BRICKS TO EACH SUPERFICIAL FOOT. 

Example.— B,equired the number of bricks in 100 superficial feet of wall 
12 inches thick. Under 12 inch, and opposite 100, you will find the answer, 
2250, the number of bricks required. 



Superficial 




Number of Bricks to Thickness of 




feet of 
Wall. 














4-inch. 


8-inch. 


12-inch. 


16-inch. 1 


20-inch. | 


24-inch. 


1 


7 


15 


23 


30 


38 


45 


2 


15 


30 


45 


60 


75 


90 


3 


23 


45 


68 


90 


113 


135 


4 


30 


60 


90 


120 


150 


180 


5 


38 


75 


113 


150 


188 


225 


6 


45 


90 


135 


180 


225 


270 


7 


53 


105 


158 


210 


263 


315 


8 


60 


120 


180 


240 


300 


360 


9 


68 


135 


203 


270 


338 


405 


10 


75 


150 


225 


300 


375 


450 


20 


150 


300 


450 


600 


750 


900 


30 


225 


450 


675 


900 


1125 


1350 


40 


300 


600 


900 


1200 


1500 


1800 


50 


375 


750 


1125 


1500 


1875 


2250 


60 


450 


900 


1350 


1800 


2250 


2700 


70 


525 


1050 


1575 


2100 


2625 


3150 


80 


600 


1200 


1800 


2400 


3000 


3600 


90 


675 


1350 


2025 


2700 


3375 


4050 


100 


750 


1500 


2250 


3000 


3750 


4500 


200 


1500 


3000 


4500 


6000 


7500 


9000 


300 


2250 


4500 


6750 


9000 


11250 


13500 


400 


3000 


6000 


9000 


12000 


15000 


18000 


500 


3750 


7500 


11250 


15000 


18750 


22500 


600 


4500 


9000 


13500 


18000 


22500 


27000 


700 


5250 


10500 


15750 


21000 


26250 


31500 


800 


6000 


12000 


18000 


24000 


30000 


36000 


900 


6750 


13500 


20250 


27000 


33750 


45000 


1000 


7500 


15000 


22500 


30000 


37500 


45000 



Facts for Builders. — 1000 shingles, laid 4 ins. to the weather, will 
cover 100 sq. ft. of surface, and 5 lbs. of shingle nails will fasten them on. 

One-:ifth more siding and flooring is needed than the number of sq. ft. 
of surface to be covered, because of the lap in the siding and matching. 

1000 laths will cover 70 yards of surface, and 11 lbs. of lath nails will nail 
them on. 8 bushels of good lime, 16 bushels of sand, and 1 bushel of hair, 
will make enough good mortar to plaster 100 sq. yds. 

A cord of stone, 3 bushels of lime, and a cubic yard of sand, will lay 100 
cubic ft. of wall. 

5 courses of brick will lay 1 ft. in height on a chimney, 16 bricks in a 
course will make a flue 4 ins. Avide and 12 ins. long, and 8 bricks in a 
course will make a flue 8 ins. wide and 16 ins. long. 



sq 



;ement, 1 bush., and sand, 2 bush., will cover 3% sq. yds. 1 in. thick, 4% 
yds. % inch thick, and 6% sq. yds. % iiich thick. I'bush. cement and 
I of sand will cover 21/4 sq. yds. 1 in. thick, 3 sq. yds. % inch thick, and 4^4 
sq. yds. i/^ inch thick. 

8 lbs. oi Asplialte Flooring composition will cover 1 superficial ft. %inch 
thick. 308 pounds of finely ground cement will make from 3*7 to 3-8 cubic 
feet of stiff paste. 1 cwt. of mastic and 1 gal. of oil will cover I14 yds. at 
%, or 2V2 at 14 in<^h in thickness. Pointing Mortar consists, by weight, of 
finely ground cement, 1 part to from 3 to 314 parts of fine silicious sand, 
mix under cover, in small quantities at a time. 



EXPANSION OF BODIES, ETC. 



133 



Expansion Am) Contraction op Bodies. — The following tablo 
exhibits the linear dilatation of yarious bodies from 32° to 212°, ac- 
ording to Laplace, Smeaton, Roy, etc. 



Flint glass 

Glass (barometer tubes)... . 

" solid rod 

" cast, prism of 

Platinum, per Borda 

Palladium, per Wollaston . 
Gold (French standard) . . . 
Silver (French standard). , 

Copper 8 parts, tin 1 

Copper 

Copper 2, zinc 1 

Brass 16, tin 1 , 

Brass wire , 

Brass cast 

Solder, tin 1, lead 2 

Bismuth 

Speculum metal 

Iron 

Steel (yellow temper) 

Tin, Falmouth 

Lead 

Zinc 

Mercury, in volume 

Water 

Alcohol 

All the gases 



a 



T^V"? 



00 



1^1 



1 
T16T 
__1 

1000 

'efl'T 

"^24 



Ts' 



1 

1200 

to 

1 
923 



1 



_1 

819 
_1 
8 0T 

¥60 

TFT 



1 00 

5550 

1 

YF 

1. 



1 

TFO 
TST 
f¥6 
■52T 

tIt 

_1 
5?F 

399 

yr¥ 
_1 • 

517 

1 

T15T 

T38" 



^ 



^1 

1161 



H 



^1 

1131 



1 

146 



1 



1 



1 



1 

840 



O 



ToT 



1 
521 



T^'i 



Mercury freezes at 40° below zero, and melts at 39°. Ether freezes 
at 470 below zero; wine freezes at 20°; sea water freezes at 2803. 
Alcohol has been exposed to 110° and 120° below zero without freez- 
n^T^^r.-^^^^ decomposes at a red heat. The second's pendulum, of 
39.1o9 ins., IS lengthened by 30° of temperature 128th of an inch, or 8 
vibrations in 24 hours. 

-n^T'*® ^^®^* conducting powers of metals, etc., are as foUows: Gold, 
l^V Pono'n"]'' ?^1^A^^^'^^'\^^^5 copper, 898.2; iron, 374.3; zinc 
363; tin, 303*9; lead, 179.6; marble, 23.6; porcelain, 12.2; fine clay, II.4! 
.^^;i*t^°^® ^^^^^ ^* l^s- of ice; 1 lb. of coal, 90 lbs.; 1 lb. of 
wood, 52 lbs. ; 1 lb. of charcoal, 95 lbs. ; 1 lb. of peat, 19 lbs. The 
capacity of the solar heat all over the globe is the ability to melt an 
icy covenng 46 feet in thickness. 

6 lbs. wliite lead added to 1 gal. tar varnish, aaid applied as paint, will 
prevent damp commg through walls. ^ 



1.^4 DYERS AND bleachers' RECEIPTS. 

To Prevent Decay of Farhi Iimtlements.— Wlien not iu uso 
have them sheltered from the siiii, -wind, rain, and snow. By this 
means, sleighs, wagons, carts, ploughs, threshing-machines, har- 
rows, and the like, would last twice as lon^ as they would ii left in 
the open air, swelling from moisture one week, and shrinking the 
next from the influence of the sun and wind. 

Oiling ok Cleaning old CAiiRiACE-Tors. — ^Enamel leather-tops 
sliould bo first washed with Castile soap and warm water, then 
oiled vrith neat's-foot oil ; or sweet oil and a coat of enamel vamisli 
put on, the leather will look lilce new. Dashes may be cleaned in the 
same manner, but vaiiiish color is not very beneficial to patent 
leather ; howcvei", when old and cracked, it may be colored to 
improve the appearance. 

DYERS, BLEACHERS, AND CLOTHIERS' 
DEPARTMENT. 

Tn accommodation to tlie requirements of dj^crs, many of the 
following receipts describe dyes for large quantities of goods, 
bat to make them equally adapted for tlie uso of private fam- 
ilies they are usually given in even quantities, so that it is quite 
an easy matter to ascertain the quantity of materials required for 
dj'cing, when once the weight of the goods is laiown ; the quantity 
of materials used being reduced in proportion to the smaller quantity 
of goods. 

Use soft water for all dyeing purposes, if it can be procured, 
using 4 gals, water to 1 lb. of goods ; for larger quantities, a little less 
water Avill do. Let all the implements used in dj'cing be kept 
perfectly clean. Prepare the goods by scourmg well with soap 
and water, washing the soap well out and dipping in 
warm water, previous to immersion in the dye or mordant. Goods 
gliould be well aired, rinsed, and properly hung up after dyeing. 
Silks, and fine goods should be tenderly handled, otherwise injury to 
the fabric will result. 

Saxon Blue. — For 100 lbs. tliibet or comb yam, use alum, 20 lbs., 
cream of tartar 3 lbs., mordant 2 lbs. ; extract of indigo 3 lbs., or 
carmine 1 lb., makes a better color. When all is dissolved cool the 
kettle to 180° Falir. ; enter and handle quickly at first, then let it boil 
^ hour, or until even. Long boiling dims the color. Zephyr worsted 
yam ought to be prepared, first by boiling it in a solution of alum 
and sulphuric acid, then the indigo is added afterwards. 

Gkeen Fustic Dve. — For 50 ibs. of goods use 50 lbs. of fustic with 
alum 11 lbs. Soak in water until the strength is extracted, put in the 
goods until of a good yellow color, remove the chips, and add extract 
of indigo iu small quantities at a time, until the color is satisfactory. 

Purple Blue on Wool. — 100 lbs. of wool are first dipped in tlie 
blue vat to a light shade, then boiled in a solution of 15 lbs. of alum, 
and 3 lbs. of half refined tartar, for 1^ hours, the wool taken out, 
cooled, and let stand 24 hours. Then "boil in fresh water 8 lbs. of 
powdered cochineal for a few minutes, cool the kettle to 170° Fahr. ; 
liandle the prepared wool in this for 1 hour, when it is ready to cool, 
rinse, and dry. By coloring first with cochineal, as aforesaid, and 



DYEKS AXD BLEACnEKS' nECEIPTS. 135 

finisliiug in the blue vat, the fast purple or dahlia, so much admired 
iu German broadcloths, will be produced. Tin acids must not be used 
in this color. 

Blue Dye for Hosieet.— 100 lbs. of wool are colored with 4 lbs. 
Guatemala or 3 lbs. Bengal indigo, in the soda or wood vat ; then 
boLL in a kettle a few minutes, 5 lbs. of cudbear or 8 lbs. of orchil 
paste ; add 1 lb. of soda, or better, 1 pail of urine, then cool the dye 
to about 170° Fahr. ; and enter the wool. Handle well for about 20 
minutes, then take it out, cool, rinse, and dry. It is all tlie same i£ 
the cudbear is put in before or alter the indigo. 3 ozs. of 
analine purple dissolved in alcohol, ^ pt, can be used instead of 
the cudbear. ("Wood spirit is cheaper than alcohol, and is much used 
now by dyers for the purpose of dissolvuig analine colors). It pro- 
duces a very pretty shade, but should never be used on mixed goods 
which have to be bleached. 

Logwood akd Ixdigo Blue Dye for Cloth. — 100 lbs. of cloth, 
color the cloth first by one or two dips in the vat of indigo blue, and 
1 inse it well, then boil it in a solution of 20 lbs. of alum, 2 lbs. of half 
refined tartar, and 5 lbs. of mordant, for 2 hours, then take it out and 
cool. In fresh water boil 10 lbs. of good logwood for half an hour 
in a bag or otherwise ; cool off to 170° Fahr. before entering ; 
handle well over a reel, let it boil for liaK an hour, then take it out, 
cool, and rinse. This is a very firm blue. 

Dye for Wool or Silk. — Color between Purple and Blue. For 
40 lbs. of goods, take bi-chromate of iDotash 8 ozs., alum 1 lb., dissolve 
all and bring the water to a boil, and put m the goods ; boil 1 hour ; 
then empty the dye, and make a new dye with logAvood 8 lbs., or cx- 
ti'act of. logwood 1 lb. 4 ozs., and boil m this 1 hour longer. Grade 
the color by using more or less logwood, as you wish it dark or light 
in the color. 

New Bleach for "Wool, Silk, or Straw. — Mix together 4 lbs. 
oxalic acid, 4 lbs. table salt, water 50 gals. The goods arc laid in this 
mixture for 1 hour, they are then generally well bleached, and only 
require to be tlioroughly rinsed and worked. For bleaching straw it 
is best to soak the goods in caustic soda, and afterwards to make use 
of chloride of lime or Javelle water. The excess of chlorine is after- 
wards removed by hyposulphite of soda. 

To Fix Dyes. — Neio Process. Mr. Kipping, of ^Manchester, England, 
has a new process of fixing dyes. He dissolves 20 ozs. of gelatine in 
water, and adds 3 ozs. of bichromate of potash. This is done in a dark 
room. The coloring matter is then added and the goods submitted 
thereto ; after which they are exposed to the action of light ; the 
pigment thus becomes insoluble in water and the color is fast. 

Scarlet with Lac Dye.— For 100 lbs, of flannel or yam, take 25 
lbs, of ground lac dye, 15 lbs. of scarlet spirit (made as per directions 
below), 5 lbs. of tartar, lib. of flavine, or according to shade, 1 lb. of tin 
crystals, 5 lbs. of muriatic acid. Boil all for 15 minutes, then cool the 
dye to 170° Fahr. ; enter the goods, and handle them quiclcly at first. 
Let them boil 1 hour, rinse them while j'ct hot, before the gum and 
impurities harden. This color stands scouring with soap better than 
cochineal scarlet. To this dye, a small quantity of sulphuric acid may 
be used, as it dissolves the gum. 

Muriate of Tin or Scarlet Spirit.— Take IG lbs. muriatic 



136 DYEKS AXD BLEACHEIIS' RECEIPTS. 

acid, 22° B., 1 lb. featlierecl tui, water 2 lbs. Tlie acid should be put 
in a stone ware pot, and the tin added, and allow to dissolve ; tlie 
mixture should be kept a few days before using. The tin is feathered 
or granulated by meltmg in a suitable vessel, and pouring it from a 
height of about 5 feet into a pailful of water. This is a most power- 
ful agent in certam colors, such as scarlets, oranges, pinks, &c. 

Scarlet Dve with Cochixeal. — For 50 lbs. of wool, yam, or 
cloth, use cream of tartar 1 lb. 9 ozs. ; cochineal pulverized, 12^ ozs., 
muriate of tm or scarlet spirit 8 lbs. ; after boiling the dve, enter tlie 
goods, work them well for 15 minutes, then boil them 1^ liours, slowly 
agitating the goods while boiling, wash in clean water/and dry out of 
the smi, 

PuiiPLE Dye. — ^For 40 lbs. of goods, use alum 3 lbs., muriate of tin 
4 tea cups, pulverized cochineal 1 lb., cream of tai-tar 2 lbs. Boil the 
alum, tin, and cream of tartar, for 20 minutes, add the cochineal and 
boil 5 minutes, immerse the goods 2 hours, remove and enter them in 
a new dye composed of Brazil wood 3 lbs., logwood 7 lbs., alum 4 lbs., 
muriate"of tin 8 cupfuls, adding a little extract of indigo, made as 
follows : 

CHE:\nc Blueing or Extract of I^tjigo. — Take oil of vitriol 2 lbs., 
and stir into it finely, pulverized indigo 8 ozs., stirring briskly for the 
lirst ^ hour, then cover it up, and stir 4 or 5 times daily for a few days, 
then add a little pulverized chalk, stirring it up, and keep adding it 
as long as it foams ; it will neutralize the acid. Keep it closely corked. 

Light Silver Drab. — For 50 lbs. of goods use logwood ^ lb., 
alum, about the same quantity ; boil well, enter the goods, and dip 
them for 1 hour. Grade the color to any desired shade, by using 
equal parts of logwood and alum. 

Chrome Black for Wool. — ^For 40 lbs. of goods, use blue vitriol 
3 lbs. , boil it a short time, then dip the wool or fabric f of an hour, 
airing frequently ; take out the goods, and make a dye with logwood 
24 lbs. ; boil | hour, dip g of an liour, air the goods, and dip ^ of an 
hour longer, wash in strong soap suds. A good fast color. 

Black Drs on Wool, for Mixtures. — For 50 lbs. of wool take 
bi-chromate of potash 1 lb. 4 ozs., ground argal 15 ozs., boil together 
and put in the fabric, stirring well, and let it remain in the dye 5 
hours ; take it out, rinse slightly in clean water, then make a new dye, 
into which put logwood 17^ lbs. Boil 1^ hours, adding chamber lye 5 
IDts. Let the fabric remain in all night, and wash out in clean water. 

Red j\Iadder. — ^This color is mostly used for army uniforms, &c 
To 100 lbs. of fabric use 20 lbs. of alum, 5 lbs. of tartar, and 5 lbs. of 
muriate of tin. AVhcn these are dissolved, enter the goods, and let 
them boil for 2 liours, then take them out, let cool, and lay over night 
Into fresh water, stir 75 lbs. of good madder, and enter the fabric at i20<3 
Fahr, and bring it up to 200° in the course of an hour, handle well to 
secure evenness, then rinse and dry. 

Dark Snuff Brown on Wool.— For 50 lbs. of goods, take cam- 
wood 10 lbs., boil for 20 mmutes, then dip the goods for | of an hour, 
then take them out, and add to the dye, fustic 25 lbs.; boil 12 minutes 
and dip the goods f of an hour, then add blue vitriol 10 ozs., copperas 
2 lbs. 8 ozs., dip again 40 minutes; add more coi^peras if the shade is 
required darker. 

Wine Color Dye.— For 50 lbs. of goods use camwood 10 lbs., boil 



DTERS AND BLEACHEKS' KECEIPTS. 137 

20 rainutes, dip the goods ^ hour, boll again, nnd dip 40 niinntes, 
then darken witli blue vitriol 15 ozs., and should you wish it darker, 
add 5 lbs. of copperas. 

Pink Dye fok Wool.— For 00 lbs. of goods, tike alnm 5 lbs. 12 
ozs., boil and immerse tlie goods 50 minutes, then add to the dye 
cochineal well pulverized, 1 lb. 4 ozs., crean; of tiiitar, 5 lbs., boil and 
enter the goods while boiling, until the color is satisfactory. 

Dark Blue Dve. — SiiiUible for Thibeis and Lastings. Boil 100 
lbs. of the fabric for I5 hours in a solution of alum 25 lbs., taitar 4 
lbs., mordant lbs., extract of indigo 6 lbs. ; cool them as usual. Boil 
in freshwater from 8 to 10 lbs. of logwood, in a bag or otheiT\'ise, then 
cool the dye to 170° Fahr. ; reel the fabric quickly at first, then let it 
boil strongly for 1 hour. This is a verj'^ good imitation of indigo blue. 

Orange Dye. — For 50 lbs. of goods, use argal 3 lbs., muriate of tin 
1 qt, boil and dip 1 hour; then ffdd to the dye, fustic 25 lbs., madder 
2^ qts., and dip again 40 minutes. If preferred, cochineal 1 lb. 4 ozs. 
may be used iiist^ad of the madder, as a better color is induced by it. 

Sky Blue on Cotton. — GO lbs. of goods, blue vitriol 5 lbs. Boil 
a short time, then enter the goods, dip 3 hours, and transfer to a bath 
of strong lime water. A fine broion color will be imparted to the goods 
ii they are then put through a solution of prussiate of potash. 

A Brown Dye on Wool may be induced by a decoction of oak 
bark, with variety of shade according to the quantity employed. If 
tlie goods be first passed through a mordant of alum the color will be 
brightened. 

iTj{OWN on Cotton. — Catechu or terra japonica gives cotton a 
brown color, blue vitriol tunis it on the bronze, green copperas darkens 
it, when applied as a mordant and the stuff boiled in the bath boiling 
hot. Acetate of alumina as a mordant, brightness it. The French 
color named " Caiinelite " is given with catechu lib., Tcrdigris4 ozs., 
and sal-ammoniac 5 ozs. 

Brown oii Wool and Silk. — ^Infusion or decoction of walnut 
peels dyes wool and silk bro^^^l color, which is brightened by alum, 
llorse-chestnut peels also imi^art a brown color; a mordant of muriate 
of tin turns it on the bronze, and sugar of lead the reddish broion. 

Solitaire. — Sulphate or muriate of manganese dissolved in water 
with a little tartaric acid imparts this beautiful bronze tint. The 
stuff after being put through the solution must be turned through a 
weak lye of potash, and afterwards tlirough another of chloride of 
lime, to brighten and fix it. Prussiate of copper gives a bronze or 
yelloxoish broion color to silk. The piece well mordanted with blue 
^itriol, may be passed through a solution ot prussiate of potash. 

Fuller's Purifier for Cloths.— Dry, pulverize, and sift the 
following mgredients : Fuller's earth 6 lbs., French chalk 4 ozs., pipe 
clay 1 lb. ; make into a paste with rectified oil of turpcntme 1 oz., 
alcohol 2 ozs., melted oil soap 1^ lbs. Compound the mixture into 
cakes of any desired size, for sale if required, keeping them in water, 
or small wooden boxes. 

Green on Cotton. — For 40 lbs. of goods, use fustic 10 lbs., blue 
vitriol 10 ozs. , soft soap 2^ qts. , and logwood chips 1 lb. 4 ozs. Soak 
the logwood over night in a brass vessel, put it on the fire in the 
momii^ adding the other ingredients. W^hcn quite hot it is ready for 
dyeing ; enter the goods at once, and handle well. Different shades 



138 DYEIIS AND BLEACnERS' RECEIPTS. 

may be obtained by Icttuig part of the goods remain longer in the 
dye. 

"PiXK DvE FOR Cotton. — For 40 lbs. of goods, use redwood 20 
lbs., muriate of tin 2^ lbs. ; boil the redwood 1 hour, tuni off into a 
large vessel, add the muriate of tin, and put in the goods, let it stand 
a few minutes (5 or 10), and a nice pink will be produced. It is quite 
a fast color. 

ruiiPLE Dye for Silk.— For 10 lbs. of goods, enter your goods in 
blue dye bath, and secure a light blue color, dry, and dip in a warm 
solution containing alum 21 lbs. Should a deeper color be required, 
add a little extract of indigo. 

Yellow on Silk. — For 10 lbs. goods, use sugar of lead 7h ozs., 
alum 2 lbs., enter the goods and let them remain 12 hours, remove 
them, drain, and make a new dye with fustic 10 lbs. Immerse luitil 
the color suits. 

PuiiPLE ON Cotton. — Get up a tub of hot logwood liquor, enter 3 
pieces, give them 5 ends, hedge out ; enter them into a clean alum 
tub, give them 5 ends, hedge out; get up another tub of log^vood 
liquor, enter, give them o ends, hedge out ; renew your alum tub, 
give them 5 ends in that, and finish. 

Black on Cotton.— For 40 lbs. goods, use sumac 30 lbs., boil £ 
hour, let the goods steep over night, and immerse them in lime w-ater 
40 minutes, remove, and allow them to drip £ hour, now add copperas 

4 lbs. to the sumac liquor, and dij) 1 hour more ; next work tbem 
tlirough lime water for 20 minutes, next make a new d^^e of log^wood 
20 lbs., boil 2^ hours, and enter the goods 3 hours, then add bi-chro- 
mate of potash 1 lb. to the new dye, and diiD 1 hour more. "Work in 
clean cold water and dry out of the sun. 

Red Dye for Wool. — For 40 lbs. of goods, make a tolerably thick 
j^aste of lac dye and sulphuric acid, and allow it to stand for a daj'. 
Now take tartar 4 lbs., tin liquor 2 lbs, 8 ozs., and 3 lbs. of the above 
])aste, make a hot bath with sufRcient water, and enter the goods for 

5 hour, afterwards carefully rinse and dry. 

Yellow on Cotton. — For 40 lbs. goods, use sugar of lead 3 lbs. 
8 ozs., dip the goods 2 hours. Make a new dye with bi-chromate of 
iiotnash 2 lbs., dip mi til the color suits, wring out and dry, if not yellow 
enough repeat the operation. 

Violet Dye on Silk or "Wool. — A good violet dye may be given 
by passing the goods first through a solution of verdigris, then through 
a decoction of logwood, and lastly alum water. A fast violet may be 
given by dyeing the goods crimson with cochmeal, without alum or 
tartar, and after rinsing, passing them througli the indigo vat. 
Linens or Cottons are first galled with 18°lo of gall nuts, next passed 
tlirough a mordant of alum, iron liquor, and sulphate of copper, 
workhig them well, then worked in a madder bath made with an 
equal weight of root, and lastly brightened with soap or soda. 

Slate Dye on Silk. — For a small quantity, take a pan of warm 
water, and about a teacupful of logwood liquor, pretty strong, and a 
niece of pearlash the size of a nut ; take gray colored goods and 
Iiandle a little in this liquid, and it is finished. If too much logwood 
is used, the color will be too dark. A Straw color on silk.— Use 
smartweed, boil in a brass vessel, and set with alum. 

Lilac Dye on Silk.— For 5 lbs. of silk, iiso archil 7Mbs., mix it 



DYERS AND BLEACUERS' RECEIPTS. 139 

•well with the liquor ; make it boil ^ hour, dip the silk quickly, then 
let it cool, aud wash it in river water, aud a fine half violet, or lilac, 
more or less full, Avill be obtained. 

GRiiEisr Dye on Silk. — Take green ebony, boil it in water, and 
let it settle ; take the clear liquor as hot as you can bear your hands 
in it and handle your goods in it until of a bright yellow ; then talce 
Avater and put in a little sulphate of indigo ; handle your goods in this 
till of the shade desired. The ebony may previously be boiled in a 
bag to prevent it sticking to the silk. 

Brown on Silk. — Dissolve annatto 1 lb., pearlash 4 lbs., in boiling 
water, and pass tlie silk through it for 2 hours, then take it out, 
squeeze it well and dry ; next give it a mordant of alum, and pass it 
first through a bath of Brazil-wood, and afterwards tlirough a bath 
of logwood to Avhich a little green copperas has been added, wring it 
out and dry, afterwards rinse well. 

BiiowN Dye on Cotton or Linen.— Give the pieces a mixed 
mordant of acetate of alumina and acetate of iron, and then dye them 
in a bath of madder, or madder and fustic, Avheu the acetate of 
alumina predominates the dye has an amaranth tint. A cinnamon 
tint is obtained by first giviiig a mordant of alum, tlien a madder 
bath, then a bath of fustic, to which a little green copperas has been 
added. 

Mulberry on Silk. — For 5 lbs. of silk, use alum 1 lb. 4 ozs., dip 
50 mmutes, wash out, and malce a dye with Brazil-wood 5 ozs., and 
logwood 1^ ozs, by boiling together; dip in this ^ hour, then add more 
Brazil-wood aud lo.gwood, equal parts, imtil the color suits. 

Green Dye on Wool and Silk. — Equal quantities of yelloAv oak 
and hickory bark, make a 'strong yellow bath by boiling, shade to the 
desired tint by adding a small quantity of extract of indigo. 

Orange Dye. — For 40 lbs of goods, use sugar of lead 2 lbs., boil 
13 minutes, when a little cool, enter the goods,' and dip for 2 hours, 
wring them out, make a fresh dye witli bi-chromate of potash, 4 lbs., 
madder 1 lb., immerse until of the desired color. The shade may be 
varied by dipping in lime water. 

Blue on Cotton. — For 40 lbs. of goods, use copperas 2 lbs., boil 
and dip 20 minutes, then dip In soap suds, and return to tlie dye 3 or 
4 times ; then make a new bath with prussiate of potivsh ^ lb., oil of 
vitriol 1^ pts. ; boil ^ hour, rinse out and dry. 

SOLFERINO AND MAGENTA DyES ON WlIlTE "WOOLLEN, SiLK, OR 

Cotton ani> Woollen Mixtures.— For 1 lb. of woollen goods, 
Magenta shade, 96 grs, apothecaries' weight, of aniline red, will bo 
required; dissolve in a little warm alcohol; using say (i fluid ozs. of 
alcohol, or about G gills alcohol per oz, of aniUno. Many dyers use 
wood spirit because of its cheapness, For a Solferino shade, use (H 
grs. aniline red, dissolved in 4 ozs. alcoliol, to each 1 lb. of goods. 
Cold Avater 1 eft. will dissolve these small quantities of aniline red, 
but the cleanest and quickest way will be foimd by using the alcohol, 
or wood spirit. Clean the cloth and goods by steeping at a gentlo 
heat in weak soap suds, rinse in several messes of clean Avater and lay 
aside moist. The alcoholic solution of aniline is to be added from time 
to time to the warm or hot dye bath, till the color on tlie goods is of 
the desired shade. The goods are to be removed from the dye bath 
before each addition of tho alcohoUo solution, and the bath is to bo 



140 DYERS AND BLEACHERS' RECEIPTS. 

well stirred before the goods are returned. The alcoliolic solution 
should be first dropped into a little water, and well mixed, aud the 
mixture should then be strained into the dye bath. If the color is 
not dark enough after working from 20 to 30 minutes, repeat the re- 
moval of the goods from the bath, and the addition of the solution, 
and the re-immersion of the goods from 15 to 30 minutes more, or un- 
til suited, then remove from the bath, and rinse in several messes of 
clean water, and dry in the shade. Use about 4 gals, water for dye- 
bath for 1 lb. of goods; less watei? for larger quantities. 

Liquid Dye Colors. — 1. Blue. Dilute Saxon blue or sulphate of 
indigo with water. If required for delicate work, neutralize with 
chalk. 2. Purple. Add a little alum to a strained decoction of log- 
wood. 3. Green. Dissolve sap green in water aud add a little alum. 
4. Yellow. Dissolve aimatto in a weak lye of subcarbonate of soda or 
potash. 5. Golden color. Steep French berries in hot water, strain, 
and add a little gum and alum. G. Red. Dissolve carmine in am- 
monia, or in wealc carbonate of potash water, or infuse i^owdered 
cochineal in water, strain, and add a little gum in water. The pre- 
ccdmg colors, thickened with a little gum, may be used as inks in 
writing, eras colors to tint maps, foils, artificial flowers, &c., or to 
paint on velvet. 

To Cleaxse Wool. — Make a hot bath composed of water 4 parts, 
urine 1 part, enter the wool, teasing and opening it' out to admit the 
full action of the liqiiid ; after 20 minutes' immersion, remove from 
the liquid and allow it to drain, then rinse it in clean ruiming water, 
and spread out to dry. The liquid is good for subsequent operations, 
only keep up the proportions, and use no soap. 

Starch Lustre. — A portion of stearine, the size of an old-fashioned 
cent, added to starch | half lb., aud boiled with it for 2 or 3 minutes 
%A'ill add greatly to the beauty of linen, to which it may be applied. 
See also Starch Polish under "the Grocers' Department. 

To Dye Hats. — The hats should be at first strongly gaUed by 
boiling them a long time in a decoction of galls with a little logwood, 
that the dye may penetrate the better into their substance ; after 
which a proper quantity of vitriol and decoction of logwood, with a 
little verdigris, are added, and the hats continued in this mixture for 
a considerable time. They are afterwards put into a fresh liquor of 
logwood, galls, vitriol, and veirdigris, and, when the hats are of great 
I)rice, or of a hair which with difficulty takes the dye, the same pro- 
cess is repeated a third time. For obtaming the most perfect color, 
the hair or wool is dyed blue previously to its being formed into 
hats. 

CnESTxuT Brown ois" Straw Bojtkets.— For 25 hats, use ground 
ganders 1^ lbs., ground curcuma 2 lbs., powdered gall nuts, or sumac ^ 
lb., rasped logwood J^ lb. Boil all together with the hats in a largo 
kettle (so as not to crowd), for 2 hours, then withdraw the liats, rinse, 
and let them remain overnight in a bath of nitrate of 4° Baume, when 
they are washed. A darker brown may be obtained by ijicreasing the 
quantity of sanders. To give the hats the desired lustre, they are 
brushed with a brush of dog's (couch) grass, when dry. 

Violet Dye on Straw Bonnets. — Take alum 4 lbs., tartaric 
ftcid 1 lb,, chloride of tin 1 lb. Dissolve and boil, allow the hat3 to 



DYERS AND BLEACHERS' RECEIPTS. 141 

remain in the boiling solution 2 hours, then add as much of a decoction 
of logwood and carmine of indigo as is requisite to induce the desired 
shade, and lastly, rinse finally in water in which some alum has been 
dissolved. 

SiL,VEu Grey Dye on Straw. — For 25 hats, select your whitest hats 
and soften them in a bath of crystallized soda to which some clean 
lime water has been added. See " Lime water" below. Boil for 2 
hours in a large vessel, using for a bath a decoction of the following, 
\\z. : alum 4 lbs., tartaric acid g lb., some ammoniacal cochineal, and 
carmine of indigo ; a little sulphuric acid may be necessary in order to 
neutralize the alkali of the cochineal dye. If the last-mentioned 
ingredients are used, let the hats remain for an hour longer in the 
boiling bath, then rinse in slightly acidulated water. 

Lime AVatek For Dyers' Use. — Put stone lime 1 lb., and strong 
lime water 1^ lbs. into a pail of water ; rummage Avell for 7 or 8 
minutes, tlicn let it rest until the lime is precipitated and the water 
clear; add this quantity to a tubful of clear water. 

Dark SteeFj Color. — Mix blaclc and white wool together in the 
proportion of 50 lbs. of black wool to 7^ lbs. of white. For large or 
small quantities keep the same proportion, mixing carefully and 
thoroughly. 

To IIexder Aniline Colors Soluble in "Water. — A solution of 
gelatine in acetic acid of almost the consistence of S3'rups is first made, 
and the aniline in fine powder is gradually added, stirring all the time 
so as to make a homogeneous paste. The mixture is then to be heated 
over a water bath to the temperature of boiling water and kept at 
that heat for some time. 

Aniline Green on Silk. — ^Iodine green or night green dissolves 
easily in warm water. For a liquid dye, 1 lb. may be dissolved va 1 
gal. alcohol, and mixed ^vith 2 gals, water, containing 1 oz. sulphuris 
acid. 

To Dye Aniline Scarlet. — For every 40 lbs. of goods, dissolve 
5 lbs. white vitriol (sulphate of zinc) at 180° Fah., place the goods 
into this bath for 10 minutes, then add the color, i)repared by boiling 
for a few minutes, 1 lb. aniline scarlet in 3 gals, water, stirring the 
same continually. This solution has to be filtered before being add- 
ed to the bath. The goods remain in the latter for 15 minutes, when 
they have become browned and must be boiled for another half hour 
in the same bath after the addition of sal-ammoniac. The more of 
this is iidded the deeper will be the shade. 

Bismarck Brown for dyeing. — Mix together 1 lb. Bismarck, 5 
gals, water, and f lb. sulphuric acid. This paste dissolves easily in 
liot water and may be used directly for dyeing. A liquid dye may 
be prepared by malcing the bulk of the above mixture, to 2 gals. Avith 
alcohol. To dye vnWx the above mixture, sour with sulphuric acid ; 
add a quantity of sulphate of soda, immerse the wool, and add the 
color by small i)ortions, keeping the temperature under 212° Fah. 
Very interesting shades may be developed by combining the color 
Avith indigo paste or picric acid. 

To Dye Wool with Aniline Green. — For wool, prepare two 
baths, one contaimng the dissolved dye and a quantity of carbonate 
of soda or borax. In this the wool is placed, and the temperature is 
mised to 212^ Fah. A greyish green is produced, which must be 



142 DYEES AND BLEACHERS' RECEIPTS. 

briglitened and fixed in a second bath of -u-ater 100° Fall., to -u-hich 
some acetic acid lias been added. Cotton requires preparation by 
sumac. 

Aniline Blue. — To 100 lbs. of fabric dissolve IJ lbs. aniline 
blue in 3 qts. hot alcohol ; strain through a filter and add it to a 
bath of 130° Fah. ; also 10 lbs. glauber salts, and 5 lbs. acetic acid. 
Enter the goods and handle them well for 20 minutes ; next heat it 
slowly to 200° Fah. ; then add 5 lbs. sulphuric acid diluted with water. 
Let tiie whole boil 20 minutes longer ; then rinse and dry. If the 
aniline be added in two or three proportions during the process of 
coloring, it will facilitate the evenness of the color. 

Aniline Red. — Enclose the aniline in a small muslin bag ; have a 
kettle (tin or brass) fiUed with moderately hot water and rub the sub- 
stance but. Then immerse the goods to be colored, and in a short 
time they are done. It improves the color to wrmg the goods out of 
strong soap suds before putting them in the dye. Tliis is a permanent 
color on wool or silk. 

Aniline Violet ant> Pukple. — Acidulate the bath by sulphuric 
acid, or use sulphate of soda ; both these substances render the shade 
bluish. Dye at 212° Fah. To give a fair middle shade to 10 lbs. of 
wool, a quantity of solution equal to | to f ozs. of the soUd dye will be 
required. The color of the dyed fabric is improved by washing in soap 
and water, and then passing through a batli soured by sulphuric acid. 

Aniline Black for Dyeing. — ^Water 20 to 30 parts, chlorate of 
potassa 1 part ; sal-ammoniac 1 part ; chloride of copper 1 part ; 
aniline hydrochloric acid, of each 1 part, previously mixed together. 
It is essential that the preparation should be acid, and the more acid 
it is the more rapid will be the production of the blacks; if too much 
so, it may injure the fabric. 

New Mordant for Aniline Colors. — ^Immerse the goods for 
some hours in a bath of cold water in which chloride or acetate of 
zinc has been dissolved until the solution shows 2° Baume ; for the 
wool the mordanting bath should be at a boihng heat, and the goods 
should also be placed in a warm bath of tauniu, 90° Fah., for half an 
hour. In dyeing, a hot solution of the color must be used to which 
should be added, in the case of the cotton, some chloride of zinc, 
and, in the case of the wool, a certain amount of tannin solution. 

To Dye Aniline Yellow. — This color is slightly soluble in 
water, and for dyers' use may be used directly for the preparation of 
the bath dye, but is best used by dissolving 1 lb. of dye in .2 gals, 
alcohol. Temperature of bath should be under 200° Fah. The color 
is much improved and brightened by a trace of sulphuric acid. 

To Dye with Alkali Blue and Nicholson's Blue. — Dissolve 1 
lb. of the dye in 10 gals, boiling water, add this by small portions to 
the dye bath, which, should be rendered alkaline by borax. Tlie 
fabric should be weU worked about between each addition of the 
color. The temperature must be kept under 212° Fah. To develop 
the color, wash with water and pass through a bath containing sul- 
phuric acid. - - 

Aniline Brown Dye. — ^Dissolve 1 lb. of the brown in 2 gals, of 
spirit, specific gravity 8200, add a sufficient quantity to the dye batli, 
and immerse the fabric. Wool possesses a very strong affinity for 
this color and no mordant is required. 



DYERS AND BLEACHERS' RECEIPTS. 143 

To Extract Oil Spots froim Finished Goods. — Saturate tne spot 
■with benziue, then i^lacc two pieces of very soft blottiug paper under 
and two upon it, press "well Avitk a, liot iron, and tlie grease will Le 
absorbed. 

To Preser\t; Goods axd Clothing froji Meldew. — Alum, 2 lbs., 
dissolved in 00 lbs. water ; blue vitriol, 2 lbs., dissolved in 8 lbs. of 
water ; to wliick is added gelatine 1 lb., dissolved in 30 lbs. of water ; 
acetate of lead, h lb. dissolved in 30 lbs. of water. The solutions arc 
all hot, and separately mixed, with the exception of the vitriol, which 
is added. 

To Bleach Feathers. — Place the feathers from 3 to 4 hours in a 
tepid dilute solution of hi-chromate of potassa, to which, cautiously', 
some nitric acid iias been added (a small quantity only). To remove 
a greenish hue induced by this solution, ]:)]ace them in a dilute so- 
lution of sulphuric acid, in water, whereby the feathers hecomc 
perfectly Avhite and bleached. 

To Clean Straw Bonnets. — First, brush them with soap and 
water, then with a solution of oxalic acid. 

Crimson. — For 1 lb. of silk, alum, 3 oz. ; dip at hand-heat, 1 hour; 
take out and drain, while making a new dye, by boiling, 10 minutes, 
cochineal, 3 oz. ; brused nut-galls, 2 oz. ; and cream of tartar, h oz. , in 
one pail of water; when a little cool, begin to dip, raising thelieat to 
a boil, continuing, to dip 1 hour ; wash, and diy. 

CINNA3ION or Brown on Cotton and Silk. — Give the goods as 
much color, from a solution of blue vitriol, 2 oz., to water, one gal,, as 
it will take up in dipping 15 minutes; then run it through lime-water; 
thisAvill make a beautiful sky-blue of much durability; it has now 
to be run through a solution of prussiate of potash, 1 oz., to water, 
1 gal. 

Aniline Black on Silk or Cotton. — ^Water, 20 to 30 parts, 
clilorate of potiissa, Ipart; sal-ammoniac, Ipart; chloride of copper, 
1 part; anilme, 1 part; and hydrocloric, 1 part; previously mixed 
together. The fabric or yam is dried in ageing rooms at a low tem- 
perature for 24 hours, and washed afterwards. 

To Color Straw Hats or Bonnets a BEAUTiFLTi Slate. — 
First, soak the bonnet in rather strong warm suds for 15 minutes to 
remove sizing or stiifening; then rinse in warm water, to get out the 
soap; now scald cudbear, 1 oz., in sufficient water to cover the hat or 
bcmiet ; work the bonnet in this dye, at 180° of heat, until you get a 
iight-purple, now have a bucket of cold-water, blued with the extract 
of indigo, ioz., and work or stir the bomiet in this, until the tint 
pleases; dry, then rinse out with cold water, and dry again in tho 
shade. If you get the purple too deei) in shade the final slate will be 
too dark. 

To Clean Ostrich Feathers. — Cut some white curd soap in 
rmnll pieces, pour boiling water on them and add a little pearl ash. 
When the soap is quite dissolved, and the mixture cool enough for 
tlie hand to bear, plunge the feathers into it, and draw them through 
tlic hand till the dirt appears squeezed out of them, pass them through 
a clean lather with some blue in it, then rinse them in cold water Avith 
blue to give them a good color. Beat them against the hand to shake 
off the water, and dry by shaking them near a fire. When perfectly 
dry, coil each fibre separately with a blunt knife, or ivory folder. 



144 DYERS AND ELEACHEES' KECEIPTS. 

To Clean Furs. — Por dark furs ; warm a, quantity of new bran in 
a pan, talcing care tliat it does not burn, to prevent Avliicli it must be 
brislily stirred. "When well warmed rub it thoroughly into the fur 
with the hand. Repeat this two or three times, then shake the fur, 
and give it another sharp brushing until free from dust. For white 
fncs; lay them on a table, and rub well with bran made moist Avith 
warm water, rub until quite dry, and afterwards with dry bran. The 
wet bran should be put on "with flannel, then dry with book muslui. 
Light furs, in addition to the above, should be well rubbed with mag- 
nesia or a piece of book muslin, after the bran jjiocess, against tho 
way of the fur. 

Washing Fluid, — Take 1 lb. sal soda, % lb. good stone lime, and 5 
qts. of water; boil a short time, let it settle, and i)our off the clear 
11 aid into a stone jug, and cork for use; soak your white clothes over 
night in simple water, wring out and soap wristbands, collars, and 
dirty or stained places ; have your boiler half filled with water just 
beginning to boil, then put in one common teacupf ul of fluid, stir and 
put in your clothes, and boil for half an hour, then rub lightly through 
one suds only, and all is complete. 

Chip ok. Straw Hats ok Bonnets may be dyed black by boiling 
them three or four liours in a strong liquor of logwood, adding a little 
copperas occasionally. Let the bonnets remam in the liquor all night ; 
then take out to dry in the air. If the black is not satisfactory, dye 
again after drying. Rub inside and out with a sponge moistened in 
line oil; then block. Red Dye. — Boil ground Brazil-wood in a ley of 
potash, and boil your straw hats, &c,, in it. Blue Dye. — ^Take a suffi- 
cient quantity of potash ley, 1 lb. of litmus or lacmus, ground ; make 
a decoction and then put in the straw, and boil it. 

Dv'ES for Hats. — The ordmary bath for dyeing hats, employed by 
the London manufactures, consists, for twelve dozen, of lil lbs, of 
logwood; 12 lbs. of green sulphate of iron or copperas; 7^ lbs. verdi- 
gris. The logwood having been introduced into the copper, and 
digested for some time, the copperas and verdigris are added iu suc- 
cessive quantities, and iu the above proportions, along with every 
successive two or three dozens of hats suspended upon the drippijig 
machine. Each set of hats, after being exposed to the bath Avitli 
occasional airings during forty minutes, is taken off the pegs, and laid 
out upon the ground to be more completely blackened by the peroxy- 
dizement of the iron with the atmospheric oxygen. In three or four 
hours, the dyeing is completed. When fully clyed, the hats are well 
washed in rmming water. 

Waterproof Stiffening for Hats. — Mix 18 lbs. of shellac with 
1\ lb. of salt of tartar (carbonate of potash), and 5^ gals, water. These 
materials are to be put in a kettle, and made to boil gradually till 
the lac is dissolved, Avhen the liquid will become as clear as water, 
without any scum upon the top, and if left to cool, will have a thin 
crust upon the surface, of whitish cast, mixed with the light impuri- 
ties of the gum. When this skin is taken off, the hat body is to bo 
dipped into the mixture in a cold state, so as to absorb as much as 
possible of it; or it may be applied with a brush or sponge. The hat 
1body,being thus stiffened, may stand till it becomes dry, ornearlyso; and 
after it has been brushed, it must be immersed in very dilute sulphuric 
or acetic acid, in order to neutralize the potash, and cause the shellac 



DYEKS AND BLEACHEKS' KECEIPTS 145 

to set. Iftliehats are not to be napped immediately, tliey may be 
thrown into a cistern of pure Avater, and taken ont as ■wanted. 

Method of Bleachixg Stiiaw. — Dip the straw in a solution of 
oxj-geuated mnriatic acid, saturated with potish. (Oxygenated 
muriate of lime is mucli cheaper). The straw is thus rendered very 
Avliite, and its flexibility is increased. 

Bleaching Stkaw Goods. — Straw is bleached by simply exposmcj 
it in a closed chamber to the fumes of burning sulphur, an old flour 
barrel is the apparatus most used for the purpose by milliners, a flat 
stone being laid on the ground, the sulphur ignited thereon, and the 
barrel containing the goods to be bleached tiu-ned over it. The goods 
should be previously washed in pure water. 

Varnish for faded Rubber Goods. — Black Japan varnish dilu- 
ted Avith a little linseed oil. 

To Bleach Ll^^E^r. — Mix common bleacliing-powder, iii the pro- 
portion of 1 lb. to a gallon of water ; stir it occasionally for three daj-s, 
let it settle, and pour it off clear. Then make a ley of 1 lb. of soda to 
1 gallon of boiling soft water, in which soak the linen for 12 hours, 
and boil it half an hour; next soak it in the bleaching liquor, made as 
above ; and lasth'', wash it in the usual mamaer. Discolored linen or 
muslm may be restored by putting a portion of bleaching liquor into 
the tub wherein the articles are soaking. 

Dye for Feathers. — Black : Imnierse for 2 or 3 days in a bath, 
at first hot, of logwood, 8 parts, and copperas or acetate of iron, 
1 part. Blue : with the indigo vat. Brown : by using any of the 
brown dyes for silk or wooUcn. Crimson : a mordant of alum, fol- 
lowed by a hot bath of Brazil wood, afterwards by a weak dye of 
cudbear. Pink or Rose: with saf-flower or lemon juice. Phan: 
Avith the red dye, followed by an alkalme bath. Red : a mordant of 
alum, followed by a bath of Brazil-wood. Yelloio : a mordant of 
alum, followed by a bath of turmeric or weld. Green Dye, Take of 
verdigris and verditer, of each 1 oz. ; gum water, 1 pt. ; mix them 
Avell and dip the feathers, they having been first soaked in hot water, 
into the said mixture. For Piirple, use lake and indigo. For Car- 
nation, vermilion and smalt. . Thiti gum or starch water should be 
used in dying feathers. 

Colors for Artificial Flowers. — The French employ velvet, 
fine cambric and ]cid for the petals, and taffeta for the leaves. Very 
recently thm plates of bleached whalebone haA-e been used for some 
portions of the artificial floAvers. Colors and Stains. Blue. — Indigo 
dissolved in oil of vitriol, and the acid partly neutralized Avith salt of 
tartar or whiting. Green. — A solution of distilled verdigris. Lilac. — 
Liquid archil. Red. — Carmine dissolved in a solution of salt of tar- 
tar, or in spirits of hartshorn. Violet. — Liquid archil mixed Avith a 
little salt of tartar. Yelloio. — Tincture of turmeric. T'he colors are 
generally applied with the fingers. 

Black Varnish for Chip and Straw Hats. — Best alcohol, 
4 oz. ; pulverized black sealing-wax, 1 oz. ; i)ut them into a phial, 
and put the phial into a warm i^lace, stirring or shakuig occasionally 
until the wax is dissolved. Apply it when warm before the fire or 
in the smi. This makes a beautiful gloss. 

Easy ]\Iethod of prev^enting Moths in Furs or Woollens. 
—Sprinkle tho furs or woollen stuffs, as well as the drawers or boxes 

]0 



IIG DYEIIS AND liLEAClIEKS' RECEIPTS. 

in wliieli they are kept, Avitli spirits of tur[-)entino, the unpleasant 
scent oJ! -which Avill speedily evaporate on exposure of the stuffs to 
tlie air. Sonic persons ]ilace sheets of paper moistened Avith spirits 
of turj^Kjntine, over, under, or between pieces of cloth, &c., and find 
it a very effectual method. IMany woollen drapers put hits of cam- 
phor, the size of a nutmeg, in papers, on different parts of the shelves 
in their shops, and as they brush their cloths every two, three or four 
months, this keeps tlicm free from moths : and this should be done 
hi boxes where tlie furs, &c., arc put. A tallow candle is frequently 
put within each muff when laid by. Snuff or pepper is very good. 

Clothing Renovator. — Soft water, 1 gal. ; make a strong decoc- 
tion of logwood by boiling the extract with the water. Strain, when 
cool, add 2 oz. gum arable in powder ; bottle, cork well, and set aside 
for use ; clean the coat well from grease and dirt, and apply the 
above liquid with a sponge evenly. Dilute to suit the color, and 
liang in the shade to dry ; afterwards brush the nap smooth, and it 
will look like new. 

Wateevkoof for Porous Cloth. — Dissolve 2^ lbs. alum in 
4 gals, water ; dissolve also in a separate vessel the same weight of 
acetate of lead, in the same quantity of water. When both arc well 
dissolved, mix the solutions together ; and, when the sulphate of lead 
resulting from this mixture has been ]')recipitated to the bottom of 
tlie vessel in the form of a powder, pour off the solution, and plunge 
into it the fabric to be rendered waterproof. Wash and rub it well 
during a few minutes, and hang it in the air to dry. 

To Remove Grease. — Aqua ammonia, 2 oz. ; soft water, 1 quart ; 
saltpetre, 1 teaspoonful ; shaving soap in shavings, 1 oz. ; mix 
altogether ; dissolve the soap well, and auj grease or dirt that caimot 
be removed with this preparation, nothing else need be tried for it. 

AVatekproofing for Clothing. — Boiled oil, 15 lbs. ; bees-wax, 

1 lb. ; ground litharge, 13 lbs. ; mix and apply with a brush to the 
article, i^reviously stretched agamst a wall or a table, loreviouslj'- well 
washing and drying each article before applying the comi)osition. 

To Renew Old Silks. — Unravel and put them in a tub, cover 
th«n with cold water, let them remain one hour ; dip them up and 
doAvn, but do not wrmg ; hang up to drain, and iron while very 
damp, and they will look beautiful. 

Dyes for Furs. — For Nack, use the nair dye described in these 
receipts. Brown, use tincture of logwood. Red, ground Brazil- 
wood, 4 lb. ; water, 1^ quarts ; cochineal, h, oz. ; boil the Brazil-wood 
in the water one hour ; strain and add the cochmeal ; boil fifteen 
minutes. Scarlet color, boil ^ oz. saffron in ^ pint of Avater, and pass 
over the work before applymg the red. Blue, logwood, 7 oz. ; blue 
vitriol, 1 oz. ; water, 22 oz, ; boil. Purple, logAvood, 11 oz. ; alum, 
C) oz. ; water, 29 oz. Green, strong vinegar, 1^ pints ; best verdigris, 

2 oz. ; ground fine ; sap green, ^ oz. ; mix all together and boil. 
Potter's Invisible Waterproofing. — Imbue the cloth on the 

wrong side with a solution of ismglass, alum, and soap dissolved in 
water, forming an emulsion of a milky thickness ; apply with a 
brush, rubbing in well. When dry, it is brushed on the wrong side 
against the grain, and then gone over with a brush dipped iu water • 
afterwards brushed down smooth. 
To raise a Nap on Cloth,— Qcan the article well ; soak it in 



aiEDICAL DErARTilENT. 147 

cold water for half an hour ; put it on a board, and rub tlie thread- 
bare parts with a half-woru hatter's card filled Avith flocks, or Avitli a 
teazle or a prickly thistle until a nap is raised ; then lay the nap the 
right Avay with a hatter's brush, and hang up to dr}'-. 

Black Reviveu for Cloth, — Bruised galls, 1 lb. ; logwood, 
2 lbs. ; grecii vitriol, ^ lb. ; water, 5 quarts ; boil two hours ; strain, 
and it is read^ for use. 



MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, &c. 

Rut.es for Actiox, vert Short but very Safe.— In health 
and disease endeavor always to live on the sunny side. Sir James 
Wylie, late physician to the Emperor of Russia, remarked during 
long observation in the hospitals of that country, that the cases of death 
occurring in rooms averted from the light of the sun, Avere four times 
more numerous than the fatal cases in the rooms exposed to the di- 
rect action of the solar rays. When poison is swallowed, a good off- 
liand remedy is to mix salt and mustard, 1 heax^ed teaspoonful of 
each, in a glass of water and drinlc immediately. It is quick in its 
operation. Then give the whites of 2 eggs in a cup of coffee, or the 
eggs alone if coffee camiot be had. For acid poisons give acids. In 
cases -of opium poisoning, give strong coffee and keep moving. 
For light burns or scalds, dip the part in cold water or in flour, if the 
skin is destroyed, cover with vamish. If you fall into the water, float 
on the back, with the nose and mouth i^rojecthig. For apoplexy, 
raise the head and body ; for faintmg, lay the person flat. Suck pois- 
oned wounds, unless your mouth is sore, Enlarge the wound, or better 
cut out the part without delay, cauterize it with caustic, the end of a 
cigar or a hot coal. If an artery is cut, compress above the wound ; if 
a vein is cut, compress beloAV. If choked, get upon all'fours and 
cough. Before passing through smoke take a full breath, stoop low, 
then go ahead ; but if you fear carbonic acid gas, walk erect and be 
careful. Smother a fire with blankets or carpets ; water tends to spread 
burning oil and increase the danger. Remove dust from the ej^es 
"by dashing water into them, and avoid rubbing. Remove cinders, &c., 
with a soft, smooth wooden pouit. Preserve health and avoid catching 
cold, by regular diet, healthy food and cleanliness. Sir Astley Cooper 
said: ''The methods by which I have preserved my own health, are 
temperance, early rising, and spongmg the body every morning Avith 
cold water, immediately after getting out of bed ; a practice which I 
have adopted for 30 years Avithout ever catchmg cold." Water di- 
luted with 2 per cent, of carbolic acid will disinfect any room or build- 
ing, if liberally used as a sprinkle. Diphtheria can be cured by a gar- 
gle of lemon juice, gwall owing a little so as to reach all the affected 
parts. To avert cold from the feet, wear two pairs of stockings made 
from different fabrics, one pair of cotton or silk, the other of wool, and 
the natural heat of the feet Avill be preserved if the feet are kept clean. 
In arranging sleeping rooms the soiindest and most refroslmig slum- 
ber Avill "be enjoyed Avhcu the head is towards the north, Late lioura 



148 MEDICAL DErARTMENT, ETC. 

and anxious pursuits exliauiit vitality, produciug disease and prem- 
ature death, therefore the hours of labour and study should be short. 
Take abundant exercise and recreation. Be moderate in eating and 
drinking, using simple and plain diet avoidmg strong drinlc, tobacco, 
simff, opium and every excess. Keep the body warm, the temper 
calm, serene and placid ; shun idleness ; if your hands cannot be use- 
fully employed, attend to the cultivation of your minds. For pure 
lieaith givuig fresli air, go to the country. Dr. Stockton Hough as- 
serts that if all the inliabitants of the world were living in cities of the 
magnitude of London, the human race would become extmct in a 
century or two. Tlie mean average of human life in the United States 
is 39:^ years, while iu New York and Philadelphia it is only 23 years ; 
about 50 per cent, of the deaths in these cities being of children un- 
der five years of a,^e. A great percentage of this excessive mortality 
is caused by bad air and bad food. 

To ASCEK.TAIN THE State OF THE LuxGS. — Draw lu as mucli 
breath as you conveniently can, tlien count as long as possible in a 
slow and audible voice without drawing in more breath. The number 
of seconds must be carefully noted, in a consumptive the time does 
not exceed 10, and is frequently less than G seconds ; in pleurisy and 
Xmeumonia it ranges from 9 to 4 seconds. When the lungs are somid 
the time will range as high as from 20 to 35 seconds. To ex^xand 
the lungs, go into the air, stand erect, throw back the head and 
shoulders, and draw in the air through tlie nostrils as much as i)ossible. 

After having then filled the lungs, raise your arms, still extended, 
and suck in the air. AVhen you have thus forced the arms backward, 
with the chest open, change the process by which you draw in your 
breath, till the lungs are emptied. Go tlirough the process several 
times a day, and it Avill enlarge the chest, give the lungs better play, 
and serve very much to Avard off consumption. 

Remedy for Neuralgia. — Ilj^jophosphite of soda taken in 1 
dram doses 3 times per day in beef tea is a good remedy for this 
painful affection. So is the application of bruised horse-radish, or 
the application of oil of peppermint applied lightly with a camel iiair 
pencil. 

liEMEDY FOR HEADACHE. — A Parisian i)hysician has publislied a 
new remedy for headaches. He uses a mixture of ice and salt, in 
proportion of one to one-half, as a cold mis:ture, and this he applies 
by means of a little purse of silk gauze, with a rim of gutta percha, to 
limited spots on the head, when rheumatic headaches are felt. It 
gives instantaneous relief. The application is from ^ minute to 1^ 
mhiutes, and the skin is rendered white and hard by the applications" 

To Cure a Colp. — Before retiring soak the feet in mustard water 
as hot as can be endured, the feet should at first be plmiged in a pail 
lialf full of lukewarm water, adding by degrees very hot water until 
the desired heat is attained, protecthig the body and knees with 
blankets so to direct the vapor from the water as to induce a good 
sweat. Next, to 2 table spoonfuls of boiling water, add 1 table spoonful 
of white sugar and 14 drops of strong spirits of camphor. Drink the 
whole and cuddle in bed under plenty of bedclothes and sleep it off. 

Remedy for Consuimption. — The following is said to be an effectual 
remedy, and will in time completely cure the disorder. Live temper- 
ately, avoid spirituous Ucjuors, wear flannel next the sldu, and take, 



MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC. 149 

every morning, half a pint of new millc, mixed with a wine glassful 
of tlie expressed juice of green horehound. One who lias tried it says, 
" Four weelis' use of the horehound and milk relieved tlie pains of my 
breast, gave me ability to breathe deep, long and free, strengthened 
and harmonized my voice and restored me to a better state of health 
than I had enjoyed for years." 

Trichina is the term applied to a minute, slender, and transparent 
worm, scarcely l-20th of an inch in lengtli, which has recently been 
discovered to exist naturally in the muscles of swine, and is frequently 
transferred to the human stomach when pork is used as food. Enough 
of these filthy parasites have been detected in half a pound of pork 
to engender 30,000,000 more, the females being very prolific, each giv- 
ing birtli to from GO to 100 young, and dymg soon after. The young 
tliread-like worm at first ranges freely througli the stomach and in- 
testines, remainmg for a sliort time Avithin the lining membrane of the 
intestines, causing irritation, diarrhoea, and sometimes death, if 
present in sufficient numbers. As they become stronger, they begin 
to penetrate the walls of the intestines in order to effect a lodgment in 
llie voluntary muscles, causing intense muscular pain and severe eu- 
d uring cramps, and sometimes tetanic symptons. After 4 weeks migra- 
tion they encyst themselves permanently on the muscular fibre, and 
begin to secrete a delicate sac which gradually becomes calcareous. 
In this torpid state they remain during the person's lifetime. 

Re^siedy fob DirnTHERiA. — The treatment consists m thoroughly 
pwabbing the back of the mouth and throat with a wasli made thus : 
Table salt, 2 drams ; black pepper, golden seal, nitrate of potash, 
alum, 1 dram each ; mix and pulverize ; put into a teacup half full of 
water ; stir Avell, and then fill uj) with good vinegar. Use every half 
liour, one, two, and four hours, as recovery progresses. The patient 
may swallow a little each time. Apply 1 oz. each of spirits turpentine, 
sweet oil, and aqua-ammonia, mixed, every hour to the whole of the 
throat, and to the breast bono every four hours, keeping flannel to 
the part. 

IIolloway's OiXT.ArEN'T Axi) PrLLS. — Butter, 22 oz. ; beeswax, 3 
oz. ; yellow roshi, 3 oz. ; melt ; add vinegar of cantliarides, 1 oz. ; 
evaporate ; and add Canada balsam, 1 oz. ; oil of mace, ^ dram ; 
balsam of Peru, 15 drops. Puis : Aloes, 4 parts ; myrrh, jalap, and 
ginger, of each 2 parts ; mucilage to mLx. 

AnERXETHY's Pills. — Each pill contains 2 grains of blue pill and 
3 grains compound extract of colocynth, 

WoRiM Lozenges. — Powdered lump sugar, 10 oz. ; starcn 5 oz. ; 
mix with mucilage ; and to every ounce add 12 grains calomel : 
divide in 20 grain lozenges. Dose, two to six. 

Soothing Syrup.— Alcohol, oil of peppermint, castor oil, of each, 
1 oz. ; mix ; add oil of anise, ^ dram ; magnesia, GO grains ; pulve- 
rized gmger, 40 grains ; water, 2 oz. ; white sugar to form a syrup. 

Soothing Syrup.— Take 1 lb. of honey ; add 2 tablespoonfuls of 
])aregoric, and the same of oil of anise seed ; add enough water to 
make a thick syrup, and bottle, Eor children teething, dose, tea- 
spoonful occasionally. 

Infant's Syrup. — Tlie syrup is made thus : 1 lb. best box raisins ; 
h ounce of anise seed ; two sticks licorice ; split the raisins, ])ound the 
auisa seed, and cut the lioorice fine ; add to it 3 quarts of rain water, 



150 MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC. 

and boil dovru to 2 quarts. Feed three or four times a day, as much 
as the child will willmgly drink. The raisins strengthen, the anise 
expels the wind, and the licorice is a physic. 

Braxdueth's Pills. — Take 2 lbs. of aloes, 1 lb. of gamboge, 4 oz, 
of extract of colocynth, ^ lb. of Castile soap, 3 fluid drams of oil of 
peppermint, and 1 fluid "dram of cinnamon. Mix, and form into 
pills. 

Daws' Pain Killer Ijiproved. — Powdered guaiac 20 lbs. ; cam- 
phor, 2 lbs. ; i)owdered cayenne pepper, 6 lbs. ; caustic liquor of 
ammonia, 1 lb. ; powdered opium, h lb. ; digest these ingredients in 
32 gals, alcohol for two weeks, and filter. 

CojvirouND SvRUP OF Hypophosphites and Iron. — Dissolve 250 
grs. each of hjijophosphites of soda, lime and potassa, and 126 grs. 
hypophosphite of iron, in 12 oz. water, by a water bath. Filter and 
add sufficient water to make up for the evaporation. Add 18 ozs. 
sugar by gentle heat, to make 21 fluid ozs. syrup. Each fluid oz. con- 
tains 12 grs. each of the hypophosphites of soda, lime and potassa, and 
six grs. hypophosphite of iron. 

Cure for Drunkenness. — Warranted a certain Remedy. Confine 
the patient to his room, furnish liim with his favorite liquor of dis- 
cretion, diluted with § of water, as much wine, beer, coffee and tea as 
l;e desires, but containing | of spirit ; all tlie food — the bread, meat 
and vegetables steeped in spirit and water. On the fifth day of this 
treatment he has an extreme disgust for spirit, being continually 
drunk. Keep up this treatment tUl he no longer desires to eat or 
drink, and the cure is certain. 

Fahnestock's Vermifuge. — Castor oil, oil of worm seed, each 1 
oz. ; oil anise, \ oz. ; tincture myrrh, \ dram ; oil turi^entine, 10 
minims. Mix. 

SwAm's VERaiiFUGE. — ^Wormseed, 2oz. ; valerian, rhubarb, pink- 
root, white agaric, of each 1^ oz, ; boil in sufficient water to yield 3 
auarts of decoction ; and add to it 10 drops of oil of tansy and 45 
rops of oil of cloves, dissolved in a quart of rectified spirits. Dose, 

1 tablespoonful at night. 

Ayer's Cherry Pectoral.— Take 4 grains of acetate of morphia ; 

2 fluid drams of tincture of bloodroot ; 3 fluid drams each of anti- 
monial Avino and wine of ipecacuanha, and 3 fluid oz. of syrup of 
wild cherry. Mis. 

Spasms. — Acetate of morphia, 1 gr. spirit of sal volatile, 1 oz. sul- 
phuric ether, 1 oz. camphor julep, 4 ozs. Mix. Dose, 1 teaspoonful 
in a glass of cold water, or Avine, as required. Keep closely corked, 
and shake well before using. 

Rabway's Ready RELiEF.-^According to Peckolt, is an ethereal 
tmcture of capsicum, with alcohol and camphor. 

Radway's Renovating Resolvent.^-A- vinous tincture of ginger 
and cardamon, sweetened with sugar. 

Ayer's Sarsaparilla.— Take 3 fluid ozs. each of alcohol, fluid 
extracts of sarsparilla and of stilliugia ; 2 fluid ozs. each, extract of 
yellow-dock and of podophyllin, 1 oz, sugar, 90 grs. iodide of 
potassium, and 10 grs. iodide of iron. 

Brown's Bronchial Troches.— Take 1 lb. of pulverized extract 
of licorice ; 1^ lb. of pulverized sugar ; 4 oz. of pulverized cubebs ; 
4 oz. i^ulverized gum arable ; J oz. of pulverized extract comum. Mix. 



3IED1CAL DErARTMENT, ETC. 151 

Russia Salve. — Take eqnal parts of yellow -wax and sweet oil ; 
melt slowly, carefully stiniug ; Avheu cooling, stir iu a small quantity 
of glyceriae. Good for all lands of Avouuds, tSic. 

Dentists' Cojiposition for Filling Decayed Teeth. — Gold, 1 
part ; mercury, 8 i^arts ; incorporated by heating together ; when 
mixed pour them into cold water. Or, tinfoil and quicksilver ; melt 
together in a convenient vessel, take a small quantity-, knead it in the 
palm of the hand, and apply quick. Or, mix a little finel^'-powdered 
glass with some mineral succedaneum ; apply as usual. Or, take 
some mmeral succedaneum, and add some steel dust. Or, mineral 
succedaneum mixed witli levigated porcelain or china. Or, gj^psum, 
1 part ; levigated porcelam, 1 part ; levigated iron filings, 1 part ; 
make into a paste with equal parts of quick-drying copal and mastic 
varnish. Or, quicksilver, 40 grahis ; steel filings, 20 grains. Or, sil- 
ver, 72 iiarts ; tui, 20 parts ; zinc, G parts. Better than any, pure 
gold, 1 part ; silver, 3 parts ; tin, 2 parts ; melt the first two, add the 
tin, reduce all to a fine powder, use with an equal quantity of pure 
mcrcurj'. 

Guttji-percha, softened by heat, is recommended. Dr. Rollfs ad- 
A ises melting a piece of caoutchouc at the end of a wire, and intro- 
ducing it while Avarm. 

Amalg"ams for the teeth are made with gold or silver, and quick- 
silver, the excess of the latter being squeezed out, and the stiff amal- 
gam used warm. Inferior kmds are made with quicksilver and thi, 
or zinc. A i^opular nostrum of this kind consists of 40 grains of 
quicksilver and 20 of fine zmc filings, mixed at the time of using. 
The following is said to be the most lasting and least objectionable 
amalgam : Melt 2 parts of tin with 1 of cadmium, run it into an in- 
got, and reduce it to filings. Form these inta a fluid amalgam with 
mercury, and squeeze out the excess of mercury through leather. 
Work up the solid residue in the hand, and press it into the tooth. 
Another cement consists of about 73 parts of silver, 21 of tin, and (5 
of zinc, amalgamated with quicksUver. Beyond all doubt, gold foil 
is the best filling in use. 

Poudke ]\Ietalltque. — The article sold imder this name in Paris 
apiiears to be an amalgam of silver, mercury, and ammonium, with 
an excess of mercury, which is pressed out before using it. 

To Extract Teeth with little or no Pain. — Tincture of aco- 
nite, chloroform, and alcohol, of each 1 oz. ; mix; moisten two pled- 
gets of cotton with the liquid, and apply to the gums on each side of 
the tooth to be extracted, holding them in their place with pliers or 
other instruments for from five to ten minutes, rubbing the gum free- 
ly inside and out. 

' Tooth Wash — To Rejiove Blackness. — Pure muriatic acid, 1 oz. ; 
water, 1 oz. ; honey, 2 oz. ; mix. Take a tooth-brush, and wet it 
freely with this preparation, and briskly rub the black teeth, and in 
a moment's time tbey will be perfectly white ; then immediately 
wash out the mouth with water, that the acid may not act upon the 
enamel of tlie teeth. 

Dentists' Nerve Paste. — Arsenic, 1 part; rose pink, 2 parts. To 
destroy the nerve, apply this preparation on a pledget of cotton, pre- 
viously moistened with creosote, to the cavity of the tooth, let it re- 
main 4r hours, then wash out thoro uglily with Avater. Another,-^ 



152 MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC. 

Arsenous acid, 30 grs. ; acetate of morphia, 20 grs. ; creosote, q. s. for 
paste. ]\Iix. 

Alloys forDextist's Moulds AND Dees. — 1. Tin, venjhard. — ^Tiii, 
10 i^arts; antimony, 1 part; zinc, 1 part; 2. Tin, softer than the last. 
Tin, 8 parts; zinc, 1 part; antimony, 1 part; 3. Copper Alloy, veiij 
hard. — Tin, 12 parts; antimony, 2 parts; copper, 1 part; 4. Cadmlwn 
Alloy, about the hardness of zinc. — Tin, 10 parts; antimony, Ipart; 
cadmium, 1 part. 

Dentists' Emery "Wheels. — ^Emery, 4 lbs. ; shellac, \ lb. ; melt 
the shellac over a slow fire ; stir in the emerj', and pour into a mould 
of plaster of Paris. AVhen cold it is ready for use. 

Base for Artificial Teeth. — Proportions. — India-rubber, 1 
lb. ; sulphur, ^ lb. ; vermUlion, 1 lb. 4 oz. 

IsTiTROUs 0:j^ide, or Laughing Gas. — Take two or three ounces of 
nitrate of ammonia in crystals and put it into a retort, taking care 
that the heat does not exceed 500° ; when the crystals begin to melt, 
the gas will be produced in considerable quantities. The gas may 
also be procured, though not so pure, by pouring nitric acid, diluted 
with five or sLx times its weight of water, on copper filings or small 
pieces of tiu. The gas is given out till the acid begins to turn brown ; 
the process must then be stopped 

To Inhale the Laughing Gas. — Procure an oiled or varnished 
silk bag, or a bladder, furnished with a stop-cock, into the mouth, and 
at the same time hold the nostrils, and the sensation produced will be 
of a highly pleasmg nature ; a great propensity to laughter, a rapid 
How of vivid ideas, and an unusual fitness for muscular exertion, are 
the ordinary feelings which it produces. The sensations, produced by 
breathing this gas, are not the same in all persons, but they are of an 
agreeable nature, and not followed by any depression of spirits like 
those occasioned by fermented liquors. 

Magnetic Pain Killer, for Toothache and Acute Pain. — Lau- 
dnum 1 dr. gum camphor 4 drs. oil of cloves § dr. oil of lavender 1 dr. 
add then to 1 oz. alcohol, G drs. sulphuric "ether, and 5 fluid drs. 
chloroform. Apply with lint, or for toothache rub on the gums, and 
upon the face against the teeth. 

Cure for Lock Jaw, said to be positive. — ^Let any one who has 
an attack of lock jaw take a small quantity of spirits of turpentine, 
warm it, and pour it on the wound — no matter where the wound is, or 
what its nature is — and relief will follow in less than one minute. 
Turpentine is also a sovereign remedy for croup. Saturate a piece of 
flannel with it, and place the flannel on the throat and chest — and in 
very severe cases three to five droits on a lum^) of sugar may be 
taken inteiTially. 

New Method of Embalshng. — ^]\Iix together 5 pounds dry sul- 
phate of alumuie, 1 quart of warm water, and 100 grains of arsenious 
acid. Inject 3 or 4 quarts of this mixture into all the vessels of the 
Imman body. This applies as well to all animals, birds, fishes, &c. 
This process supersedes the old and revolting mode, and has been in- 
troduced into the great anatomical schools of Paris. 

Nitrate of Silver. — Pure silver, 1^ oz. ; nitric acid, 1 cz. diluted 
with water, 2 oz. ; heat by a sand-bath until ebullition ceases, and 
the water is expelled then pour into moulds. This substauso must 
be kept from tho light. 



MEDICAL DErAETMENT, ETC. 153 

Clitfoed's Shampoo Compound. — Mix borax fib. with salts tar 
tar 4 lb. aud dissolve 1 oz. of the mixture in 1 pt. water. 

Ci^ifford's Hair Dye. — No 1. Pyrogallic acid 1 oz. ; water 1 qt- 
No 2. Nitrate of silver 1 oz. ; water 4 ozs. ; ammonia 1 oz. Keep 
your materials free from grease, cool, and in the dark. Apply each 
No. alternately to the hair, first cleaning the hair well. 

Bay Rum. — French proof spirit 1 gal. ext. Bay G ozs. Mix and color 
with caramel, needs no filtering. 

Hair Invigorator. — Bay rum, 2 pints ; alcohol, 1 pint ; castoi 
oil, 1 oz. ; carb. ammonia, h oz. ; tincture of cantharides, 1 oz. Mij 
them well. This compound will promote the growth of the hair, 
and prevent it from falling out. 

Razor-Strop Paste. — Wet the strop with a little sweet oil, and 
apply a little floiu: of emery evenly over the surface. 

Oil of Roses. — Olive oil, 1 lb. ; otto of roses, 50 drops ; oil of 
rosemary, 25 drops; mix. Another, roses (hardly opened) 12 oz. ; 
olive oil, 10 oz., beat them together in a mortar ; let them remain 
for a few days, then express the oil. 

Balm of Beauty. — Pure soft water, 1 qt. ; pulverized Castile 
soap, 4 oz. ; emulsion of bitter almonds, 6 oz. ; rose and oriinge 
flower water, of each, 8 oz. ; tmcture of benzoin, 2 drs. ; borax, 1 
dr. ; add 5 grs. bichloride of mercury to every 8 oz, of the mix- 
ture. To use, apply on a cotton or linen cloth to the face, &c. 

Oriental Cold Creajm. — Oil of almonds, 4 oz. ; white wax and 
spermaceti, of each, 2 drs. ; melt, aud add rose water, 4 oz. ; orange 
flower water, 1 oz. ; used to soften the skin, apply as the last. 

Shaving Cream.— AVliite wax, spermaceti, almond and oil, of 
each ^ oz. : melt, and while warm, beat in 2 squares of Windsor 
soap previously reduced to a paste with rose water, 

Circassian Cream. — Take 2 ounces of perfectly fresh suet, either 
mutton or venison ; ,3 ounces of olive oil ; 1 oz, gum benzoin e in 
powder, and ^ oz. of alkanet root. Put the whole into a jam jar, 
which, if without a lid, must be tied over with a bladder, and place 
the jar in a sauce pan contaming boiling water, at the side of tlie 
fire. Digest for a whole day, then strain away all that is fluid 
through fine muslin, and stir till nearly cold. Add, say 1 dram of 
essence of almonds, roses, bergamot or any other perfume desired. 

Freckle Cure. — Take 2 oz. lemon juice, or half a dram of 
powdered borax, and one dram of sugar ; mix together, and let 
them stand in a glass bottle for a few days, then rub on the face 
occasionally. 

Yankee Shaving Soap. — Take 3 lbs. white bar soap; 1 lb. Castilo 
soap; 1 quart rain water; h pt. beef's gall; 1 gill spirits of turpen- 
tine. Cut the soap into thm slices, and boil live minutes after the 
soap is dissolved, stir while boiling ; scent with oil of rose or 
almonds. If wished to color it, use ^ oz vermilion. 

Bloom of Youth. — Boil 1 ounce of Brazil wood in 3 pints of 
water for 15 minutes ; strain. Add f oz. isinglass, ^ oz. cochi- 
neal, 1 oz. alum, ^ oz. borax. Dissolve by heat, and s-train. 

Cologne Water. — Oils of rosemary and lemon, of each ^ oz. ; 
oils of bergamot and lavender, each ^ oz. ; oil cinnamon, 8 drops ; 
oils of cloves and rose, each 15 drops ; best deodorized alcohol. 2 qts. ; 
shako two or three times per day for a week. 



lo4 MEDICAL DZrARTMENT, ETC 

We propose to give the formula for the following preparations, 
and shall commence with what is said to be 

Bogle's Hyperion Fluid. — To 8 oz. of 90 or 95 per cent, alcohol, 
colored red with allvanet, add 1 oz. of castor oil ; perfume with 
geranium and verbena. 

Lyon's Kathairon. — To 8 oz. of 80 per cent, alcohol, colored 
yellow by a few drops extract of annatto, add 2 oz. castor oil, and 
perfume with a little bergamot. 

Phalon's Hair Restorative. — To 8 oz. of 90 per cent, alcohol, 
colored by a few drops tincture of alkanet root, add 1 oz. of cas- 
tor oil, and perfume with a compound of bergamot, neroli, verbena, 
and orange. 

Mrs. Allen's. — To IG oz. of rose water, diluted with an equal 
part of salt water, add i oz. of suljjhur and ^ oz, of sugar of lead ; 
let the com^Dound stand five days before using. 

Batchelor's Hair-Dye. — No. 1. To 1 oz. of pyro-gallic acid, dis- 
solved in 1 oz. alcoliol, add 1 qt. of soft water. No. 2. To 1 oz. nitrate 
of silver, dissolved in 1 oz. of concentrated ammonia, add 4 oz. of 
soft water. Apply each No. alternately, with separate brushes, to the 
Lair. 

Christadoro's ITair-Dye.— No. 1. To 1 oz. of pyro-gallic acid, dis- 
solved in 1 oz. alcohol, add 1 qt. soft water. No. 2. To 1 oz. cr3-s- 
tallized nitrate of silver, dissolved in 1 oz. concentrated aqu.i- 
ammonia and 1 oz. soft water, add | oz. gum arable and 3 oz. soft 
water. Keep co^-ered from the light. 

Piialon's Instantaneous Hair-Dye. — No. 1. To 1. oz. pyro- 
gallic acid, and ^ oz. of tannia, dissolved in 2 oz. of alcohol, add 1 qt. 
of soft water. No. 2. To 1 oz. crystallized nitrate of silver, dissolved 
in 1 oz. concentrated aqua-ammonia, add 1 oz. gum arable, and 11 
oz. soft water. Kcej) in the dark. 

ILvrrison's. — No. 1. To 1 oz. pyro-gallic acid, 1 oz. of tannia dis- 
solved in 2 oz. alcohol, add 1 qt. soft water. No. 2. To 1 oz. crys- 
tidlized nitrate of silver, dissolved in 1 oz. of concentrated aqua- 
ammonia, add 5 oz. soft water and ^ oz. gum arable. No. 3. 1 oz. 
liydro-sulphate of potassa, dissolved in 1 qt. of soft water. This 
last ingredient is intended to produce a deep black color if the 
others should fail. Keep away from the light. 

Pualon's (One Preparation.) — To 1 oz. crystallized nitrate of 
silver, dissolved in 2 oz. of aqua-ammonia, add 5 oz. soft water. 
This is not an instantaneous . dye ; but after exposure to the light 
and air, a dark color is jjroduced upon the surface to which it 
is applied. Remember to remove all grease, &;c., from the hair before 
applying these dyes. 

Professor Wood's. — To 8 oz. vinegar, diluted with an equal 
part of soft water, add 2 drs. sulphur, and 2 drs. sugar of lead. 

Alpine Hair-I3alm. — To 16 oz. of soft water add 8 oz. of alcohol 
and ^ oz. spirits turpentine, | oz. sulphur, and ^ oz. sugar of lead. 

Glycerine Preparation. — New rum, 1 qt. ; concentrated spirits 
of ammonia, 15 drops ; glycerine oil, 1 oz. ; lac sulphur, 5^ drs. ; 
sugar of lead, 5^ drs. ; put the liquor into a bottle, add the am'monia, 
tlieu the other components. Shake the compound occasionally for 
four or five days. 

Crystalline Cre^vm.— Oil of almonds, 8 oz. ; spermaceti, 1 oz. ; 



MEDICAL DEPARTMEN'T, ETC. 155 

Ttielt together. Wlien a, little cooled, add ^ oz. or Icsa of essence of 
bergamot or other perfume ; put into wide-mouthed bottles, and let 
it stand till cold. Camphorated crystalline cream may be made by 
using camphorated oil {L. Cainphorce) instead of oil of almonds. 

Macassar Oil,. — Olive oil, 1 qt. ; alcohol, 2^ oz. ; rose oil, 1^ oz. ; 
then tie 1 oz. of chipped alkanet root m a muslin bag, and put it in 
the oil, let it alone for some davs till it turns the color of a pretty 
red, then remove to other oils. t)o not press it. 

Ox Makrow. — Melt 4 oz. ox tallow ; white wax, 1 oz. ; fresh lard, 
G oz. ; when cold, add 1^ oz. oil of bergamot. 

Bears' Oil. — Use good sweet lard oil, 1 qt. ; oil bergamot, 1^ oz. 

Extract of Patchouli. — Mixljoz. ottur of Patchouli, and^oz. 
otto of rose, with 1 gal. rectified spirits. 

Sea Foam for Barbers. — Alcohol, 4 oz. ; castor oil, 1 oz. ; am- 
monia, ^ oz. ; water, 1 pt. Dissolve the castor oil and ammonia in 
the alcohol, then add the alcohol mixture to the water. 

Pi-ROGALLic Hair Dye. — Pj-rogallic acid, ^ oz. ; dissolve it in hot 
distilled water 1^ oz. ; when the solution cools add gradually rectified 
spirit, h fluid oz. 

FixE'SnAntPOO Liquid. — Dissolve h oz. carb. of ammonia and 1 oz, 
of borax in 1 qt. water, then add 2 oz. glycerine, 3 qts. of New Eng- 
land rum, and 1 qt. of bay rum; moisten the hair with this liquor, 
shampoo with the hands until a slight lather is formed, then wash 
off with clean water. 

Barber's Shampoo Mixture. — Soft water, 1 pt. ; sal soda, 1 oz. ; 
cream tartar, ^ oz. Apply thoroughlj'^ to the hair. 

Cheap Bay Ruivl — Saturate a i lb. block of carb. of magnesia 
with oil of Bay ; pulverize the magnesia, place it in a filter, and pour 
water through it until the desired quantity is obtained, then add 
alcoliol. The quantity of water and alcohol employed depends on 
the desired strength and quantity of the Bay rum. Another — Oil of 
P>ay, 10 fluid drs. ; oil of pimento, 1 fluid dr. ; acetic ether, 2 fluid 
drs. ; alcohol 3 gals. ; water, 2h gals. Llix, and after 2 weeks' repose, 
filter. 

Liquid forForcixg the Be^vrd. — Cologne, 2 oz. ; liquid hartshoni, 
1 dr. ; tinct. cantharides, 2 drs. ; oil rosemary, 12 drops ; lavender, 
12 drops. Apply to the face daily and await results. Said to be 
reliable. 

Court Plaster. — Bnish silk over with a solution of isinglass, in 
spirits or warm water, dry and repeat several times. For the last 
application apply several coats of balsam of Peru. Used to close 
cuts or wounds, by warming it and applying. It does not wash 
off until the skin partially heals. 

B.VLM OF A TnousAXD Flowers. — Deodorized alcohol, Ipt ; nice 
white bar soap, 4 oz. ; shave the soap when put in, stand in a warm 
place till dissolved ; then add oil of citronella, 1 dr., and oils of 
ueroli and rosemary, of each ^ dr. 

New York Barbers' Star IL\ir Oil.— Caster oilG^ pts. ; alcohol, 
1^ pts. ; citronella and lavender oil, each h oz. 

Fraxgipaxxi. — Spirits, 1 gal. ; oil bergamot, 1 oz. : oil of lemon, 
1 oz. ; macerate for 4 da5-s, frequently shaldng ; then add water, 1 
gal. ; orange-flower water, 1 pint, essence of vanUla, 2 oz. Mix. 

Jockey Cluc. — Spirits of wine, 5 gal. ; orange-flower water, 1 



156 MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC. 

gal. ; 'balsam of Pern, 4 oz. ; essence of Lergamot, 8 oz. ; essence 
of musk, 8 oz. ; essence of cloves, 4 oz. ; essence of neroli, 2 oz. 

Ladies' Own. — Spirits of wine, 1 gal.; otto of roses, 20 drop.s ; 
essence of thyme, h oz. ; essence of neroli, ^ oz. ; essence of vanilla, 
A oz. ; essence of bergamot, ^ oz. ; orange-flower water, G oz. 

Kiss me Quick. — Spirit, 1 gal. ; essence of thyme, ^ oz. ; essence 
of orange-flowers, 2 oz. ; essence neroli, ^ oz. ; otto of roses, 30 drops; 
essence of jasmine, 1 oz. ; essence of babn mint ^ oz. ; petals of roses^ 
4 oz. ; oil lemon, 20 drops; calorus aromaticus, ^ oz. ; essence neroli, ^ 
oz. Mix and strain. 

Upper Ten. — Spirits of wine, 4 qts. ; essence of cedrat, 2 drs. ; 
essence of violets, ^ oz. ; essence of neroli, ^ oz. ; otto of roses, 20 
drops ; orange-flower essence, loz. ; oil of rosemary, 30 drops ; oils 
bergamot and neroli, each ^ oz. 

India CnoiiAGOGUE. — Quinine, 20 grs. ; Peruvian bark, pulverized, 

1 oz. ; sulphuric acid, 15 drops, or 1 scruple of tartaric acid is best ; 
brandy, 1 gill ; water to make one pint ; dose, 5 teaspoonf uls every 

2 hours, in the absence of fever ; an excellent remedy. 
Fep.rifuge Wine. — Quinine, 25 grs. ; water, 1 pint ; sulphuric 

add, 15 drops ; epsom salts, 2 oz. ; color with tincture of red sanders. 
Dose, a wine glass 3 times per day. This is a world-renowned med- 
icine. 

Barrel,!,' s Indian Linement. — Alcohol, 1 qt. ; tincture of cap- 
sicum, 1 oz. ; oil of origanum, sassafras, pennyroyal, and hemlock, of 
each 2 oz. Mix. 

God Liver Oil, asusuallyprepared, is nothing more or lessthan cod 
oil clarified, by which i^rocess it is in fact deprived in a great measure 
of its virture. Cod oil can be i)urchased from any wholesale oil deal- 
er for one thirtieth part of the price of cod liver oil as usually sold, 
and it is easy to clarify it. Dealers might turn this information to 
good accoimt. To make it more palatable and digestible, put 1 oz. of 
fine table salt to each quart bottle. 

Cod Liver Oil. — The first livers are placed in a jacketed pan 
heated by steam, and when the oil is separated from the scraps it is 
passed through felt bags until it is perfectly clear. To remove a jwr- 
tion of the stearine, it is subjected to refrigerating mixtures in the 
summer, and the incongealable portion is drawn off and placed in 
bottles. 

Paregoric. — Best opium, J dr. ; dissolve in about 2 tablespoonfuls 
of boiling water; then add benzoic acid ^ dr. ; oil of anise, h a fluid dr. ; 
clarified honey, 1 oz. ; camphor gum, 1 scruple; alcohol, 70 per ceut., 
11 fluid oz. ; distUled water, 4 fluid oz. ; macerate (keep warm) for 
two weeks. Dose for children, 5 to 20 drops; adults ; 1 to 2 tea- 
spoonfuls. 

Cough Syrup. — ^put 1 qt. horehound tea, 1 qt. of water, and boil 
it dDwn to 1 pt. ; add 2 or 3 sticks licorice ; 2 oz. syrup of squills, and 
a tablespoon! ul essence of lemon. Take a tablespoonf ul 3 times a day 
or as the cough requires. 

Cough Syrup. — Sj^rup of squiUs, 2 oz. ; tartarized antimony, 8 
grs. ; sulphate of morphine, 5 grs. ; pulverized arable, ^ oz. ; honey, 
1 oz. ; water, 1 oz. ; mix. Dose for an adult, 1 small teaspoonf ul; re- 
peat in half an hour if it does not relieve : child in proportion. 

Vegetarle Substitute for Calomel. — Jalap, 1 oz. senna, 2 oz. ; 



MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC. 157 

peppermint, 1 oz. (a little cinnamon if desired), all pulverized and sif- 
ted through gauze. Dose, 1 teaspoonful put in a cup Avith 2 or ^» 
spoonfuls of hot water, and a good lump of white sugar ; when cool, 
drink all ; to be taken fasting in the morning ; drink freely ; if it does 
not operate in 3 hours, repeat ij the quantit3' ; use instead of calomel. 

Dynamic Power of various kinds of Food. — One lb., of oat- 
meal will furnish as much power as 2 lbs. of bread and more than 
;> lbs of lean veal. One lb., butter gives a worl^ing force equal to 
that of 9 lbs. of potatoes, 12 lbs. of milk and }nore than 5 lbs. of 
lean beef. One lb. of lump sugar is equal in force to 2 lbs., of ham, 
or 8 lbs. of cabbage. Tlie habitual use of spirituous liquors is inimical 
to health, and inevitably tends to shorten life. A mechanic or laboring 
man of average size, requires, according to Moleschott, 23 ozs., of dry 
solid matter, daily, one fifth nitrogenous. Food, as usually prepared, 
contains 50 per cent, of water, which would increase the quantity to 46 
ozs. , or 3 lbs. 14 ozs. , Avith at least an equal weight of Avater in addition 
daily. The same authority indicates as healthy proportions, of albumi- 
nous matter 4.587 ozs., fatty iiiatter2.964, carbo-hydrate 14.250, salts 
1.058, total 22.859 ozs., for daily use. This quantity of food will 
vary greatlj^ in the requirements of individuals engaged in sedentary 
employments, or of persons Avith Aveak constitutions or impaired 
digestion, as also Avhether employed in the open air or Avithin doors 
much also, depending on the temperature. Preference should be 
giA'en to the food which most readily yields the materials required by 
nature in the formation of the human frame. Beef contains about 4 
lbs. of such minerals in every 100 lbs. Dried extract of beef con- 
tains 21 lbs. ill each 100 lbs. Bread made from unbolted Avheat 
flour is also very rich in such elements, much more so than superfine 
fiour ; hence the common use of Graham bread for dyspepsia and 
other ailments. The analysis of Liebig, Johnston, and others give in 
100 parts, the following proportions of nutritious elements, viz., 
Indian corn, 12.30 barley 14.00, Avheat 14,06, oats 19.91. A fish diet 
is Avell adapted to sustain intellectual, or brain labor. What is 
required may be best knoAvn from the fact that a human body 
Aveighing 154 lbs., contains, on a rough estimate, of Avater 14 gals, 
(consisting of oxygen 111 lbs., of hydrogen 14 lbs. ), carbon 21 lbs., 
nitrogen 3 lbs. 8 ozs., calcicum 2 lbs., sodium 21 ozs., phospliorus I5 
lbs., ixjtassium ^ oz. sulphur 2 ozs. 219 grs., fluorine 2 ozs., chlorine 
2 ozs. 47 gTs., iron 100 grs., magnesium 12 grs., silicon 2 grs. After 
death, the human body is by gradual decay, slowly resolved into 
tliese its component parts, Avhich elements are again used in the 
complex and Avonderful laboratory of nature, to vivify the countless 
forms of vegetable life. These in their turn fulfil their appointed 
);nv by yielding up their substance for the formation of otlier bodies. 
What a suggestive comment on mortal ambition to Avituess the 
present inhabitants of Egypt engaged in Avhat they consider the 
Iiu;rative commerce of quarrying out the bones of the ancient inhab- 
itants from the catacombs Avhere they have been entombed for thou- 
sands of years and transporting them by the ship-load to England, in 
order to feitilize the crops which are destined to assist in forming 
the bone and sinew of the British nation! 

Cure for Snake Bites. — The Inspector of PoHce in the Bengal 
Government reports that of 939 ca.se.s in which ammonia was freely 



158 MEDICAL DEPART^UEXT, ETC. 

administered 207 victims have recovered, and in tlio cured instances 
the remedy vras not administered till about 3^^ hours after the attack, 
on the average of the fatal cases the corresponding duration of time 
»\-as 4^ hours. 

Remedy Fok Smaltj Pox.— Sulphate of zinc, 1 gr., foxglove 
[digitalis,] 1 gr., sugar ^ teaspoonful, mix with 2 teaspoon fals of water, 
add 4 oz. of water. Dose 1 spoonful every hour, child in proportion. 
From experience it is known that nothing will break up this frightful 
disease sooner than continued and persevering bathing, with the water 
at a comfortable temperature. 

Reliable Sjiall Pox Remedt. — Tested. — A child 9 years old was 
effectually cured of small jiox by admunstering 15 grs. sodio sulphico 
dissolved in milk, sweetened, every 3 hours. The entire body was 
oiled with crude potroleum applied by hand. Next morning the erup- 
tion was killed and dry ; and the disease broken up. To prevent pit- 
ting with small pox, as soon as the disease is distinguished, apply an 
ointment made of lard and charcoal to the face, neck, hands, &c., 
and continue mitil all signs of supi^erartivc fever has ceased. One 
case is worthy of notice, being that of a gentleman who suffered 
terribly for many days Avith this dreadful disease. Everything was 
done for him that medical skill coidd suggest, without givmg the 
slightest relief. Finally, as a last resort, he was removed from the 
bed and placed in a warm bath ; the transition was so soothing and 
delightful that he exclaimed, " Oh, my God, I thank Thee for this 
great relief! " In a short time he fell sound asleep in the bath, and 
continued in this position for many hours, the water being renewed 
froni time to time to keep up the temperature. The cure proved to 
be immediate and permanent. Nothing is so conducive to health of 
body, and the eradication of disease therefrom, as the intelligent use 
of pure water. Sir Astley Cooper, being complimented on one 
occasion for his great skill, remarked, that he liad "made mistakes 
enough to fill a graveyard," but it is scarcely possible to make a mis- 
take Avith water, as no diseased person can fail to derive benefit from 
its tise. 

PojRTABLE Bath. — Make a small circular boiler of copper or tin, and 
fit the same into an upright tin stand, in which, directly mider the 
boiler, you must leave an aperture to contain a small spirit lamp. The 
boiler lid must fit tightly and be provided with three small tubes 
pointing upwards. The boiler being filled with water and the lamp 
lighted, as soon as the steam gets up, it rushes through these tubes, 
and the patient, seated on a cane chair, with his or her feet in a pan 
of warm water, with a suitable cloak tightly fastened around the 
neck, is speedily enveloped in a cloud of steam. Ten minutes is the 
time recommended for the duration of the first few baths. It may be 
afterAvards increased, but not beyond half an hour. On getting out 
of the cloak, plunge into a cold bath for a few mmutes, then rub the 
skin till it is quite dry and glowing with a coarse towel and a pair of 
good hair-gloves. Persons in health or disease will experience a 
Avonderf ul recuperative power in the frequent use of this bath, and all 
AviU find it incomparably superior to the use of drugs in any form 
whatever. In this connection a new and very ingenious invention 
called Spongio Piling, is deservmg of favorable mention. It con- 
sists of wool and small particles of sponge felted together, and attached 



MEDICAL DErARTMENT, ETC 159 

to n, sldii of ludia-rubbcr, the ^vliolc TDcing about liall an inch hi thick- 
ness, and of inestimable value as a means of applj'ing cold or tepid 
^vater, &c,, to such exterior jxirts of the human frame as may bo 
nearest to the scat of pain or disease. The Avatcr is spon<;cd over the 
felted surface, the surplus, if any, wiped off; it is tlien placed on the 
skin, and covered over with several folds of bandages, which assist in 
retaining" the heat and moisture, thus attracting liealthy blood to the 
part, from which nature selects such food as is most conducive to ex- 
X)cl disease and build up healthy tissue. 

Fly Paper. — Coat paper with turpentine varnish, and oil it tokeej) 
the varnish from drying. 

Sweating Dkops. — Ipecac., saffron, boncsct, and camphor grmi, 
of each, 3 oz. ; opium, 1 oz. ; alcohol, 2 qts. Let stand 2 weeks and 
filter. A teaspoouf ul in a cup of hot sage or catnip tea every hour 
nntU free perspiration is induced; good in colds, fevers, inliamma- 
tions, &c. Bathe the feet in hot water at the same time. 

SvKUP roil CoxsuiMPTiVES. — Of tamaracbark, take from tlic tree, 
without rossmg, 1 peck; spikenard root, ^ lb.; dandelion root, |lb. ; 
Imps, 2 oz. Boil these sufficient to get the strength iu 2 or 3 gals, 
water; stram, and boil down to 1 gal. ; when blood warm, add 3 lbs. 
best honey, and 3 pints best brandy; bottle and keep in a cool place. 
Dose, drink freely of it 3 times per day before meals, at least a gill or 
more; cure very certain. 

Common Castob Oil. — Pale vegetable oil, 1 gal. ; castor oil, 3 gals. ; 
mix. 

I'uoroxic Waters. — Lump sugar, licorice, and starch, of eacli 2 
parts; gum, 10 parts; squills and ipecacuanha, of each 5 parts; lactu- 
carium, 2 parts. Mix, and divide into 8 gram lozenges. 

SiK James Cl^vhice's Diakriicea and CiroLKiiA INIixture. — 
Tinct. of opium, tiuct. of camphor, and spirits of turpentine, of eacli 3 
drams ; oil of peppermint, 30 drops ; mix. Dose, 1 tcaspoonf ul for 
cholera. 

Vegetable or Co:mposition Powder. — Fine bay berry bark, 1 lb ; 
ginger 8 oz., common cayemie, 3 oz., mix. Dose, 1 tea.<;poonful in a 
cup of boiling water, sweeten and add milk. 

Tinctures are made with 1 oz. of gum, root, or bark, &c., dried, 
to each pint of jiroof spirits ; let it stand one week, and liltei". 

Essences are made with 1 oz. of any given oil, added to 1 pint 
alcohol. Peppermints are colored with tinct. turmeric; ciimamou 
with tinct. of red sanders ; wintergreen with tinct. kino. 

Sur.sTiTUTE FOR Arrowroot. — Fiuost potato starch, 75 lbs. ; 
lump sugar. 4 lbs. ; finely-ground rice, 21 lbs. Mix, and sift through 
lawn ; yields 100 lbs. excellent arrowroot. 

Certain Cure for Croup. — Goose oil and urine equal parts. 
Dose, 1 tcaspoonful. A certain cure if taken in time. 

Corns and Warts. — Take a small quantity of the potash paste 
recommended for Poll Evil, and apply tc the corn or wart. 

Duuggist's Colors. — Yellow, take iron filings, hydrochloric acid 
to dissolve, dilute with cold water. Red, solution of sal ammoniac, 
cochineal, to color. Bhie, indigo, 1 part, oil of vitriol, 2 parts, dis- 
solve, then dilute with water. Green, verdigris, 1 part, acetic acid, 
3 parts, dilute with Avater, Purple, cochineal, 25 grs., sugar of lead 
loz., dissolve. 



160 MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC. 

Sjiellixg Salts. — Sub-carbouate of ammonia, 8 parts ; put it ia 
coarse powder in a bottle, and pour on it oil of lavcndar, 1 part. 

TuNBiiiDGE Wells Watek. — Cliloride of sodium, 5 grains ; 
tinct. steel, 20 drops ; distilled -water, 1^ pints. 

INIiNEKAL Water. — Epsom salts, 1 oz. ; cream tartar, ^ oz, ; tar- 
taric acid, ^ oz. ; loaf sugar, 1 lb. ; oil of birch, 20 drops ; put 1 (jt. 
cold water on 2 tablespoonfuls yeast (winter green oil "will do), let it 
■work 2 hours and then bottle. 

Congress Water for Fountains. — Common salt, 7| ozs. ; 
hydrate of soda, 20 grs. ; bicarbonate of soda, 20 grs. ; calcined 
magnesia, 1 oz. Add to 10 gal. of water, and then charge with gavS. 

KissiNGEN Water for Fountains. — Bicarbonate of soda, 1 dr. ; 
carbonate of lime, 2 drs., and 2scr. ; precipitate carbonate of lime, 
2 scr. ; common salt, 8 ozs. ; muriate of ammonia, 4 grs ; sulpliate 
of soda, 2 drs. and 2 scr. ; sulphate of magnesia, 2 ozs. ; phosphate 
of soda, 13 grs.; phosphate of lime 2 drs. and 2 scr. Mix. Add 
-water j of a gal. Let it stand for 6 hours, filter, add carbonate of 
magnesia, 3 drs. and 1 scr., and charge -with 10 gals, of -water. 

Vichy Water for Fountains. — Sulphate of potass, 2 drs.; 
sulphate of soda, 25 gi'S, ; common salt, G drs. ; bicarbonate of am- 
monia, 10 grs. ISIix. Add -water, 1 gal. Let it stand 1 day, filter 
and then charge with 10 gal. of water. 

Genuine Seidlitz Po-wders. — Rochelle salts, 2 drs. ; bicarb, 
soda, 2 scr. ; put these into a blue paper, and 35 grains tartaric acid 
into a white paper. To use, put each into different tumblers, fill ^ 
with water, adding a little loaf sugar to the acid, then pour together 
and drink quick. 

Bottled Seidlttz Water. — Fill soda-water bottles witli clear 
water ; add to each as below ; cork and Avire immediately : Rochello 
salts, 3 drops ; bicarbonate of soda, 35 grs ; sulphuric acid, 11 drops. 

Excellent Tooth Powder. — Suds of castile soap and spirits of 
camphor, of each an equal quantity ; thicken with equal quantities 
of pulverized chalk and charcoal to a thick paste. Apx)ly with the 
finger or brush. 

Rat Exterminator. — ^^''arm water, 1 qt. ; lard, 2 lbs ; phospho- 
rus, 1 oz. ; mix, and thicken with flour ; to be spread on bread and 
covered with sugar. 

Bug Poison.— Alcohol, | pint; turpentine, h pint ; crude sal am- 
moniac, 1 oz. ; mix all together, and let it digest in a warm place lor 
a few days, and it is ready for use. 

Medicated Cough Candy. — To 5 lbs. candy just ready to pour 
on the slab, add the following mixture, and form, it into sticks to 
correspond with the price asked for them : Tinct. squills, 2 oz. ; cam- 
phorated tinct. of opium and tinct. of tolu, of each ^ oz. ; wine of 
ipecac, -^ oz. ; oils of gaultheria, 4 drops ; sassafras, 3 drops ; and 
of anise seed oil, 2 drops, and use this freely in common coughs. 

Ague Pill. — Quinine, 20 grs. ; Dover's powders, 10 grs. ; sub- 
carbonate of iron, 10 grs. ; mix with mucilage of gum arable and 
form into 20 pills. Dose, 2 eadi hour, commencing 5 hours before 
the chiil should set in. Then take 1 night and morning until all are 
taken. 

Age at wnicn Menstruation Commences. — Dr. Walter Rigd en 
gives the subjouied statistics obtained from females who were con- 



MEDICAL DEPAKTMENT, ETC. Ifil 

fined at Uiiiversity College Ilospital. In 2,G9G cases menstruation 
occured for the first time ; 



At the age of 


At the age of 


9 in 3 cases. 


18 in 


150 


cases 


10 " 14 " 


19 " 


7G 




11 " GO " 


20 " 


29 




12 " 170 " 


21 " 


7 




13 " 353 " 


22 " 


8 




14 " 5G0 " 


23 " 


2 




15 " 540 " 


24 " 







IG " 455 " 


25 " 







17 " 272 " 


2G •' 


2 





It thus appears that it is most common at 14 years of age, aud 
great care should be taken of the health on the occui-reuce of these 
important periods. 

Atkinson's Infant's Preservatrt. — Carbonate of magnesia, 
G drs. ; sugar, 2 oz. ; oil of anise seed, 20 drops ; sal-volatUe, 2^ drs. ; 
laudunum, 1 dr. ; syrup of saffron, 1 oz. Make up 1 pint with 
caraway water. 

Pills to promote Menstrual Secretion. — ^Take pills of aloes 
aud myrrh, 4 drs. ; comiwimd iron pills, 280 grs. ; mix and fonn 
into 100 pills. Dose, 2 twice a day. 

PoR Obstructed Menstruation. — Make a strong tea of smart 
weed, covering it to retain the strength, or use the extract of smart 
weed histead, taking 1 tcaspoonf ul of the latter once every 3 hourn, 
(or about 10 teaspoonfuls of the tea) in warm water, sweetened, 
making free use of hot baths for the feet aud the lower parts of the 
body. It will give great relief. 

Injection for Obstructed Menstruation.^— Mix 1 to 2 fluid 
drs. liquor of ammonia with 1 pmt milk. Use thrice daily. 

For Obstructed Menstruation. — Sulphate of iron, GO gi-s. ; 
potassa (sub. carb.) 60 grs. ; myrrh, 2 drs. ; make them into 3^ gr. 
pills ; 2 to be taken three times a day, in the absence of fever. ~Fvi' 
Painful Menstruation, take pulv. rhei., 2 drs. ; pulv. jalap, 2 drs.; 
syrup of poppies to mbc. Divide into 200 pills, and take night ancl 
morning. To check Immoderate Flow — Tiuct. of ergot, 1 oz., liquor of 
ammonia, 3 drs. ; mix. Dose, teaspoonful in water 3 times a day. 

Stimulant. — In Low Fevers, and after Uterine Hemou- 
RHAGES. — Best brandy and cinnamon water, of each, 4 fluid oz. ; the 
yolks of 2 eggs, well beaten ; loaf sugar ^oz. ; oil of cimiamon, 2 
drops ; mix. Dose, from ^ to 1 (fluid) oz., as often as required. 
This makes both meat and drink. Of course, any other flavoring oils 
can be used, if preferred, in place of tlie cinnamon. 

For Female Complaints. — One of the best laxative pills for 
female complaints is macrotm and rhubarb, eacll 10 grs. ; extract of 
liyoscyamus 10 grs. ; Castile soap, 40 grs. ; scrape the soap, and mLx 
well together, forming into common si^ed pills with gum solution. 
Dose,l pill at bed time, or sufliciently often to keep the bowels in ii 
laxative state. 

For Disease of the Kidneys. — Boil 1 oz. of pareira brava in 8 
pints of water down to 1 pint. Dose, a winegla&sf ul 3 times per day, 

11 



1^52 MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC. 

To CrURE VOMITING IN PREGNANCY. — Mix 1 dr. caiLrOiiate of 
magnesia; ^ oz. tiuct, of Colombo; 6h oz. i)epi)ermirit Avater. Dose, 
1 tablespoonf ul 3 times a day. 

Harland's Venereal Cure. — j\Iix together po^vdered cubebs, 
1^ oz. ; balsam capaiba, ^ oz, ; powdered gum arabic, h oz. ; cLuna- 
inou water, 3 ozs. A tablespooiif ul of the mixture to "be taken at 
intervals 8 times a day. 

Incontinence of Urine of Old People. — The continued use 
of 1 to G drops tinct. of iodine has proved a successful remedy. For 
other persons, put 4 drops tincture of aconite root in a tumbler of 
Avater, and use a teaspoonful every half hour until relieved. 

Coan»ouND Extract Bucnu. — Buchu, in coarse powder, 12 ozs. ; 
alcohol, 3 pts. ; water, 6 pts. are sufficient. Treat the leaves by 
maceration and displacement, first with a portion of the alcohol and 
then with the remainder mixed with the water, evaporate the result- 
ing liquid with a gentle heat to three pints, and add 2^ lbs. sugar, 
continue the heat till it is dissolved, and after removing from the fire, 
add oil of cubebs, oil of juniper; of each 1 fluid dr.; spirits of 
nitric ether, 12 fluid ozs., previously mixed, stir together. 

Anodyne for Painful Menstruation. — Extract of stramo- 
nium and sulphate of quuiine, each IG grs. ; macrotiu, 8 grs. ; mor- 
crotin, 8 grs. ; morphine, 1 gr. ; make into 8 pills. Dose, 1 pill re- 
peating once or twice only, 40 to 50 minutes apart, if the paui docs 
not subside before this time. Pain miist subside under the use of 
this pill, and costiveness is not increased. 

Powder for Excessive Flooding. — Gums kino and catechu, 
each 1 gr, ; sugar of lead and alum, each h dr. ; pulverize all and 
thoroughly mix, then divide into 7 to 10 graui powders. Dose, one 
every 2 or 3 hours until checked, then less often merely to control the 
flow. 

Injection for Leucorrhcea. — ^^Vhen the glairy mucus discharge 
is present, prepare a tea of hemlock inner bark and witch hazel (often 
called spotted alder) leaves and bark, have a female syringe large 
enough to fill the vagina, and inject the tea, twice daily ; and occa- 
sionally in bad cases, say twice a week, inject a syringe of the fol- 
lowing composition : For Chronic Female Complaints. White vitriol 
and sugar of lead, each, | oz. ; common salt, pulverized alum, and 
loaf sugar, each, ^ dr. ; soft water, 1 pt. Inject as above. 

For Prolapsus" Uteri, or Falling of the Womb.— Xot only 
the cheapest but the best support will be found to be a piece of fine 
firm sponge, cut to a proper size, to admit when damp of being 
pressed up the vagina to hold the womb in its place. The sponge 
should have a stout piece of small cord sewed 2 or 3 times through 
its centre, up and down, and left sufficiently long to allow its beuig 
taken hold of to remove the sponge, once a day, or every other day 
at the farthest, for the purpose of washing, cleaning, and using the 
necessary injections ; and this must be done while the patient is 
lying down, to prevent the womb from again faUmg or prolapsing. 
After having injected some of the above tea, wet the sponge in the 
same, and introduce it sufficiently high to hold the womb in its place. 
If pain is felt about the head, back, or loins for a few days before the 
menses appear, prepare and use the following : Fmmenar/ogrie Tinc- 
ture. Alcohol, 1 pt. ; red oxide of iron, 1 oz. ; oils of juaiper axid 



MEDICAL DErARTilENT, ETC. 163 

fia\-iii, each ^ oz. ; oil of tansey, 1 dr. ; tincture of ergot, 3 di-s. ; 
tincture Spunisli flies, ^ oz. : mix all, and shake when taken. Dose, 
1 teaspoon 3 times dailj^, to be taken in mucilage of slippery elm or 
gum arabic, and drink freely of the mucilage also through the day, 
or use the following : 

EiMMENAGOGUE PiLL. — Precipitated carbonate of iron and gum 
myrrh, of each 2 drs. ; aloes aud tincture of Spanish flies, of each 
1 dr. ; and oil of sa%'in, 1 dr. ; all to be j)ulverized, and made into 
100 pills by using thick gum solution. Dose, 1 pill, from 1 to 3 times 
dailj', but not to move the bowels too much. 

Uterine Hemokrhage. — Unfailing cure. Sugar of lead, 10 grs. ; 
ergot, 10 grs. ; opium, 3 grs.; ipecac, 1 gv.; all pulverized, and 
well mixed. Dose, 10 to 12 grs. ; given in a little honey or syrup. 

In very bad cases after chillDbirth, it might be repeated in 30 
minutes, or the dose increased to 15 or 18 grs. ; but in cases of rather 
profuse wasting, repeat it once at the end of 3 hours, or as the 
urgency of the case may require. 

In every case of female debility make a liberal use of iron, as the 
want of iron in the system is often the cause of tlie trouble. Mix 
fme iron filings with as much ground ginger. Dose, half of a tea- 
spoon 3 times daily in a little honey or molasses, increasing or lessen- 
ing the dose to produce a blackness of the stools. Continue this 
course until well. 

Imperial Drops for Gravel axd Kidxey CoiMPLArNTrs. — Oil 
of origanum, 1 oz., oil of hemlock, ^ oz., oil of sassafras, ^ oz., oil of 
anise, ^ oz., alcohol, 1 pint: mix. Dose, from J to 1 teaspoonful 3 
times a day, m sweetened water, will soon give relief when con- 
stant weakness is felt across the small of the back, as weU as gravelly 
affections causing pam about the kidneys. 

Positive Cure for Gonorrhoea.— Liquor of potass, ^ oz., bitter 
apple, ^ oz., spirits of sweet nitre, J oz., balsam of copaiba, h oz., best 
gum I oz. To use, mix with peppermint water; take ^ teaspoonful 3 
times per day : cure certain in 9 days. 

Celebrated Pile Ointivient. — Take carbonate of lead, ^oz., sul- 
phate of morphia, 15 grs. ; stramonium ointment, 1 oz. ; olive oil, 20 
d»rops. Mix and apply 3 times per day, or as the pain may require. 

Another — Powdered nut gall, 2 drs., camphor, 1 dr., melted wax, 
10 oz., tincture of opium, 2 drs., mix. 

StAjMmering. — Impediments in the speech may be cured, where 
there is no malformation of the organs of articulation, by preseverance, 
for three or four mouths, in the simple remedy of reading aloud, with 
the teeth closed, for at least 2 hours each day. 

Cold in the Head. — Dr. Pollion, of France, says that cold in the 
liead can be cured by inhaling hartshorn. The inhalation by the 
nose should be seven or eight times in five minutes. 

Camphor Ice. — Spermaceti, 1^ oz., gum camphor, f oz., oil sweet 
almonds, 4 teaspoonf uls ; set on the stove in an earthen dish till dis- 
solved; heat just enough to dissolve it. While warm pour into small 
moulds, if desired to sell; then paper, and put into tinfoil; used for 
chaps on hands or lips. 

SnviPLE REaiEDiES FOR Scarlet Fe\'er. — Open the boweLs regu- 
larly every day with some mild aDcricnt medicine, such as castor oil, 
scuiia, etc. ; and keep the patient at rest, and comfortably warm ; 



164 MEDICAL DEPAKTilENT, ETC 

pponge the surface vnfh tepid -water, two or three tiraes a day ; -while 
it is hotter than natural, admit fresh air" live on a bland diet, such 
as a cupful of arrowroot, several tiraes a day ; toast-Avater for com- 
mon drink. Gargle made of strong sage teii, honev and alum, or bor- 
ax, may be used from the commencement, if the throat is affected. 

Nerve and Bo^'E Linimekt, — Beef's gall. 1 qt. ; alcohol, 1 pt. ; 
volatile liniment, 1 lb.; sirits of turpentine, 1 lb.; oil orgamim, 
4 oz. ; aqua ammonia, 4 oz. ; tincture of c<ayenne, ^ pt. ; oil of 
amber, 3 oz. ; tincture Spanish flies, G oz. ; mix well. 
. Cephalic S]stjff. — Take asarbacca leaves, marjoram, light Scotch 
snuff, equal parts ; grhid and sift, use like common snuff. 

Downek's Salve. — Beeswax, 4 oz. ; opium, ^ oz. ; sugar of lead, 
i oz. ; melt the beeswax, and rub the lead up in the wax, then the 
opium, then 1 gill of sweet oil, incorporate aU thoroughly together, 
spread lightly on cloth ; good for bums, piles, &c. 

Another Salve. — Burgundy pitch, beeswax, white pine pitch, 
and resm, 1 oz. each, mutton tallow, 8 oz. ; goose oil, 1 gill ; tar, 1 
gill ; melt and mix thoroughly. A first-rate salve. 

Whooping Cough Syrup.— Best rum, 1 pt. ; anise oil, 2 ozs. ; 
hoaey, 1 pt. ; lemon juice, 4 oz. ; mix. Dose for adults, 1 tablespoon- 
f ul, 3 or 4 times per day ; children 1 teaspoon, with sugar and water. 

Liquid Opodeldoc. — Warm brandy, 1 qt. ; add to it gum camphor, 
1 oz. ; sal ammoniac, ^ oz. ; oils of origanum and rosemary, each ^ 
oz. ; oil wormwood, ^ oz. ; when the oils are dissolved, add'o oz. soft 
soap. 

Green Mountain Salve. — For rheumatism, bums, pains in the 
back or side, &c., take 2 lbs. resin, burgundy jMtch, ^ lb. ; beeswax ^ 
lb. ; mutton tallow, ^ lb. ; melt slowly ; when not too warm, add oil 
hemlock, 1 oz. ; balsam fir, 1 oz. ; oil of origanum, 1 oz. oil of red 
cedar, 1 oz. ; Venice turi^entine, 1 oz. ; oil of wormwood, 1 oz. ; ver- 
digris, ^ oz. The verdigris must be finely pulverized and mL5i.ed witli 
the oils"; then add as above, and work in cold water like wax till cold 
enough to roll ; rolls 5 inches long, 1 inch diameter, sell for 25 cents. 

English Remedy for Cancer. — Take chloride of zinc, blood- 
root pulverized, and flour, equal quantities of each, worked into a 
l)aste and applied. First spread a common sticking-plaster much 
larger than the cancer, cutting a circular piece from the centre of it a 
little larger than the cancer, ajiplyuig it, which ex])oses a narrow rim 
of healthy skin ; then apply the cancer plaster, and keep it on 24 
hours. On removing it, the.cancer will be found to be burned into, 
and appears the color of an old shoe-sole, and the rim outside will 
appear white and parboiled, as if burned by steam. Dress with 
slippery elm poultice until suppuration takes place, then heal with, 
any common salve. 

Chronic Gout— To Cure.— Take hot vinegar, and put into it all 
the table salt which it will dissolve, and bathe "the parts affected with 
a soft piece of flannel. Rub in with the hand and dry the foot, &c., 
by the fire. Repeat this operation four times m 24 hours, 15 minutes 
each time, for four days ; then twice a day for the same period ; then 
once, and follow this^ rule whenever the symptoms show themselves at 
any future time. 

Gout Tincture. — Yeratrum viride (swamp hellebore), ^ oz. ; 
opium, I oz. ; wine, ^ pt. ; let them stand for several days. Dose, 15 



MEDICAL DErARTMENT, ETC. 165 

to 30 drops, according to the robustness of the patient, at iiiterrals of 
2 to 4 hours. 

Paralytic Lintment. — Sulphuric ether, G oz. ; alcoliol, 2 oz. ; 
laudanum, 1 oz. ; oil of lavender, 1 oz. ; mix, and cork tiglith'. In a 
recent case of paralj^sis let the whole extent of the numb surface bo 
thoroughly bathed and rubbed "with tliis preparation, for several 
minutes, using the hand, at least three times daily ; at the same time 
tiike internally, 20 drops of the same, in a little sweetened water. 

Charcoal a cure for Sick Headache. — It is stated that 2 tea- 
spoons of finely powdered charcoal, drank in ^ a tumbler of water 
"Will, in less than fifteen mmutes, give relief to tlie sick headache, 
when caused, as in most cases it is, by superabundance of acid ou 
the stomach. We have frequently tried this remedy, and its efficacy 
in every instance has been signally satisfactory'. 

Cathaiitic Syrup. — Best senna leaf, 1 oz. ; butternut, the inner 
bark of the root, dried and bruised, 2 oz. ; peppermmt leaf, h oz. ; 
lemiel seed, ^ oz. ; alcohol, h pt. ; Avater, Ih pts. ; sugar, 2 lbs."; put 
all into the spirit and water, except tlie sugar, and let it stand two 
weeks, then strain, pressing out from tlie dregs, adding the sugar and 
simmering a few muiutes onl}^, to form the syrup. If it should cause 
griping in any case, increase the fennel seed and peppermint leaf. 
Dose, 1 tablespoon, once a day, or less often if the bowels become too 
loose, up to the next period when the headache might have been 
expected, and it will not be forthcoming. 

Chilblains. — To Cuke. — IMutton tiillow and lard, of each r^ lb. ; 
melt in an iron vessel, and add hydrated oxyde of iron, 2 oz. ; stirring 
continually with an iron spoon, until the mass is of a imiform blade 
color ; then let it cool, .and add Venice tuii)eutine, 2 oz. ; Armcuiau 
bole, 1 oz. ; oil of bergamot, 1 dr. ; rub up the bole with a little olive 
oil before puttmg it in. 

Felons. — If recent, to Cure in Six Hours. — Yenice turpentine, 

1 oz. ; and put into it half a teaspoon of Avater, and stir with a rougli 
stick until the mass looks like candied honey ; then sx^read a good 
coat on a cloth, and wrap around the finger. If the case is only 
recent, it will remove the pain in six hours. 

Felon Salve. — A salve made by burning one tablespoon of copper- 
as, then pulverizing it and mixing it with the yolk of an e<^g, is said 
to relieve the pain, and cure the felon in 24 hours ; then heal with 
cream two parts, and soft soap one part. Apply the healmg salve 
daily after soaking the part in warm Avater. 

Felon Ointivient. — Take sweet oil, ^ pt., and stew a 3-cent plug 
of tobacco in it tmtil the tobacco is crisped ; then squeeze it out, and 
add red lead, 1 oz., and boil until black ; when a little cool, add pul- 
verized camphor gum, 1 oz. 

Warts and Corns, — To Cure in Ten Minutes.— Take a small 
piece of potash, and let it stand in the open air imtil it slacks, then 
thicken it to a paste with pulverized gum arable, Avhich prevents it 
from spreading where it is not wanted. 

Inflammatory Riieumatism. — Sulphur and saltpetre, of each 1 
oz. ; gum guaiac, ^ oz. ; colchicura root, or seed, and nutmegs, of each 
^ oz ; all to be pulverized and mixed with simple syrup, or molasses, 

2 oz. Dose, one teaspoon every 2 hours until it moves the bowels 
rather freely ; then 3 or 4 times daily imtil cured. 



106 MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC. 

The Conservation of Health. — This important object, so neces- 
sary to the enjoyment of life, can only be secured by conforming to 
an orderly state of existence. Every man is in duty bound to dis- 
charge with fidelity the debt which he owes to that frame, so " fear- 
fully and wonderfully made," and so well adapted by the Divine 
contriver to fulfil the uses of life, by living with regularity and mod- 
eration, abstaining from every excess calculated to induce disease or 
inflict injury either on body or mind. Excessive intellectual labor is 
just as fatal in its degree as violent physical exertion. We have a 
lamentable proof of the truth of this remark in the sudden termination 
of a most useful life, that of the late Dr. Hall, Editor of Hall's Journal 
of Health. As is well known, the fatal stroke was induced by an 
overworked brain, it being his habit to apply himself ardently to study, 
writing, &c., from 5 in the morning to 10 in the evening, an impru- 
dence all the more reprehensible as it was one w^hich he was continu- 
ally denouncing in others. 

Business men are particularly liable to affections of the heart result- 
ing from trade anxieties, &c., and in the male, the number of deaths 
from enlargement of the heart are as seven compared with five in the 
female. This phase of mortality is caused not only by intranquillity 
and worry of mind occasioned by lack of success in the grand 
struggles of life, but is too frequently brought on by conjugal infe- 
licities and disturbances, which seldom fail to accelerate a crisis which 
terminates in death. Many a well meaning man lays plans which he 
fondly anticipates will result in securing to him and to those depend- 
ent on him, an honestly obtained competence, and confident of pros- 
perity, does his best endeavors, and often risks a great deal, to ensui'e 
success, little dreaming of the poetic apothegm, that " the best laid 
schemes o' mice and men, gang aft aglee." The result too often is, as 
many know to their sorrow, entire failure, and subsequent reproaches, 
opprobrium, asperities, ascriptions of incapacity, &c., are showered on 
his head, and continued to the end of life, with more frequency and 
greater regularity than the dispensation of his daily bread, by the very 
one who should be all gentleness, all love, andher husband's chief com- 
forter and consoler under misfortune. This is the most fatal kind of 
mental trouble, inasmuch as it involves a grinding grief of mind, which 
dissipates happiness, induces gloom, and tends to destroy life ; whatever 
affects the love, which is the real man, or spirit, reacts upon, and 
affects in an equal degree the body which contains that spirit. That 
this is so, results from the correspondence existing between the soul 
and body, as may be palpably manifest to every one capable of inte- 
rior reflection, and this to such a degree that to obtain convincing proof 
it is not necessary to extend his observations beyond his own cxj)eri- 
ence. 

Grief caused by financial loss and the reaction which sets in on re- 
tiring from business, after spending an active life in amassing a for- 
tune, are also pregnant with evil results to health. No man has a 
right to retire from the duty of making himself useful to society, even 
if he has a fortune, and can afford to do so. If he does, this evil, 
like every other, is sure to w^ork out its own retribution with a full 
harvest of unexpected misery. 

!Many of the influences which are patent for evil, and e^il only, are 
self inflicted, such as the habitual indulgence in alcoholic drinks, wine, 
beer, &c., the use of tokicco, opium, and other narcotics. Eighty-se\eu 



MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC. 167 

per cent, of all kidney diseases are induced by alcohol. Its continued 
use curtails vitality, destroys the membranes, generates disease in the 
brain, heart, spinal cord, lungs, liver, muscles and blood vessels ; it 
wrecks the system, impedes the circulation, paralyzes manhood, and 
precipitates premature decay. Tobacco, also, in every form, exercises 
a most baneful effect on the health and mind, 

A distinguished French savant, the Abbe Moigno, increased his 
daily allowance of snuff until in 1861 it was over 20 grammes, and he 
observed a rapid decay of the faculty of memorj-. He had learned 
some 1500 root words in each of several languages, but found them 
gradually dropping out of his mind, so as to necessitate frequent re- 
ie^ence to dictionaries. At last he summoned resolution to abandon 
its -ise, and after 6 years of abstinence writes as follows : 

'"It was for us the commencement of a veritable resurrection of 
health, mind, and memory; our ideas have ^become more lucid, our 
imagination more vivid, our work easier, our pen quicker, and we 
have seen gradually return that army of words. Our memory, in a 
word, has recovered all its riches, all its sensibility. That tobacco, 
especially in the form of snuff, is a powerful enemy of memory, 
which it has destroyed little by little, and sometimes ver\^ promptly, 
cannot be doubted." With these known pernicious effects resulting 
from the use of alcholic drinks, and tobacco, abstinence from both 
becomes an imperious necessit^^ 

Other most imix)rtant auxiliaries to the maintenance of health, are 
pure air, perfect ventilation in dwellings, and absolute cleanliness of 
person (See Bathinr/), Keill estimates the siirface of the lungs at 
150 cubic feet, or ten times that of the external body. During ordi- 
nary respiration, 16 or 17 cubic inches of atmospheric air pass into 
fflie lungs 20 times in a minute, or a cubic foot every 5.25 minutes ; 
274 cubic feet in 24 hours, or a cube of 6^ feet each way. The lungs 
generate 10.7 cubic feet of deadly carbonic acid gas, and remove 
from the atmosphere the same amount of oxygen, every 24 hours. 
The cause of nearly all the headaches in crowded factories, schools 
and work shops, as well as all the sleeping and snoring in churches, 
is due more to vitiated air than to any other cause. To the same 
cause is owing the fearful mortality so prevalent in badly ventilated 
city tenements, boarding houses, cellars, &c., as well as in houses built 
on low levels, and boggy land near stagnant pools, inoperative sewers, 
imjn-isoned springs, &c. Bad air, imperfect ventilation, uncleanness 
and ill health must ever go hand in hand. It is worthy of note that 
while the death i-ate in the filthy eastern districts of London is nearly 
60 per 1000 of the population, in White Chapel it is 41, in Limehouse it 
rises to 48, in part of the Aldgate district of the White Chapel imion, 
it mnges between 58 and 59, or more than double what may be called 
the fair allowance of 25 per cent. Yet it appears from the recent 
statistics of the same citv, that in the Peabody Model Buildings the 
mortality has fallen to 17 per 1000, very near the minimum of the most 
salubrious parts of England. Decaying vegetable and animal matter 
yields various noxious gases, also expired breath, all enter the lungs, 
poison the blood and permeate the system ; therefore all impurities 
should be kept away from our abodes^ and every precaution taken to 
secure pure air. Temperature of rooms should be about 60° Fahr, 

As the solar rays exei-cise a benignant influence on health and 
purify the air in dwellin.gs, therefore admit the blessed sunlight 
without stint, for good health cannot exist without it. 



168 MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC. 

As disinfectants, the following may be used with gooct- effect. 
1. Quicklime, to absorb moisture and putrid fluids. Use fresh lime, 
scattering it about, finely powdered, and whitewash with lime. 2. 
Charcoal powder, to absord putrid gases. The coal should be dry, and 
fresh, mixed with lime. 3. Chloride of lime, to gi^e off chloride to 
absorb putrid effluvia and to stop putrefacti(m. 4. Sulphate of iron 
(copperas) 1 lb. dissolved in 1 qt. water and poured down a water closet 
will destroy the foulest smells. A quantity in an open pan will purify 
the air in rooms. 5. Fluid carbolic acid dissolved at the rate of 1 pait 
to 100 or 150 i>arts of water is also very good. 

Among diseases liable to be spread by the distribution of organic, 
poisons, may be mentioned scarlet fever, typhus fever, typhoid fever^ 
yellow fever, measles, small-pox, diphtheria, infectious ophthalmia, 
hydrophobia, erysipelas, cholera and glanders. The poisonous par- 
ticles which effect contagion, are in every instance of organic origin, 
and are evolved from matter composing living bodies. They float in 
the atmosphere, are inhaled by the breath, and are absorbed by the 
walls of dwellings, hospitals, etc., and are liable at any time to enter 
on a career of baneful activity. The walls of hospitals should be 
glass lined, the better to prevent contamination, and means should 
be used to destroy the contagious matter by means of chemical 
agents, such as powerful heat, nitrous acid gas, bromine, chlorine, 
iodine, sulphurous acid, etc. Solar light is another powerful disin- 
fectant, and as a means of health has been ranked by Lavoiser as 
superior to pure air. 

Dust is highly inimical to health, and it is everywhere present in 
the air we breathe. Its presence is made manifest in a maimer per- 
fectly startling, by admitting a beam of sun-light through an orifice 
into a dark room. It has a most pernicious effect on the health iu 
cities, and indeed everywhere, but the air may be filtered fi-om the 
noxious particles previous to entering the lungs, by the use of a cot- 
ton-wool respirator. This contrivance possesses the further merit of 
being an effectual barrier to the admission to the lungs of those 
germs or poisonous particles whereby contagious disease is propa- 
gated. 

Good health is impossible without pure water. The amount of or- 
ganic and mineral impurities held in solution or suspension by water, 
is perfectly astonishing, and wherever suspicion of such impurities 
exists the water should be filtered. Good reliable filters may be pur- 
chased ready for immediate use, but wherever they cannot be ob- 
tained, an excellent substitute may be made from an oak tub made 
to hold from half to a barrel of water, according to the needs of the 
family. Let it stand on end, with a faucet near the bottom, or pre- 
ferably, a hole through the bottom, near the front side, with a tube 
iuserted to prevent the water from rotting the outside of the tub; 
then put clean j)ebbles 3 or 4 inches in thickness over the bottom of 
the tub. Spread a piece of clean white flannel over the pebbles ; 
now have charcoal, pulverized to the size of small peas (that made 
from hard maple is best), and put in half a bushel or so at a time ; 
pound it down quite firmly, then put in more and pound again until 
the tub is filled to within 8 inches of the top, and again put in 2 
inches more of pebbles, then put a piece of clean v/hite flannel over 
the whole top as a strainer. The flannel may be washed occasion- 



MLDICAL DEPARTMKNT, KTC. 161) 

ally, to remove the impurities collected from the water, aiitl it mi^ht 
he well to replenish the tub with fresh charcoal once a j'car at ieabt. 
The result will be wholesome water. 

Reckless exposure to cold, especiall}' by aged and sensitive per- 
sons, should be carefully guarded agahist. From returns published 
by the Registrar General in England, it was found that during the 
winter months the body wastes, the loss of weight varying in an in- 
creasing ratio ; that daring summer the body gains, the gjiin varying 
in an increasing ratio, and that the changes from gain to loss, and 
from loss to gain, are sudden, .'ind take place, the first at the begui- 
ning of September, and the second at the beginning of April. Deatlis 
fioin pneumonia and bronchitis attain their maximum in the months 
of January, February, and March; in the succeeding 3 months they 
decline, and in the next quarter reach their minimum, re-couimenc- 
ing to increase in October, November, and December. Air saturated 
with moisture tends to develop rheumatic disease, and organic dis- 
eases of tlie heart which spring from rheumatism. 

During cold raw weatlier, aged persons should keep close to the 
house in apartments warmed by a cheerful, open, blazing iire, which 
is much preferable to the oppressive heat from a hot air register, 
steam pipes, or close stoves. If called out by business daring a cold 
morning, do not go out too early, nor until after a good w^arm break- 
fast, and be sure to return before the chill of the evening. Add to 
the clotliing early in the fall, diminish it very gradually in the 
spring, eat with great moderation and regularity of nourishing diet, 
and take a daily nap on a lounge, or in an armchair for 15 or 20 
minutes after dinner, or during the forenoon. If rest is broken dur- 
ing tlie night, make it up with prolonged rest during the mo>iiiiig, 
for as a rule, those aged persons will live the longest who take the 
most rest and work the least, except in a very calm, placid, and ua- 
excited way. Daring old age guard against haste, hurry, and excite- 
ment of body and mind, for nothing can be more dangerous to life. 

Authors, clergymen and all others engaged in intense mental 
study, should, whenever they beconie exhausted by severe brain 
labor, at once cease from further effort, and recuperate their ex- 
pended energies by taking as much sleep as nature requires. Nothing 
soothes, strengthens and invigorates the brain like refreshing sleep. 

Clothing should not be worn in quantity to induce oppression or 
unnecessary smothering, but only enough to repel every feeling re- 
sembling cliilliness. Keep a clean skin at all times, and as a safe pre- 
caution wear flannel next to it, as it possesses a powerful influence in 
modifying dangerous extremes of temperature. Dr. Pettenkofer 
states that equal surfaces of various materials are permeated by the 
air as follows, flannel being taken as 100: IJnen of medium fineness, 
58; silk, 40; buckskin, 58; chamois leather, 51; tanned leather, 1. 

The dress should fit loosely, should be warm and light througiiout, 
and frequently changed to remove the impurities exhaled through the 
skin. Clothing contaminated with excretory matter is highly inimi- 
cal to health if worn too long. In cases of infectious disease, the suf- 
ferer should be isolated, and the infected clotliing and bedding either 
destroyed or purified. 

Sleeping apartments should be elevated, roomy, well ventilated, 
and kept at a temperature of aboutCJO^. They should be free from direct 
draughts on the sleeper. The mattress, should be hard, but may b^ 



170 MEDICAL DEPARTMKNT, ETC. 

easy and sprin^^y if so desired. Feathers sliould not be used, the 
emanations from them are most unhealthy, and they generate an ex- 
cess of lieat which is very enfeebling and unwliolesome. The sweet- 
est repose is obtained with the head towards the north, — with the bed 
insuhited by means of glass interposed between the feet and tlie 
floor, to bar the passage of the electric currents, wliich are liable to 
leave the body depleted of strength unless they are retained. Guard 
against sleeping in new dwellings before the plaster and paint have 
become fully dry. Thousands of deaths, seemhigly very my.sterious 
and principally of aged persons, have taken place from neglect of this 
precaution. The natural allowance for sleep is eight hours out of the 
twent3^-four, and the most favorable time is from 10 o'clock until 6. 
Intellectual labor is more exhaustive than physical, consequently per- 
sons thus employed require more rest than working men. The most 
favorable iwsition for sleep is ou the right side; the worst is to lie on 
the back, as it generates a perilous heat over the region of the kid- 
neys and spinal cord. Solitary repose is the most beneficial every 
way ; when two parties sleep together, each one inhales a deleterious 
effluvia thrown off by his neighbor, and the weakest is always the 
greatest sufferer, more especiall^'^ is this the case with children who 
sleep with aged persons. Add to this, electric changes are continual- 
ly taking place, which frequently cause unrest, disquiet, and exhaus- 
tion, when two sleep together. Refreshing sleep gives rest to the 
brain and the nervous system. The retina is inert, the tj^mpanum is 
placid, the nerves of taste, smell, and feeling, are dormant, and all 
the powers of the cerebrum and cerebellum are quiescent. Children 
require more sleep than adults, and the.y should get all they Avill fcike 
of it, with a benediction and kind words to begin with. It is atro- 
cious to think of the hard language, maledictions, and downright lies 
addressed to tender hearted children by many parents on putting them 
to bed. They certainly are not aware of the grievous injurj- they in- 
flict by such irrational conduct. Sleep is an absolute necessity to all 
animal existence, and when we think of its inestimable benefits, and 
wonderful surroimdings, we can only stand mute, and with emotions 
inexpressible, refer their origin to that Infinite Love which " neith- 
er slumbers nor sleeps." 

In dressing children, use care to keep them warm, Iceeping flannel 
to their skin during the entire year, especially covering the extremi- 
ties well. There is a peculiar fashion most deadly in its effects, which 
lets children runabout with bare legs, arms, and necks, with the low- 
er part of the dress expanded away from the person, thus admitting 
the chilling cold to do its worst. Such exposure Avould prove certain 
death to its parents in less than a month. Keep the extremities warm 
b}"^ keeping them well clothed, and thus keep up a free circulation, for 
cold feet and hands prevent health, and are the certain precursors of 
disease and death. Add to this ])lenty of good food, ripe fruit, and 
out-door exercise ad libitum, and you will have rosy, blooming chil- 
dren, as the result. In the matter of out-door exercise, it might not 
be amiss to use a little wholesome oversight and restraint, let them 
have their full swing in the enjoyment of exercise calculated to de- 
velop the frame, such as running, jumping, playing ball, driving 
hoops, &c., but when it comes to every day sport in the line of firing 
pistols, exploding fire crackers, cracking whips, and an everlasting 
battfiriug of toy'^drums, &c., then I say, stop it .\t onck, unless 



MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC. 171 

you wish to raise a dangerous boy aud a dangerous man, for that is 
just tlie way to do it. 

Children, or otiiers who may be afflicted with impediments of 
speech, may be cured, if the remedy is not organic, by reading aloud 
for an hour or two every day, taking care to inhale air, and well fill 
the lungs, before reading each paragraph, as the cause of stiunmering 
in nine cases out of ten, is the endeavor to speak when the lungs are 
empty. Dr. Hunt, of Regent street, London, a celebrated and suc- 
cessful stammerers' doctor, charged fifty guineas for effecting cures 
by the method just noted. • 

It is only in civilized life that we find the most favorable conditions 
for health and longevity. The poets have expended much rapturous 
sentiment and romance about "the noble red man "in his native 
forest, but a personal investigation of the object of their effusions is 
very apt to cause a sudden revulsion of feeling. A filthy person, 
greasy blankets, rank skins, and other unsavory surroundings, are 
apt to make short work of high-strung ideas in the shape of poetry, 
romance, or sentiment. Of a verity, "cleanliness is next to godli- 
ness," and it is indeed a most auspicious token that the old mediicval 
ideas regarding the necessary connection between filth, poverty, and 
piety, are notions belonging to the past. Human life has been abso- 
lutely lengthened by the addition of several years to a generation, 
compared with what it was a hundred years ago, all owing to the 
observance of sanitary laws, and it will continue to lengthen, just in 
the proportion that these laws are respected. 

Dr. Jarvis intniiates that in ancient Rome, in the period of 200 to 
500 years after the Christian era, the average duration of life in the 
most favored class was 30 years, while in the present century the 
average longevity of persons of the same class is 50 years. In the 
16th century, the average longevity in Geneva was 21.21 years; be- 
tween 1814 and 1833 it was 40.68, and as large a proportion now live to 
70 as lived to 43 300 years ago. In 1000, only 228 medical men live 
from 63 to 72, and 328 theologians. In the last 50 years the mean 
term of life seems to have increased from 33 to 41. In professions, of 
those who attain the age of 66, there are found to be 43 Theologians, 
40 Agriculturists, 35 Men in office. 32 Military, 32 Clerks, 29 Advo- 
cates. 28 Artists, 27 Professors, and 24 Medical practitioners. 

When man, by an orderly life, passes through the various stages 
of a healthy existence, from childhood to youth, from youth to man- 
hood, and from manhood to old age ; during the decline of life lie grad- 
ually approaches the verge of natural decay, and death takes place 
from the gradual effluxion of vitalitj'. Few lives, comparatively 
Bpeaking, terminate in this way, but when this consummation is 
attained, and death, piirely natural, takes place, it must be regarded 
as much in the light of a blessing as is natural birth, for it is an orderly 
working out of a most wise and beneficent law, and the nearer advance 
we make to this natural limit of existence the better. Death is usually 
regarded as a curse, and as something very dreadful ; there is a death 
which is hideed terrible beyond all powers of human conception, but 
natural death is not so, and is in no sense a calamity, but a wise pro- 
vision of Infinite iSIercy for man's highest good. 

Harassing thoughts, mental anxiety, late hours, and worriment, 
are fruitful causes of disease in healthy persons, and of death in cases 
of illness. Use every possible means to get rid of such feelings, aud 



172 MEDICAL DEPART3IENT, ETC. 

do not scruple to make use of such diversions or amusements as will 
effectually divert an invalid's thoughts from being too much en- 
grossed with self. When nature calls for rest and recreation, do not 
neglect the warning. Guard against extreme fatigue of either body 
or mind, especially a complication of both together. Keep the pas- 
sions imder thorough control; in doing this the good old Quaker's 
rule will be found of great assistance, viz., Xever to allow himself to 
speak in a loud tone of voice. Nothing preserves health better than 
a placid temper. Exercise and physical training should not be neg- 
lected; persons engaged in sedentar\' employments should resort to 
exercise, or rest on finding their thoughts become confused, and labor- 
ers should not carry their efforts to the verge of exhaustion; the 
heart's action is greatly injured thereby, and the bad effects will 
become permanent. 

Of all peoples, the Jews are notably the longest lived race ; the 
reason is because they live orderlj^ lives, they take care of themselves, 
so to speak, use proper food, and abstain from pork, which, from its 
liability to promote diseased conditions of the blood, and thence of the 
whole system, is decidedly injurious as an article of diet. The use of 
immoderate quantities of meat has an unhealthy influence on the 
body, and induces ferocity of the mind, as iu Indians and others who 
subsist on it. Plutarch was astonished to think wliat appetite first 
induced man to taste of a dead carcase, and Pope said that the liorrid 
and shocking sight of one of our modern kitchens gives one tlie image 
of a giant's den in romance, bestrewed with scattered heads and mnn- 
gled limbs. Vegetable food is not liable to distend the vessels, load 
the system, or becloud the mind, but the heat, fulness, and weight 
of animal food is unfavorable to its efforts. Coriiaw, the dietetic, 
allowanced himself to 12 ozs. of dry food and 14 ozs. of liquids per 
day, from the age of 40 to 100. See Di/namic Poioer of Food. 

ill eating, select good nourishing diet, so as to insure variety with- 
out excess, eat with regularitj^, without long intervals of absthience, 
and eat leisurely. In drinking, avoid taking large draughts of cold 
water, drink with extreme moderation during meals, and avoid drink- 
ing water which has stood long in rooms or in lead pipes. Impure 
water is liable to produce malarial affections. Tea and coffee, if used 
strong, and iu large quantities, are certain to produce nervous irrita- 
bility and brain excitement, but if used in moderation and of mild 
strength, they are most refreshing and pleasant, Nervous persons 
will find coffee more soothing than tea, while persons of a different 
temperament will be better suited witli the latter. Bej'ond all doubt, 
and for almost everj^ purpose, in liealth and disease, pure water is the 
healthiest beverage, and it certaiidy is the natural drink of man. 
According to Hoffman, "If there he any universal medicine it is 
water ; for, by its assistance, all distempers are alleviated or cured, 
and the body preserved sound and free from corruption, that enemy 
to life." As Dr. Gall said of another subject, so the writer would say 
here, that " This is Truth, though at enmity with the philosophy of 
ages." 

Ox Bathing. — Nothing is of more transcendant importance to 
the maintenance of health than cleanliness, and this can only be 
obtained by the free use of water, iu washing, sponging, and bathing. 
The modes of bathing are various, and, when rightly "used, are most 
powerful for good. The rule is, the more robust the constitution of 



MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC. 173 

the patient, and higher his exterior temperature, the colder should 
be the water. In bathing it is alwaj's well to avoid taking a full bath 
within two hours after a meal, or when exhausted by fatigue, or when 
cooling after persniration, or when feeling chilly. Do not drink cold 
water before bathing, nor eat soon after it. Females, during the 
menstrual period, should never take cold baths. Never take a cold 
bath Avhile the feet are cold. Never chill the body by standing or sit- 
ting on the banks during out-door bathing ; enter the water while the 
body is warm, and avoid remaining too long in the water, leaving it 
on the first feeling of chilliness. Exercise before and after bathing is 
highly beneficial! Feeble and nervous persons should guard against 
powerful chilling shocks from cold water. The young and vigorous 
may bathe early in the morning on an emptj^ stomach. Persons sub- 
jected to giddiness, faintness, palpitation, or other affections of the 
heart, should use a cold bath with extreme caution. 

The Cold Bath, usually taken in the sea or in a river, tempera- 
ture from 35° to 65° Fahr., has a most powerful, exhilarating and 
tonic effect on the frame, and imparts a vigorous glow and stimulus 
to the S3'stem. It should not be continued longer than two or three 
minutes. 

The Temperate Bath, ranging from 65° to 80° Fahr., is much 
preferable to the last for the use of invalids. Duration of bath should 
not be extended over three minutes, and the whole body should be 
thoroughly rubbed dry with a coarse towel, to induce a glow. 

The Full Warm Bath, taken in the ordinary long bath tubs, 
as arranged by plumbers in dwellings, hotels, &c., are in the highest 
degree promotive of health and comfort. Fitted with hot and cold 
water connections, any desired temperature may be obtained, but for 
the best effect it should range from 90° to 98° ; better under that 
than over it. The benefits will be increased by the use of carbonate 
of soda, 4 ozs. to 30 gals, water. This rids the system of much effete 
matter, promotes the cure of disease, and thoroughly cleanses the 
emunctories. After bathing, rub thoroughly dry. 

The Hot Bath, ranging from 98° to 112°, thoroughly stimulates 
the nervous system, but immersion cannot be prolonged over two or 
three minutes without permanent injury. Water scalds at 150°, but 
air heated to 260° is not painful. It is not safe to tamper much with 
such high temperatures, although Berger remained seven minutes in 
an oven, heated to 230°. Blagden exceeded this, remaining eight 
minutes in a temperature of from 240° to 260°. Delaroche could not re- 
main more than 10 minutes in a vapor bath at 100°. Berger was obliged 
to get out of a vapor bath at a temperature of 122° in twelve and a 
half minutes. The sensation in hot vapor resembles that of contact 
with boiling water. Fish actually live in hot baths up to 150°. Treen 
also grow in a bath at 170° ; flowers near a volcano, at 210° ; and 
water-plants are found in boiling springs. The king's bath at Bath 
is 110°, the hot bath is 117°, at Vichy 120°, at Aix la Chapelle 140°. 
In the hot springs at Leuk, in Switzerland, the temperature of twenty 
springs varies from 95° to 125° ; the baths are given at 98°, and, to 
make it as agreeable as possible, the patients bathe together, both 
men and women, dressed for the occasion. In the Hermbad, you 
may see the curious spectacle of people seated up to their necks in 
the bath, with coffee, books, cards, newspapers, work, &c., before 
them on little floating tables, or gossiping together or with their 



174 



MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC. 



friends, who look on from the wooden gallery which runs around 
the wall. The waters are both drank and bathed in, being considered 
excellent for weak nerves, palsjs diseases of the skin, and many 
chronic complaints. Elevation, 4675 feet above the sea. 

Poor Man's Vapor Bath. Heat two or three bricks and place 
them nnder the patient's chair, sprinkle some water over the bricks, 
and cover the patient to keep in the steam, or, a large lump of quick 
lime placed in a pan or old iron pot and sprinkled "with water, or 
wrapped up in a wet, coarse towel. Neither of these methods, however, 
are at all comparable to the efficiency of a properly administered va- 
por bath, either pure or medicated, in which the temperature of the 
steam, &c., can be regulated as follows: Temperature of tepid vapor 
bath, to be breathed, 90° to 100°, warm ditto 100° to 110°, hot ditto 
110° to 130° ; not to be breathed, tepid bath, 96° to 106o, M-arm 106° 
to 120°, hot 120° to 130°. These baths have performed wonders in 
cases of chronic rheumatism, stiffness of joints, indurations, diarrhoea, 
suppressions, &c. 

The Spoxge Bath is a means of health of such transcendant im- 
portance, that in the absence of other bathing facilities^it should never 
be neglected for a single day. It is a powerful conserver of health, 
and affords positive relief in almost every phase of disease. The 
water may be used of any desired temperature. Apply with a towel 
or sponge, and when through polish off with a regular hard finish 
with a coarse towel, or still better, two of tliem, well laid on, the last 
one dry, to induce a glow on the skin by friction. 




Fig. 1. Fig. 2. 

The Sitting or Sitz Bath, Fig. 1, should be arranged to admit 
of the complete immersion of the lower part of the back and abdo- 
minal regions, the thighs, &c., with ample room for laving the water 
and kneading the parts. The cold tonic bath given in this way is ex- 
cellent for diseases of the kidneys, bladder, urino-genital organs, 
piles, constipation, &c. In cases of colic, spasm., griping pains, 
gravel, suppressed or painful menstruation, inflammation, &c., it 
should be given warm in order to ]:>rove effective. Cover the patient, 
if need be, to prevent catching cold. The cuts are borrowed from an 
excellent little work by Dr. Trail, entitled, "The Bath : its History 
and Uses in Health and Disease:" published bv S. R. Wells, New 
York. 



MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC. 



175 



The Head Bath, Fig. 2, is taken by placing the patient on his 
back, on a mattress, with his head in a shallow basin (made with a 
depression in the rim to accommodate the neck) with about 3 inches 
of water, warm or cold, as may be desired. A most excellent cooling 
application for affections of the head, brain, &c. 




Fig. 3. 



Fig. 4. 



The Douche Bath, Fig. 3, consists of a jet of water used as a 
stimulant in lethargic states of the system; also as a remedy for swel- 
lings, sprains, stiff joints, rheumatic affections, &c., applied directly 
to the parts, as shown above. A jet from a hose may be used as a 
substitute for the douche bath in certain cases. 

The Shallow Bath, Fig. 4, may be used with immense advan- 
tage both by invalids and persons in health ; the water may be used 
at any desired temperature, not more than 6 inches deep, contained in 
a spacious tub. The water should be thoroughly applied over the 
breast, abdomen, sides, thighs, and extremities; the head should be 
wet, and water, cold, or otherwise, as desired, poured over the neck 
and shoulders by an assistant. This bath is excellent for brain affec- 
tions, headache, &c. The bath may be used for from 5 to 13 minutes ; 
rub thoroughly to dry and induce a healthy glow on the skin. 

The Wet Sheet Pack, Fig. 5. This is' a most powerful remedial 
agent for invalids. Immerse a cotton or linen sheet in a pail of cold 
water, remove the bed clothes from the mattress, and on the mattress 
spread a coverlet ; then two or three blankets, next, wring out the 
wet sheet in the bucket of water, and spread it over the blankets. The 
patient will now warm his feet, divest himself of clothing, and place 
himself at full length on the cold wet sheet, with his hands placed over 
his breast. The sheet, blankets and coverlets are now tucked in close- 
ly all around his body hj an attendant, the head is elevated on pil- 
lows, aud covered with a wet cloth. The first sensation is that of a 
chill, which gives place almost immediatelj^ to a comfortable glow, 
gradually increasing to a sweat. The patient should remain in the 
pack from 25 minutes to an hour or more. Some have been known 



17G 



MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC. 



to fall asleep in it. To receive the fullest benefit, it should be followed 
at once by a plunge bath (See Fig. 6), or thorough ablution in cold 
water previous to dressing. Then rub with friction by means of a 
coarse towel. In cases of severe disease, the benefit of this treat- 
ment is manifest from the very offensive odor imparted by the per- 




FiG. 5. 



Fig. 6. 



spirations to the sheet. Mercury, also, which had lodged in the sys- 
tem for years, having been taken under the guise of calomel, has 
been withdrawn through the pores by the wet sheet, and detected in 
its woven fabric. The wet sheet pack is of great value in fevers, colds 
chronic diseases, and general derangement of the system. 

Spirit Vapor Bath. The patient divested of all clothing except 
a night shirt, is seated on a wooden bottomed chair, and well covered 
before and behind with blankets or coverlets reaching from his 
shoulders to the floor. A saucer containing a few spoonfuls of alcho- 
hol, whiskey or any spirit that will burn, is now placed on the floor 
under the chair and ignited. The vapor ascends, and, confined by the 
blankets, it will soon induce a copious perspiration from every pore of 
the body subject to its action. The spirit may be replenis^hed when it 
burns out, but not while burning or while under the patient, owing 
to the possible resulting danger. The operation is highly beneficial to 
the system, and may last from 10 to 15 minutes, or until a free per- 
spiration is induced. Be careful that no damage results to the patient 
or his clothing from the burning spirit. 

For Spongio Piline, see Portable Bath. 

Sulphur and Medicated Baths. — The former is compounded by 
mixing sulphuret of potassium 4 ozs. and sulphuric acid 1 oz. in 30 
gals, of water. The latter are decoctions of vegetable or other mate- 
rials in water, in which the patient is immersed; or, it can be applied 
with a sponge if so desired, and may be tepid, warm, or hot, as pre- 
ferred. 

The Air Bath, taken by exposing the naked body to the air in a 
cool room, is very salutary and beneficial. When not carried too far, 
it is very soothing in its effects, and, in wakeful states, is promotive 
of sleep. The good effects are greatly enhanced by friction with a 
towel during exposure. The same remarks are eminently true when 



MEDICAL DEPARTMEIST. 177 

understood of sun-bathinr/, or exposure of the nude body to the sun, 
■which, in certain diseased conditions, has a most vivifying and in- 
vigorating effect. 

Galvanic, Electric, and Magnetic Baths. — The first is taken 
by placing tlie patient in a wooden bath tub (or in a painted metallic 
tub), filled with water impregnated with any desired drug. The nega- 
tive pole of the battery is suspended in the Avater, and a wire con- 
nected with the positive pole, with a sponge attached, communicates 
Avith the body. The electric current from the positive pole enters the 
body and escapes through the pores. The effect is beneficial in the 
highest degree. An electro-positive bath is given while the patient is 
seated on a chair, insulated by placing glass under the feet. AVhile 
the glass plate of the electric machine' is being revolved, the patient 
holds the prime conductor, and his body becomes charged with posi- 
tive electricity. The effect is very stimulating to deficient vitality. 

The Acid Bath is highly beneficial in liver and other complaints, 
and may be compounded with water acidified with vinegar, or with 
water, 30 gals., muriatic acid, 14 ozs. Use the latter in a wooden tub 
or non-metallic vessel, as the acid is inimical to metals. 

The Shower Bath, with cold water, never fails to produce a 
shock Avhich nervous and weak patients find it very hard to Avith- 
stand; but, to persons of strong constitution, it cannot fail to prove 
beneficial, for the shock is usually succeeded by a most agreeable re- 
action. This bath may, however, be rendered agreeable, even to tlic 
feeble, by tlie use of te])id or warm water, applied in the form of a 
delicate spray, passed through minute perforations in a tin vessel 
placed overhead, and fitted with a proper apparatus for regulating the 
descent. 

The Foot Bath is calculated to produce the most decided benefit 
in correcting cold feet, induced by liver complaint, etc.; also, to relieve 
heat in the head, caused by fullness of blood on the brain, with cold 
extremities. In such cases, use Avarm or hot water, with the addition 
of mustard or cayenne pepper. In cases of swelled limbs, ulcers, 
rheumatic pains, etc., great relief will be obtained by extending the 
treatment to the legs, knees, limbs, etc., thoroughly washing and. lav- 
ing the parts. 

The Mud Bath, equivocal as it may appear, is nevertheless one 
of the most powerful remedial agents. On the principle that charcoal 
purifies foul Avater, absorbing its impurities, so mud acts on the body, 
opening the pores, withdraAving effete matter, cooling the skin, and 
curing disease. If any diseased person doubts this, let him put it to 
the test. 

The Iodine Bath, for adults, is compounded of iodine, 1 dr. ; 
iodide of potassium, 2 drs. ; water, 20 gals. For children's use, it 
should be weaker. It is not adapted for indiscriminate use, but for 
diseases affecting the glands, tubercular troubles, scrofula, etc. The 
iodine vanor bath may be used as described under spirit A'apor bath. 

The Turkish Bath, by means of dry heated air, is one Avhich 
may be, and often is, productive of much benefit in diseased con- 
ditions of the body, but is most inimical to health Avhen used Avith 
regularity as a social enjoyment or luxury. Wherever it has become 
a national custom, this bath has always proved the principal agency 
in sealing the doom of that nation, as witness the collapsed Rome of 
the .past, and the reeling Turkey of the present. In reference to this, 

12 



178 MEDICAL DEPARTMENT. 

one of the most promiueut medical practitioners of the day, Dr. 
Richardson, of Limdon, writes to the British Medical Eevieio, as fol- 
lows: " I predict it will be the same here, under the same principles. 
I predict that whenever Englishmen give up the active occupations I 
, have named (he had been urging healthy men to spend the time re- 
quired for the bath in digging, walking, rowing, rifle drill, cricketing, 
etc;), and, in slippered pantaloons, luxuriate daily in a bath, to rid 
themselves of the i)roducts of excretion, then this country will have 
passed its zenith Then there will be no great hero to l)id every man 
do liis duty, no man to do the duty, and no England for which the 
duty should be done." 

The foregoing, i^resenting a choice of between 20 and 30 different 
methods of bathing, is of great utility to all, but especially so in the 
prevention and cure of the complex and delicate affections to Avhich 
females are liable, and which call for such careful treatment from 
medical i)ractitioners. There is room for deep regret that this class 
of diseases has opened a wide field for the operations of numerous 
rapacious and incompetent men, who are a disgrace to the profession, 
and whose ravenous proclivities and infamous practices blind them to 
everything but the acquisition of plunder. The medical profession, as 
a class, have always been held in high estimation ; so much so, that, 
during the reign of the Emperor Augustus, they Avere exempted from 
the payment of taxes ; and that there should be so many cormorants 
in their ranks, is regretted by none more sincerely than by the respect- 
able members of the profession. The real impostor is generally 
known by his resonant puffs, in the shape of advertisements, in 
which, while uttering the most savage maledictions against quacks 
and quackery, he almost lays personal claim to the powers of omnipo- 
tence in the cure of disease. These incorrigible rascals generally 
parade a dazzling list of fictitious certificates of cures performed by 
them where every other doctor had failed; but they will not hesitate 
to act the thief as nearly as the law allows, and strip their victim of 
Ills or her last dollar, exacted for services fifty times worse than use- 
less. 

Grateful, indeed, should he be who escapes with nothing worse 
than the loss of his money. The advertising quack is generally a 
dead shot, something of the Dr. Hornbook genus, as immortalized by 
Burns, very profuse in his promises to cure disease and conceal in- 
firmities, but like his illustrious prototype, very uncanny, and alto- 
gether too ready to send his patients " aff to their laug liame, to hide 
them there." 

In England, previous to the advent of the modern newspaper, the 
quack used to transfcrrm himself into a living advertisement, by itin- 
erating through the j)rovincial towns in a blazing uniform, dressed 
like a mountebank, with cocked hat and wig. Accompanied by an 
assistant, he would mount a platform, gather an immense crowd, and 
proceed to deliver an extravagant eulogium on his profound skill, pro- 
digious wealth, and the wonderful virtues of his pills, panaceas and 
elixirs, as he offered them for sale. The assistant, who seemed to an- 
swer to the character of a modern clown in a circus, would aid with 
tlie sales, and keep up the farce by making witty remarks on the doc- 
tor' s wild averments. For example, after listening to the doctor's 
statements regarding his boundless Avealth, and great condescension 
in consenting to travel for the iwrpose of healing the sick, as he- was 



MEDICAL DEPARTMENT. 



179 



not obliged to do so for want, the clown would announce to the au- 
dience that " The doctor tells the truth, we doant need to travel for 
want, for we have enoof of that at hoam." The result is a loud 
laugh, the crowd is in good humor, the pills, elixirs, etc., are sold, 
and the buyers are sold at the same time. 




The Lunatic Asylum". — Insanity may be cansed by intense 
study, u.3ntal exertion, care, business Avorriment, fright, grief, physi- 
cal injuries to the brain, hard drinking, etc. The children of parents 
who are i\\ a state of intoxication during the period of conception, 
usually become idiots. Knowing these things, it becomes every one 
to use great caution to steer clear of the rocks, or a shattered mind 
may be the fearful penalty of neglect. The engraving presented 
herewith is from the celebrated "Lunatic Asylum" as painted by 
the eminent German painter, Willi elm Yon Kaulbach, after he had 
witnessed the awful scene. 

Effects of the Solar Light cn Lunatics. — Dr. Ponza, di- 
rector of the Lunatic Asylum at Alessandria, Piedmont, having con- 
ceived the idea that the solar rays might have some curative power 
in diseases of the brain, the experiment was tried in rooms lighted 
by stained glass, the walls being painted the same color as the Avin- 
dows. The patients passed the niglit iu rooms oriented to the east 
and south, and painted and glazed as above. One of them, affected 
with morbid taciturnity, became gaj^ and affable after 3 hours stay in 
a red chamber ; another, a maniac who refused all food, asked for 
gome breakfast after having stayed 24 hours in the same red cham- 



180 MEDICAL DEPARTMENT. 

ber. Ill a blue one, a highly excited madman with a straight waist- 
coat on, was kept all day, an hour after he appeared much calmer. 
The action of blue light is very intense on the optic nerve, and seems 
to cause a sort of oppression. " A patient was made to pass the night 
in a violet chamber ; on the following day he begged Dr. Ponza to 
send him home, because he felt himself cured, and indeed he has 
been well ever since. Dr. Ponza's conclusions from his experiments, 
are these: " The violet rays, are, of all others, those that possess 
the most intense electro-chemical power. The red light is also very 
rich in calorific raj's: blue light, on the contrary, is quite devoid of 
them, as well as of chemical and electric ones. Its beneficent influ- 
ence is hard to explain ; as it is the absolute negation of all excite- 
ment, it succeeds admirably'' in calming the furious excitement of 
maniacs." 

Weak Back. — Take a beef's gall, pour into it 1 pint alcohol, and 
bathe frequently. It acts like a charm. 

Sprained Ankle. — Wash the ankle frequently with cold salt 
and water, which is far better than warm vinegar or decoctions of 
herbs. Keep your foot as cold as possible to prevent inflammation, 
and sit with it elevated on a cushion. 

Spitting of blood. — Two spoonfuls of sage juice in a little 
honey, will speedily stop either spitting or vomiting blood, or, take 
20 grains in water every two hours. 

Apoplexy. — Occurs only in the corpulent or among high livers. 
To treat — raise the head in a nearly upright position ; unloose all 
tight clothes, strings, etc., and apply cold water to the head, and 
warm water and warm cloths to the feet. Have the apartment cool 
and well ventilated. Give nothing bj^ the mouth until the breathing 
is relieved, and then only draughts of cold water. 

Bbight's Disease. — Dr. Arthur Scott Donkin, extols a skim 
milk diet in this disease. "The first appreciable action," he says, 
" of skim milk taken to the extent of 6 or 7 pts. daily, is that of a 
most energetic diuretic, a profuse flow of urine being rapidly pro- 
duced. The effect of this in Bright's disease, is to flush the urinifer- 
ous tubules, and to dislodge and wash out the concrete casts of dis- 
eased epithelial cells by which they are blocked up and distended. 
The emptying of the tubules relieves their pressure on the surround- 
ing secondary capillaries, the blood begins to flow more freely through 
them, the distension of the primary malpighian capillaries, is re- 
lieved ; less and less albumen escapes through their walls, until the 
renal circulation is gradually restored, wdien it finally disappears 
from the urine. While this beneficial change is progressing, healthy 
epithelium is developed in the tubules, and the urinary excrement is 
withdrawn from the blood. In short, a healthy nutrition becomes 
re-established in the kidneys through the agency of milk, which, 
above all other substances, seems to exercise a controlling influence 
over this process. 

Remedy fob Gout and Rheumatism. — Gum guaiacum, 1 oz. ; 
rhubarb in powder, 2 drs. ; flour of sulphur, 2 ozs. ; cream of tartar, 
1 oz., ginger powder 1 oz. ; make into an electuary with molasses. 
Dose : 2 teaspoonfuls, night and morning. Rheimmtic Plaster, resin ^ 
lb., sulphur ^ lb,, melt them bj' a slow fire ; then add cayenne pepper 
1 oz., camphor gum J oz. Stir well till mixed, and temper with neats- 
foot oil. To guard against rheumatism, adhere to a regular diet, 
breath pure air, and avoid exposure, 



MEDICAL DEPARTMENT. 



181 




rNDUSTHY PROMOTES BODILY HEALTH AND MENTAL ACTIVITY. 

Every true man Avill most willingly concur in the Yoxal assevera- 
tion of old king Solomon, that the price of a wise, virtuous, and 
good woman, "is far above rubies." Poets of every age and race, 
have sung her praises, and many a man has had abaudaut reason to 



182 MEDICAL DEPARTMENT. 

thank his Maker for an inestimable blessing in the companionship of 
a virtuous, loving, devoted and affectionate Mife. What eaitlilv 
prize can for a moment be compared with this. In her jjerson we see 
the perfection of loveliness — modesty, grace, aud beauty ; in iier 
voice we hear the sweetest music ; in her mind we see a fraprant 
blending of the most attractive attributes, and the nearest created 
approximation to that Love which is Infinite. Sherlock avers that 
" The perception of woman is as quick as lightning. Her penetra- 
tion is intuition : almost instinct. By a glance she will draw a deep 
and just conclusion. Ask her how she formed it, and she cannot 
answer the question. While she trusts her instinct she is scarcely 
ever deceived, but she is generally lost when she commences to rea- 
son." 

Every one knows that this is true, bnt very few know the reason 
why it is so. This we find unfolded in the following quotation from 
the illumined Swedenborg : " The man is born to be intellectual, 
thus to think from tlie understanding, but the woman is born to be 
voluntary, thus to think from the will ; which also is evident from the 
inclination or connate disposition of each, as also from their form. 
From the disposition, in that the man acts from reason, but the 
woman from affection. From the form, in that tlie man has a 
rougher aud less beautiful face, a heavier speech, and a harder body, 
but the woman has a smoother and more beautiful face, a more ten- 
der speech, and a softer body. Similar is the distinction between 
the understanding and the will, or between thought and affection." 
Again, "The male is born hito the affection of knowing, of under- 
standing, and of being wise, and the female is born into the love of 
conjoinuig herself with that affection in the male." The special at- 
tributes of the will principle are perception, affection, and every re- 
sultant feminine grace, or in one word — Love. 

The question which eclipses all others in importance is, How shall 
this most precious quality be trained and cultivated ? Or, into what 
channels should its course be guided and directed ? On this subject, 
hear Swedenborg once more : " Love truly conjugal, considered in 
its origin, and its correspondence, is heavenly, spiritual, pure, and 
clean, above every love which is with the angels of heaven and the 
men of the church." Again, "I know that few -will acknowledge, 
tliat all joys and delights, from first to last, are gathered into conju- 
gal love, because that love truly conjugal, is at this day so rare, that 
what it is is not known, and scarcely that it is." We maj^ learn 
from this, that love is of heavenly origin, and was given that ft might 
be used for heavenly ends and purposes. It follows from this there- 
fore, that in order to attain to a full and healthy mental and physical 
development, it is imperiously necessary- that immorality and un- 
chastity in every form, should be discountenanced and shunned, for 
it is only in total abstinence from impurity and illicit pleasures; that 
we can find immunity from ruin, degradation, and death. This is 
true in the case of man, and it is still more so in the case of woman, 
for in almost every case after the first false step, she is led on to 
swift destruction by the ascendancy of her affections, without being 
arrested in her career by the wholesome restraint of the reflective or 
reasoning faculties which operate so powerfully in man. Every 
means should be employed that will operate to prevent such a baleful 
consummation. All obscene, Immoral, and impure books, everything 



MEDICAL DEPARTMENT. 183 

we can find immunity from ruin, degradation, and death. This is 
true in tlie case of man, and it is stiii more so in the case of woman, 
for in ahnost every case after the first false step, she is led on to 
swiit destruction by tlie ascendancy of her affections, without being 
arrested in her career by the wholesome restraint of the reflective or 
reasoning faculties which operate so powerfully in man. Every 
means should be employed that will operate to prevent such a baleful 
consummation. All obscene, immoral, and impure books, everything 
in tlie shape oi literature which tends to inflame the passions, pro- 
mote licentiousness, and corrode purity of mind, should be at once 
deposited in the only place where they will prove innocuous — m the 
fire. Labor to elevate and train the faculties of the soul in the love 
and practise of what is good and true ; rule the propensities, and 
hold them in abeyance, remembering that no victory is at all com- 
parable with that obtained over self. 

Perhaps the intensestJonging of which a good woman's heart is 
susceptible, is after union and intimate conjunction with a worthy 
husband. It may be no news to inform such women, that nothing 
attracts the opposite sex to them compared with a tender and win- 
ning manner, blended with feminine sweetness of temper. The 
sweet temper is a crowning charm together, Avith the female grace 
which seems to solicit and invite, while at the same time it modestly 
repels. Men never respect boldness or audacity in women. What 
they most desire to see in them is something in which they are de- 
cidedly deficient themselves. Prof. Tyndall, the scientist, a man of 
great scientific attainments, is now fifty-six years of age, and but 
lately married. On being interrogated by a friend previous to his 
marriage, as to what attractions he saw in his intended which drew 
forth his preference for her more than for others, the characteristic 
reply was: " Less dynamic force . " It has been so in all ages, and 
will so continue. 

In every possible way try to act in a natural and becoming man- 
ner, without affectation. Dress according to your means and sta- 
tion, if you Avill, but always in a modest, unassuming style, and dis- 
card at once and for ever, all those Avretched shams and miserable 
appliances in the shape of padding, painting, perfuming, curling, 
tight lacing, etc., which are calculated to ruin the health and deceive 
the observer. Cultivate kindness, cheerfulness, an even quiet 
temper, and repress asperities of every kind. 

The most powerful means for the repression of evil and the elimi- 
nation of good, is constancy in some useful employment of body or 
muid. Useful uidustry promotes bodily health, enhances every 
female grace, sweetens the temper, and beautifies the countenance. 
It is the great safety valve, which by Divine appointment, is designed 
to absorb and utilize the surplus energy dispersed to every healthy 
human being during the prime of life, and which, if spent in idle- 
ness, frivolity, dissipation, or senseless gossiping, is certain to pro- 
duce the most malignant evils. 

Ladies should never neglect pure air, and abundant out door ex- 
ercise, either in walkhig, carriage, or horseback riding. Confinement 
in close rooms, with stove or furnace heat, is most unfavorable to 
robust health. It is all important, in consideration of the perform- 
ance of those high and holy functions entrusted to woman, that the 
beautiful, delicate, and exquisitely constructed body by which those 
functions are accomplished, should be kept attuned to the most per- 



184 MEDICAL DEPARTMENT. 

feet state of health. The mind should be kept free from tnoral con- 
taminatiou of every kind, and trained to habits of pure thought, 
sobriety and stability. Nothing can be of greater importance to 
humanity than the proper adjustment of the physical and mental 
equilibrium of woman. The weal or woe of the human race seem to 
ttini on this primary essential as on a pivot. What our children are, 
is in a great measure what their mother's have made them, for in the 
turn on this primary essential as on a pivot. What our children are 
is in a great measure what their mothers have made them, for in the 
very nature of things, children are in the mother's hand, like plas- 
tic wax under the seal, and the impression is generally in harmony 
either with wliat she has taught them or neglected to teach. 

Equally important is the duty incun\bent on every female to vigi- 
lantly guard against forming matrimonial engagements with men of 
defective health or vitiated morals. The neglect of this wise precau- 
tion has caused an extent of misery and wretchedness beyond all 
human conception. On this subject, one of the ablest living medical 
men, Dr. B. W. Richardson, of London, England, remarks as fol- 
lows: " The first step towards the reduction of diseases is, beginning 
at the beginning, to provide for the health of the unborn. If the 
intermarriage of disease were considered in the same light as the 
intermarriage of poverty, the hereditary transmission of disease 
would be at an end in three, or at most, four generations." He re- 
marks in another place, " Greater care than is at present manifested, 
ought to be taken wiUi women who are about to become mothers." 

As many estimable ladies are pardonably anxious about their 
chances for marriage, the following curious statement, by Dr. Gran- 
ville, is drawn up from the registered cases of 876 married women in 
France. It is the first table ever constructed to exhibit to ladies their 
chances of marriages at various ages. Of the 876 tabulated, there 
were married : — 

Years of age. Years of age. Years of age. Years of age. 

3 at 13 118 at 20 28 at 27 5 at 34 

11 at 14 8'o at 21 22 Ht 28 3 at 35 

16 at 15 85 at 22 17 at 29 at 36 

43 at 16 59 at 23 <J at 30 2 at 37 

45 at 17 53 at 24 7 at 31 at 38 

77 at 18 36 at 25 5 at 32 1 at 39 

115 at 19 24 at 26 7 at 33 at 40 

It should not be forgotten that women, and men, too, in England, 

Canada, and the Northern States, are no nearer maturity at 20, than 

the French at 18. This is owing to the warm climate, which in 

France accelerates maturity with greater rapidity than in more 

northern climes. From salutary experience, it would be safe to say 

that the best results would follow, did our girls not marry until after 

20, and our men till after 22, or even 24. 

Women married at 25, live four years longer than unmarried 
ones; 72 married wonion live to 45, for 52- unmarried. Among mar- 
ried men, 41 attain 45, for 18 unmarried. At 60, there are 48 married men 
for 11 unmarried. At 80, the numbers are 9 married for 3 unmar-ried. 
Cebebro-Spinal Meningitis, or Spotted Fever, is fre- 
quently caused by bad diet, malaria, cold, repression of the secre- 
tions, changeable weather, etc. It is a most malignant trouble, con- 
sisting of inflammation of the brain and spinal marrow. There is 
fever, pain in the he^d, rigidity of the muscles, intense thirst, ter- 
rible pain, and an abuudauce of purple spots. The head is forced 



MEDICAL DEPARTMENT. 185 

backward with fearful agony, the intense suffering induces prostra- 
tions, stupidity, deafness, — in some cases blindness, and if the dis- 
ease is not restrained by skilful treatment, insensibility and death. 
In treating this disease, keep the bowels open, and the body Avarm : 
immersion in a hot bath, made strong with salt and mustard, is good 
to bring the blood to the surface. iVnother way is to wrap the body 
iu a woollen blanket wrung out of hot water, and place outside of tlie 
blanket bottles filled with hot water, and cover over close, as de- 
scribed under the Avet sheet pack ; this will induce a copious perspir- 
ation and afford relief. Warm ginger tea is useful to generate inter- 
nal heat, and tincture of pepper for outward application, Avith fric- 
tion on the skin. If the pulse is high, give two to three drops ex- 
tract of Veratrum virlde (American Hellebore), every hour, diluted 
by adding 1 teaspoonful of water to ea':h drop of the extract. Guard 
against constipation, retention of urine, convulsions, etc., and if the 
head is severely pauied, relieve by dry cupping over the neck and spine. 

Ciioup Sykup. — Crushed blood root, 2 teaspoonfuls ; vinegar, 2 
gills ; Avhite sugar, 8 tablesiDoonf uls ; boil all together and strain. 
Dose, from ^ to 1 teaspoonful every hour or half hour, (warm) accord- 
ing to the severity of the case. Sponge the body Avith strong salera- 
tus water, and if mflammation exists, give, for a child of 1 year, a 
teaspoonful (every hour) of a mixture of 5 drops of veralrum in 20 
teaspoonfuls of Avater. 

Sulphuric Ether. — Rectified spirit, 3 lbs. ; sulphuric acid, 2 lbs. 
carbonate of potassa (previously ignited), 1 oz. ; pour 2 lbs. of the 
spirit into a glass retort, add the acid, place the vessel on a sand 
bath, so that the liquor may boil as soon as possible, and the ether as 
it forms, pass over into a well cooled receiver; continue the distilla- 
tion until a heavier fluid begins to pass over, then lower the heat, 
add the remainder of the spirit, and distil as before; j)our off the 
supernatent portion, add the carbonate of potassa for one hour; 
finally, distil the ether from a large retort, and keep it hi a well- 
stoppered bottle. 

Chloroform, — Take chloride of lime (in powder), 4 lbs. ; water, 
12 lbs. ; mix in a capacious retort or still, add, of rectified spirit, 12 
fluid ozs., and cautiously distil, as long as a dense liquid, Avhich sinks 
in the water it passes over with, is produced ; separate this from the 
water, agitate it with a little sulphuric acid, and, lastly, rectify from 
carbonate of baryta. The only safe way knoAvn of purifying chloro- 
form, consists in agitation Avith pure water and redistillation. 

Prof. Nussbaum has succeeded in prolonging the anaesthesia in- 
duced by chloroform, by the sub-cutaneous injection of a solution 
containing 1 gr. of acetate of morphia. In one case the patient slept 
12 hours and underwent a painful operation, Avithout any sensation 
whatever. The injection performed without the previous inhalation 
of chloroform, produced no such effect. 

Carbonic Oxide Gas, is inflammable, but arrests animal life. 
Carbonic Acid Gas maybe liquefied "as folloAvs : — Get a strong iron 
bottle, strong enough to resist a pressure of 40 atmospheres, or fiOO 
lbs. to the square inch ; put into it about 4 ozs. of sodic bicarbonate, 
and a small pot containing about the same quantity of oil of vitriol. 
Insert the latter carefully, so as not to spill any : close the bottle Avith 
an air tight cap, surround by a mixture of ice and salt, and upset the 
inner pot. The gas becomes condensed and liquified in the bottle, 
and on opening the bottle, by means of a stop-cock in th€ lid, Avill 
rash out, and part Avill fall doAvn in a frozen state like snow. A jet 



18'. 



MEDICAL DEPARTMENT. 



of the liquid carbonic acid, directed on the bulb of a spirit thermom- 
eter, made it fall to 194° below zero. A jet passed into a phial is ex- 
panded 400 times, and the cold solidifies it as a white powder. Then, 
if the finger is placed on the powder, the expansion repels the finger, 
the cold being 231° below zero ! It is too dangerously cold for medi- 
cal applications, but a mixture of salt and finely broken ice, have 
been used to promote immunity from pain during amputation, and in 
cases of severe headache. Ansesthesia may also be produced by 
projecting a spray of sulphuric ether and rhigolme, which produces a 
temporary freezing, during which time an operation may be per- 
formed without pain to the patient, after which the parts thaw, and 
sensibility returns. 

Rules to be Foelowed by the By-standers in case of in- 
jury by Machinery &c., WHERE Surgical Assistance cannot 
BE obtained, —In cases of severe shock, inducing paleness, chilliness, 
and prostration, place the sufferer on a hed with the head but slight- 
ly raised, keep up warmth by wrappuighim in blankets and coverlets, 
assisted by bottles containing hot water, or by warm bricks, wrap- 
ped in cloths, and applied to the armpits, sides, feet, &c., stimulate 
with table spoonful doses of whiskey or brandy every 15 or 20 minutes, 
until partial recovery, and nourish by giving .strong soup occasionally. 
If the patient is not bleeding, do not bind the limb tight, but cover 
the bruised part lightly with rags. 

If bleeding results, do not try to stop it by binding up tlie wound, 
but find the artery by its beating, and place a firm and smooth wad 
made of cloth or rags rolled up, or any round smooth article of proper 
size, wrapped up and jjlace over the artery as shown in the figures, 
tie a handkerchief around the limb and tighten up; put a stick through 
undit the handkerchief as shown in Fig. B, giving it just enough of 
twist to stop the bleeding, then enter one end of the stick under the 
handkerchief as shown in Fig. C, to secure the bind. When the leg 
is bleeding below the knee, apply the pad over the artery at the back 
of the thigh, as shown at C, on Fig. A, and secure in front as above 
described. 




The artery in the thigh runs along the inner side of the muscle in 
front near the bone. A little above the knee, it passes to the back of 
the bone. In injuries at or above the knee, apply the compress high 
up on the inner side of the thigh, at the point where two thumbs meet 
at C ,on Fig. D, with the knot on, the outer side of the thigh. 

The arterj' in the arm runs down the inner side of the large muscle 
in front, quite close to the bone; low down it gets further forward 
towards the bend of the elbow. It is most easily found and com- 
pressed a little above the middle at C, as shown oiiFig. E, 

Examine the limb from time to time, and relax the compression if 
it bec^omes very cold or purple, but tighten the handkerchief again in 
case of bleeding. 

To transport an injured person, make a soft bed for the injured 
part, 'of strawj* folded coverlets, &c., laid on a board, with side-pieces 



MEDICAL DEPARTMENT. 187 

of board nailed on, when this can be done. If possible let the patient 
be laid on a door, shutter, settee, or other firm support comfortably 
covered, and carry him steadilj'. Send for a jihysician in all cases. 
For BuKNS and Scalds, consult the Engineers' Department under that 
item. 

For Bruises, use tspid applications at first. After inflammation sab- 
sides, use stimulating applications, as vinegar and water, or camphor- 
<ated liniment. 

For Sprains, elevate the limb ; keep the joint easy ; apply tepid 
lotions or fomentations. When inflammation subsides, apply stimulat- 
ing liniments, and shower the part alternately with cold and tepid 
water. 

For Numbness from Cold. — Restore warmth (jradually, in pro- 
portion as circulation in the parts or body increases. 

For a Frozen Limb. — Rub with snow, and place in cold water 
for a short time. "When sensation returns, place again in cold Avater; 
add heat very ciradually, by adding warm Avater. If apparently dead 
or insensible, strip entireh' of clothes, and cover body, with exception 
of mouth and nostrils, Avith snow o'- ice-cold water. When the body 
is thawed, dry it, place it in a cold bed ; rub Avith AA'arm hands undei* 
the cover; contmue this for hours. If life appears, give small injec- 
tions of camphor and water; put a drop of spts. camphor on the 
tongue; then rub body Avith spirits and Avater, finally with spirits; 
then give tea, coffee, or brandy and Avater. 

In Apparent Death from Breathing Noxious "Vapors. — ^Ex- 
pose the person to the air; sprinkle cold AA'ater on face and head; rub 
strong vinegar about nostrils ; giAe drink of Ainegar and AA^ater. If 
suffocated by breathing charcoal fumes, treat in the same manner, and. 
excite breathing as directed in cases of droAA^ ning. 

Dr. M. Hall's Directions for Restoring the Apparently 
Droaa'ned. — 1. Send for a physician in all cases. 2. Treat the patient 
INSTANTLY ON THE SPOT, ill the OPEN AIR, freely exposing the face, 
neck, and chest to the breeze, except in cold Aveather. 3. In order 
to CLEAR THE THROAT, place the patient gently on the face Avith one 
Avrist under the forehead, that all fluid, and the tongue itself may fall 
forward, and leave the entrance into the windpipe free. 4. To ex- 
cite RESPIRATION, tum the patient slightly on his side, and apply 
some irritating or stimulating agent to the nostrils, as teratrine, 
DILUTE AisniONiA, &c., OT snuff, or apply a feather to the throat. 5. 
Make tne face warm by brisk friction; then dash cold water upon it. 
0. If not successful, lose no time, but, to imitate respiration 
place the patient on his side, and a little beyond; then agam on 
the lace, and so on alternately. Repeat these movements deliberately 
and persevermgly 15 times only in a minute. (When the patient 
iies on the breast, this caA-ityis compressed by the Aveight of the 
body, and ea:piration takes place. AVhen he is turned on the side this 
pressure IS removed, and i?ispiration occurs). 7. When the prone 
position IS resumed, make a uniform and efficient pressure along 
"^^^ ^^/r^?' I'emovmg the pressure immediately, before rotation on the 
siae. ( i ne pressure augments the expiration : the rotation commences 
inspiration). Continue these measures. 8. Rub the limbs upward 
AVITH FIRM PRESSURE, and Avith energy. (The object being to aid the 
7} of venous blood to the heart). 9. Substitute for the patient's 
Avet clothmg, if jwssible, such other covering as can be instantly pro- 



188 MEDICAL DEPARTMENT. 

cured, each by-stander supplying a coat or vest, &c. Meantime, and 
from time to time, to excite inspiration, let the surfuce oitne body 
be SLAPPED brislvly with the hand. 10. Rub the body briskly till it 
is wiirm and dry, then dash cold Avater upon it, and repeat the 
rubbing. 

Avoid the immediate removal of the patient, as it involves a dan- 
gerous LOSS OF time; also, the use of bellows, or Siuy forcing in- 
strument, and ALL ROUGH TREAT3IENT. 

Rules for Accidents on Water, — When upset in a boat or 
thrown into the water and unable to swim, draw tlie breath in well; 
keep the mouth tight shut; do not struggle and throw the arms \ip, 
but yield quietly to the water; hold the head well up, and stretch out 
the hands only beloio the water; to throw the hands or feet vjj will 
pitch the body beloio the water, hands or feet ujy will pitch the body 
head doion, and cause the whole person to go immediately under 
w^ater. Keep the head above, and every thmg else under water. 

Everyone should learn to swim ; no animal, aquatic fowl, or reptile 
requires to be taught this, for they do it naturally. Few persons 
exist who have not some time or other, seen a bullfrog perform his 
masterly movements in the water, and it would detract from no one's 
dignity to take a few lessons from him. In learning, the beginner 
might sustain himself by a plank, a, block of wood, an attachment 
composed of cork, an inflated bladder, a flying kite, or a stout cord 
attached to a long rod held by an. assistant on the land. Learn to 
swim cost tchat it loill. 

An officer of the New York police force wears three medals, and 
receives $50 per month from the Life Saving Benevolent Association. 
He has saved 12 lives from death by drowning, but he says that when 
a boy he received a thrashing every night from his father forgoing in 
swimming. 

Oxygen Gas. — 1. Use red oxide of mercury; heat over a spirit 
lamp, or ignited charcoal in a green glass retort, or in a short tube of 
Bohemian glass, closed with a perforated cork furnished with a piece 
of bent glass tube of small bore to convey the liberated gas to the 
A-essel arranged to receive it. Pure. 1 oz. yields about 100 cubic 
inches. 2. Treat chlorate of potassa as above. Pure. Product 100 
cubic mches of gas from 100 grains. 3. Bichromate of potassa, 3 
parts ; oil of vitriol. 4 parts ; heat gently as before ; yields pure oxy- 
gen very freely and rapidly. 4. Binoxide of manganese and oil of 
vitriol, equal parts: treat as the last. Product, 256 Cubic inches from 
1 oz. binoxide. 5. On the large scale ; expose nitre to a dull red heat 
in an iron retort or gun barrel. Product, 1200 cubic inches of gas 
(from 1 lb. nitre), contaminated more or less with nitrogen. 6. Treat 
flood commercial binoxide of manganese, as the last. Product, 1500 
to 1600 cubic inches, or from 5 to 6 gals, from 1 lb. of binoxide. 7. 
Chlorate of potassa 1^ lbs. ; binoxide of manganese, | lb. ; treat as 
the last. Gas procured from manganese or nitre, may be purified by 
passing it through lime water. When required for nice experiments, 
the first gas should be allowed to pass awaj^ or else be gathered 
separately, as it is apt to be impure. Oxygen gas is the supporter of 
vitality and fire, and is often used as a remedial agent in asphyxia, 
arising from the inhalation of carbonic acid or carbonic oxide, it 
was first discriminated as a distinct gas, by Priestly, in 1774. 



MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC. 189 

German RnKinMATTC Fluid. — Oils of hemlock and cedar, of each 
i oz., oils of origanum and sassafras, each 1 oz. ; aqua ammonia, 1 
oz. ; capsicum pulverized, 1 oz. ; spirits of turpentine and gum 
camphor, each h oz. ; jnit all into a quart bottle, and fill with 95 per 
cent, alcohol. Dose, for colic, for man, half a teaspoon ful ; for a 
horse, ^ to 1 oz., in a little warm water, every 15 minutes, till relieved. 

LiNiSiENT FOR Old Sores. — Alcohol, 1 qt. ; aqua ammonia, 4oz. ; 
oil of origanum, 2 oz. ; camphor gum, 2 oz. ; opium, 2 oz. ; gum 
myrrh, 2 oz. ; commou salt, two tablespoons. . Mix, and shake occa- 
sionally for a week. 

Liniment.— Good Sabiaritan. — Take 98 per cent, alcohol, 2 qts. ; 
and add to it the following articles : Oils of sassafras, hemlock, 
spirits of turpentine, tincture of cayenne, catechu, guaiac (guac), and 
laudanum, of each, 1 oz. ; tincture of myrrh, 4 oz. ; oil of origanum, 
2 oz. ; oil of wintergreen, ^ oz. ; gum camphor, 2 oz. ; and chloro- 
form, 1^ oz. This is one of" the best applications for internal pahis 
known : it is superior to any other enumerated in this work. 

Inhalation of Tar for Consumptiqn. — Mix together IG ozs. of 
liquid tar and one fluid oz. liquor of potassa, boil them for a few 
minutes in the open air, then let it simmer in an iron vessel over a 
spirit or other lamp in the chamber of the patient. This may at first 
excite a disposition to cough, but in a short time it allays it, and re.- 
moves any tendency to it. 

Cancer cure.— Drmk a tea made from the tops of red clover ; 
about 1 qt. per day should be taken internally, and the tea should bo 
used as a wash twice per day, ; very strongly recommended. 

Taylor's Remedy for Deafness. — Digest 2 ozs. bruised garlic in 
1 lb. oil of almonds for a week, and strain. A droj) poured into the ear 
is effective in temporary deafness. 

Cure for Earache. — Take equal parts of chloroform and lauda- 
num, dip a piece of cotton into the mixture and introduce into the ear, 
and cover up and get to sleep as soon as possible. 

Ottawa Root Beer. — Take 1 oz. each of sassafras, allspice, yellow- 
dock, and winter gxeen ; -^ oz. each wild cherry bark and coriander ; 
^ oz. hops and 3 qts. molasses. Pour sufficient boiling water on the 
ingredients and let them stand 24 hours, filter the liquor and add ^pt. 
yeast, and it is ready for use in 24 hours. 

To Extract Essential Oil from AVood, Barks, Roots, Herbs, 
&c, — Take balm, mint, sage, or any other herb, &c., put it into a bot- 
tle, and pour upon it a spoonful of ether ; keep in a cool place a few 
hours, and then fill the bottle with cold water ; the essential oil will 
swim upon the surface and may be easily separated. 

Fumigating Paper. — Dip light paper in a solution of alum ; strength 
of alum 1 oz., water 1 pt. Dry thoroughly, and on one side spread a 
mLxture of equal parts of gum benzoin, galbanum, or Peruvian balsam ; 
melt the gums m an earthenware dish and spread with a hot spatula ; 
slips of the paper are held over a light, when the odorous matter will 
be evaporated, the alum preventing the paper from igniting. 

Transparent Cement for Glass. — Dissolve 1 part India-rubber 
in chloroform, and add 10 parts by measure of gum mastic in powder. 
Digest for 2 days, shaking the bottle frequently ; apply with a fine 
camel's hair brush. 

Mouth "Wash.— Proof spirits, Iqt. ; borax and honey, of each loz. , 



190 MEDICAL DErARTMEXT, ETC. 

gum myrrh, 1 oz. ; red sanders wood, 1 oz. Rub the honey and borax 
well together in a mortar, then gradually add the spirit, the myn-h and 
sanders wood, and macerate 14 days. 

Wash fok kemoving Takticles of Zinc on Iron from the 
Eye. — Muriatic acid, 20 drops ; mucilage, 1 dr. ; mix with 2 fluid 07.fi. 
rose water. Iron or steel particles may be extracted by holding ne;u' 
them a powerful magnet. 

To Kemove Tumors. — Dr. Simpson of Edinburgh introduces a 
hollow acupuncture needle, or very tine trocar (a surgical instrument 
in the form of a fine hollow needle) into their tissue, and injects a 
few drops of some irritant liquid, such as a solution of chloride of 
zinc, percholorde of iron, or creosote. The effect is to destroy the 
vitality of the tumors so treated, and admit of separating them. 

CoJiPOUND SvRUP op IIvroniospniTES.— Take of hypophospliitc 
of lime, 1^ oz. ; hjijophosphite of soda h oz ; hn^ophosphite of pot- 
assa, ^ oz. ; cane sugar, 1 lb. troy ; hot water, 20 fluid ozs. ; orange 
water, 1 fluid oz. !^lLx a solution of the mixed salts iu the hot water, 
filter through paper, dissolve the sugar iu the solution by heat, and 
strain, and add the orange flower water. Dose, a teaspoonf ul, con- 
tiiining nearly five grains of the mixed salts. 

Cook's Electro-Magnetic Linevient. — Best alcohol, 1 gal. ; oil 
of amber, 8 oz. ; gum camphor, 8 oz. ; Castile soap, shaved fine, 3 
oz. • beef's gall, 4 oz. ; ammonia, 3 F.'s vStrong, 12 oz.; mLx, and 
shake occasionally for 12 hours, and it is fit for use. This will bo 
found a strong and valuable liniment. 

London Liniment. — Take chloroionn, olive oil, and aqua ammo- 
nia, of each 1 oz. ; acetate of morphia, 10 grs. Mix and use as other 
liniments. Very valuable. 

Ointments. — For Old Sores. — Red precipitate, ^ oz. ; sugar of 
lead, ^ oz. ; burnt alum, 1 oz. ; Avhite vitriol, J oz., or a little less ; 
nil to be very finely pulverized ; ha\e mutton tallow made warm, h 
lb. ; stir all in, and stir imtil cool. 

Judkin's Ointment. — Linseed oil, 1 pt. ; sweet oil, 1 oz. ; and boil 
tliem in a kettle on coals for nearly 4 hours, as warm as you can ; 
then have pulverized and mixed borax, ^ oz. ; red lead, 4 oz. ; and 
sugar of lead, 1^ oz. ; remove the kettle from the fire, and thicken 
inUie powder ; continue the stirring until cooled to blood heat, then 
fitir in 1 oz. of spirits of turpentine ; and now take out a little, let- 
ting it get cold, and if not then sufficiently thick to spread npon thki 
soft linen as a salve, you will boil again until this point is reached. 
It is good for all kinds of wounds, bruises^ sores, bums, white swell- 
ings, rheumatisms, ulcers, sore breasts ; and even where there are 
wounds on the inside, it has been used with advantage, by applying 
a i^laster over the part. 

Magnetic Ointment. — Said to re Trask's. — Hard raisins cut 
in pieces, and fine-cut tobacco, equal Aveights ; simmer well together, 
then strain, and press out all from the dregs. 

Mead's Salt-Rheum Ointment. — Aquafortis, 1 oz. ; quicksilver, 
1 oz. ; good hard soap, dissolved so as to mix readily, 1 oz. ; prepared 
chalk, 1 oz. ; mixed with 1 lb. of lard ; mix the above by putting the 
cqnafortis and quicksilver into an earthen vessel, and when done 
e^^^rvescing, mix with the other ingredients, jiutting the chalk in last ; 
add a little spirits of turpcutiuc,. sriy h tablcsiX)ou. 



MEDICAL DErAKTMENT, ETC. 191 

Green Oixt-^iext. — Honey and "becsw.ax, e<acli ^ lb. ; spirits of 
turpentine, 1 oz. ; Avintemreen oil and landanum, each 2 oz. ; ver- 
digris, finely pulverized, | oz. ; lard, 1^ lb. ; mix by a stove fire, iii 
a copper kettle, heating? slowly. 

Itch Ointment. — Unsalted butter, 1 lb. ; burgundy ptch, 2 oz. , 
.spirits of turpentine, 2 oz. ; red precipitate, iiulverized, 1^ oz. ; melt 
the pitch and add the butter, stirruig well together ; then remove 
from the fire, and Avhen a little cool add the spirits of turpentine, and 
lastly the precipitate, and stir until cold. 

Jaundice. — In its "VVokst Forms. — Red iodide of mercury, 7 grs. ; 
iodide of potassium, 9 grs. ; aqua dis. (distilled water), 1 oz. ; mix. 
Commence by giving G drops 3 or 4 times a day, increasing 1 drop a 
day until 12 or 15 drops are given at a dose. Give in a little water, 
immediately after meals. If it causes a griping sensation in the bowels, 
and fulness in the head, when you get up to 12 or 15 drops, go back 
to G drops, and up again as before. 

Remedy for Rheumatism and Stiff Joints. — Strong camphor 
spirits, 1 pt. ; neat's-foot, coon, bear's, or skmik's oil, 1 pt. ; spirits of 
luiiientine, ^ pt Shake the bottle when used, and apply 3 timea 
daily, by pouring on a little at a time, and rubbing in all you can for 
20 or 30 minutes. 

Asthma Remedies. — Elecamj)ane, angelica, comfrc}'-, and spike- 
nard roots with hoarhound tops, of each 1 oz. ; bruise and steep in 
honey, Ipt, Dose, a tablespoon, taken hot every few minutes, imtil 
relief is obtamed, then several times daily until a cure is effected. 

Another. — Oil of tar, 1 dr. ; tincture of veratrum viride, 2 drs. ; 
simple syrup, 2 drs. ; mix. Dose, for adults, 15 drops 3 or 4 times 
daily. Iodide of potassium has cured a bad case of asthma, by tiiking 
5 gr. doses 3 times daily. Take ^ oz. and put it in a phial, and add 32 
teaspoons of water ; then 1 teaspoon of it will contain the 5 grs., 
Avhich put into ^ gill more water, and drink before meals. 

CoMrosiTioN" Powder. — Thoitson's. — Bayberry bark, 2 lbs. ; 
hemlock bark, 1 lb. ; ginger root, 1 lb. ; cayenne pepper, 2 oz. ; cloves, 
2 oz. ; all finely pulverized and well niLxcd. Dose, \ a teaspoon of it, 
and a spoon of sugar ; put them into a tea-cup, and pour it half full of 
boiling water ; let it stand a few minutes, and fill the cup with milk, 
and drink freely. If no milk is to be obtained, fill up the cup with 
hot water. 

French Remedy for Ciironic Rheumatism. — Dr. Bonnet, of 
Graulbet, France, states, in a letter to the " Abeille Medicale," that ho 
has been long in the habit of prescribing " the essential oil of turpen- 
tine by friction for rheumatism ; and that he has used it himself with 
perfect success, having almost instantaneously got rid of rheumatic 
pains in both knees and in the left shoulder." 

Diuretics — Pills, Drops, Decoction, &c . — Solidified copaiba, 2 
parts ; alcoholic extract of cubebs, 1 part ; formed into pills with a 
little oil of juniper. Dose, 1 or 2 pills 3 or 4 times daily. This pill 
has been found very valuable in affections of the kidneys, bladder, 
and urethm, as inflammation from gravel, gonorrhooa, gleet, whites, 
leucorrhcea, common inflammations, «S:c. For giving them a sugar 
coat, see that heading, if desired. 

Diuretic Drops. — Oil of cubebs, ^ oz. ; sweet spirits of nitre, ^ 
oz. ; balsam of copaiba, 1 oz. ; Harlem oil, 1 bottle ; oil of lavender, 



192 MEDICAL DErAKT3Ii:XT, ETC. 

20 drops ; spirits of turpentine, 20 drops ; mix. Dose, 10 to 25 droj)s, 
as the stomach will bear, three times daily. It may be used iu any of 
the above diseases with great satisfaction. 

DiUKETic TxNCTUKE. — Grceu or growing spearmint mashed, put 
into a bottle, and covered with gin, is an cxcclleut diuretic. 

Diuretic fok Children. — Spirits of nitre — a few drops in a little 
spearmint tea — is all sufficient. For very j'oung children, pumpkin- 
seed, or water-melon-seed tea is perhaps the best. 

Dropsy. — Syrup and Pills. — Queen-of-the-meadow root, dwarf- 
elder flowers, berries, or mner bark, juniper berries, horse-radish 
root, pod milkweed, or silkweed, often called, root of each, 4 oz. ; 
prickly-ash bark of berries, mandrake root, bittersweet bark, of the 
root of each, 2 oz. ; Avhite-mustard-seed, 1 oz. ; Holland gin, 1 pt. 
Pour boiling water on all except the gin, and keep hot for 12 hours ; 
then boil and pour off twice, and boil down to 3 qts., and strain, add- 
ing 3 lbs. of sugar, and lastly the gin. Dose, take all the stomach 
will bear, say a wine glass a day, or more. 

Dropsy Pills. — ^Jalap, 50 grs. ; gamboge, 30 grs. ; podophyllin, 
20 grs. ; elatarium, 12 grs. ; aloes, 30 grs. ; cayenne, 35 grs. ; Castile 
soap, shaved and iKilverized, 20 grs. ; croton oil, 90 drops ; powder all 
finely, and mix thoroughly ; then form into pill mass, byiismgathick 
mucilage made of equal ])arts of gum arable and gum tragacanth, and 
divide In three-grain i)ills. Dose, 1 pill every 2 days for the first 
week ; then every 3 or 4 days, until the water is evacuated by the 
combined aid of the pill with the alum syrup. This is a powerful 
medicine, and will well accomplish its work. 

Liver Pill. — Leptandrin, 40 grs. ; podophyllin and cayenne, 30 
grs. each ; sanguinarin, iridin, and ipecac, 15 grs. each ; see that all 
are pulverized and well mixed ; then form into pill mass by using ^ 
dr. of the soft extract of mandrake and a few drops of anise oil ; theii_ 
roll out into three-grain pills. Dose, 2 pills taken at bed-time will 
generally operate by morning ;«but some persons require 3. 

Irritating Plaster. — Extensively Used by Eclectics. — ^Tar, 1 
lb. ; burgmidy pitch, ^ oz. ; white-pine turpentine, 1 oz. ; resin, 2 oz. 
Boil the tar, resin, and gum together a short time, remove from the 
fire, and stir in finely pulverized mandrake root, blood root, poko 
root, and Indian turnip, of each, 1 oz. 

Pills. — To Sugar Coat. — ^Pills to be sugar coated must be very 
dry, otherwise they will shrink away from tiie coating, and leave it a 
shell easily crushed off. AVhen they are dry, you will take starch, 
gum arabic, and white sugar, equal parts, rubbing them very fine iu 
a marble mortar, and if damp, they must be dried before rubbhig 
together ; then put the powder into a suitable pan, or box, for shak- 
ing ; now put a few pills into a small tin box having a cover, and 
pour on to them just a little simple syrup, shaking well to moisten 
the surface only ; then throw into the box of powder, and keep in 
motion until completely coated, dry, and smooth. If you are not 
\evj careful, j-ou will get too much syrup upon the pills ; if you do, 
init in more, and be quick about it to prevent moistening the pill too 
much, getting them into the powder as soon as possible. 

Positive Cure for Hydrophobia. — The dried root of elecampane, 
pulverize it, and measure out 9 heaping tablespoonfuls, and mix it 
with 2 or 3 teaspoonlulij of pulverized gum arabic ; then divide into 



MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC 193 

9 equal portions. Wlien a person is "bitten by a rabid animal, talco 
one of these portions and steep it in 1 pt. of new milk, until nearly 
half the quantitj'- of milk is evaporated ; then strain, and drink it in 
tl^e morning, fasting for 4 or 5 hours after. The same dose is to be 
repeated 3 mornings in succession, then skip 3, and so on, until the 9 
doses are taken. 

The patient must avoid gettuig wet, or the heat of the sun, and 
abstain from high-seasoned diet, or hard exercise, and, if costive, talco 
a dose af salts. The above quantity is for an adult ; children will 
take less accordmg to age. 

Eye PRErARATio>s. — Eye "Water. — Table salt and white vitriol, 
of each 1 tablespoon ; heat them upon copper plates or in eartheu- 
ware until dry ; the heating drives off the acrid water, called the 
water of crj'stallization, making them much milder in their action ; 
now add to them soft water ^ pt. ; puttmg in white sugar, 1 table- 
spoon ; blue vitriol, a j^iece the size of a common pea. If it shouhl 
prove too strong in any case, add a little more soft water to a phial 
of it. Apply it to the eyes 3 or 4 times daily. 

India pRESCRiPTioif for Sore Eyes. — Sulphate of zinc, 3 grs. ; 
tincture of opium (laudanum), 1 dr. ; rose water, 2 oz. ; mix. Put a 
drop or two in the eye, 2 or 3 times dail3^ 

Another.— Sulphate of zinc, acetate of lead, and rock salt, of 
each ^ oz. ; loaf sugar, 1 oz. ; soft water, 12 oz. ; mix without heat, 
and use as other eye waters. If sore eyes shed much water, put a 
little of the oxide of zinc into a j)hial of water, and use it rather free- 
ly. This will soon effect a cure. Copperas and Avater has cured sore 
ej^es of long standing ; and used quite strong, it makes an excellent 
ai)plicfitiou in erysipelas. Allum and the white of an egg is good. 

Indian Eye Wateel — Soft water, 1 pt. ; gum arable, 1 oz. ; white 
vitriol, 1 oz. ; fine salt, ^ teaspoon ; put all into a bottle, and shake 
until dissolved. Put into tlie eye just as you retire to bed. 

Black Oil. — Best alcohol, tincture of" aruica, British oil, and oil 
of fcir, of each 2 oz. ; and slowly add sulphuric acid, \ oz. These 
black oils are getting into extensive use as a liniment, and are indeed 
valuable, especially in cases attended with much inflammation. 

Vermifuge Lozenges.— Santonin, GO grs. ; pulverized sugar, 5 
oz. ; mucilage of gum tragacanth, sufficient to make into a thick 
paste, worked carefully together, that the santonin shall be evenly 
mixed throughout the whole mass ; then if not in too great a hurry, 
cover up the mortar in which you have rubbed them, and let staiul 
from 12 to 24 hours to temper ; at which time they will roll out 
better than if done immediately ; divide into 120 lozenges. Dose, 
for a child 1 year old, 1 lozenge, night and morning ; of 2 years, 2 
lozenges ; of 4 years, 3 ; of 8 years, 4 ; of 10 years or more, 5 to 7 
lozenges ; in all cases to be taken tAvice daOy, and continuing until 
the worms start on a voj-age of discovery. 

Harlem Oil or Welsh Medicamentl'm. — Sublimed or flowers of 
sulphur and oil of amber, of each 2 oz. ; linseed oil, 1 lb. ; spirits of 
turpentine sufficient to reduce all to the consistence of thin molasses. 
Boil the sulphur in the linseed oil until it is dissolved, then add the 
oil of amber and turpentine. Dose, from 15 to 25 drops, morning 
and evemng. Amongst the Welsh and Germans it is extensively 
used for strenstheuiug the stomach, kidneys liver, and lungs ; for 

IS 



194 MEDICAL DErARTMENT, ETC. 

asthma, shortness of breath, cough, inward or outward sores, drojv 
sy, worms, gravel, fevers, palpitation of the heart, giddiness, head- 
ache, &c., by taking it internally ; and for ulcers, malignant sores, 
cankers, ojc, anointing externally, and wetting linen Avith it, and 
applying to burns. 

Egyptian Cure for Cholera. — Best Jamaica ginger root, bruis- 
ed j 1 oz. ; cayemie, 2 teaspoons ; boil all in 1 qt, of water to ^pt., and 
add loaf su";ar to form a thick s.'S'rup. Dose, 1 tablespoon every 15 
minutes, until vomiting and purging ceases ; them follow up with a 
blackberry tea. , 

Indian Prescription for Cholera. — First dissolve gum camphor, 
^ oz., in 1^ oz. of alcohol ; second, give a teaspoon of spirits of 
hartshorn in a wine glass of water, and follow it every 5 minutes 
with 15 drops of the camphor in a teaspoon of water, for 3 doses ; 
then wait 15 minutes, and commence again as before ; and continue 
the camphor for 30 muiutes, unless there is returning heat. Should 
this be the case, give one more dose, and the cure is effected ; let 
them perspire freely (which the medicine is designed to cause), as 
upon this the life depends, but add no additional clothing. 

Isthmus Cholera Tincture. — ^Tincture of rhubarb, cayenne, 
opium, and spirits of camphor, with essence of peppermint, equal 
jiarts of each, and each as strong as can be made. Dose, from 5 to 30 
drops, or even to CO, and repeat, until reUef is obtained, every 5 to 30 
minutes. 

King of Oils, for Neuralgia and Rheumatism. — ^Burning fluid, 
1 pt. ; oUs of cedar, hemlock, sassafras, and origanum, of each 2 oz. ; 
carbonate of ammonia, pulverized, 1 oz. ; mix. Directions. — Apply 
freely to the nerve and gums around the tooth ; and to the face, in 
neuralgic pams, by wetting brown paper and laying on the parts, not 
too long, for fear of bUstering, — to the nerves of teeth by lint. 

Neuralgia. — Internal Remedy. — Sal-ammoniac, ^dr., dissolve 
in water 1 oz. Dose, one tablespoon every 3 minutes, for 20 minutes, 
at the end of which time, if not before, the pain will have disappeared. 

Artificial Skin. — For Burns, Bruises, Abrasions, &c. — Proof 
AGAINST Water. — Take gun cotton and Venice turpentine, equal 
parts of each, and dissolve them in 20 times as much sulphuric ether, 
dissolving the cotton first, then addmg the turpentine ; keep it corked 
tightly. Water does not affect it, hence its value for cracked nipples, 
chapped hands, surface bruises, &c., &c. 

Indian Balsam. — Clear, pale resin, 3 lbs., and melt it, adding 
spirits of turpentine, 1 qt. ; balsam of tolu, 1 oz. ; balsam of fir, 4 oz. ; 
oil of hemlock, origanum, with Venice turpentine, of each, 1 oz. ; 
strained honey, 4 oz. ; mix well, and bottle. Dose, 6 to 12 drops ; 
for a child of six, 3 to 5 drops, on a little sugar. The dose can bo 
A'aried according to the ability of the stomach to bear it, and tho 
necessity of the case. It is a valuable preparation for coughs, inter- 
nal pains, or strains, and works benignly upon the kidnej'^s. 

Wens — To Cure. — Dissolve copperas in water to make it very 
strong ; now take a pin, needle, or sharp knife, and prick or cut tlie 
wen in about a dozen places, just sufficient to cause it to bleed ; then 
wet it well with the copperas water, once daily. 

Bronchocele.— Enlarged Neck. — To Cure.— Iodide of jxttas- 
sium (often called hj'driodate of iwtash), 2 drs. ; iodine, 1 dr. ; water 



MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC. 195 

2^ oz. ; mix aud shake a few minutes, and pour a little into a phial 
lor mtemal use. Dose, 5 to 10 drops before each meal, to he taken in 
a little water. External Application. — ^^Vith a feather, wet the 
enlarged neck, from the other bottle, night and morning, until well. 
It will cause the scarf sldn to peel off several times before the cure 
is perfect, leaving it tender ; but do not omit the application more than 
one day at most, and you may rest assured of a cure, if a cure can be 
l^erformed by any means whatever. 

Daley's Carminative. — Magnesia, 2drs. ; oil peppermint, 3 drops; 
oil nutmeg, 7 drops ; oil anise, 9 drops ; tiuct. of castor, 1^ drs. ; tinct. 
ofassafcetida, 45 drops ; tinct. of opium, 18 drops ; essence peimy royal, 
50 drops ; tinct. of cardamons, 95 drops ; peppermmt water, 7 oz. ; mix. 

Positive Cure for Diarrhoea. — Take 2 wine glasses of vinegar, 
and one tablespoonf ul of salt. Mix the whole thorougldy to dissolve 
the salt ; add 7 to 10 drops of laudanum, according, to the age or 
strength of the patient, aud give the whole at one dose. 

Cure for Ague. — Cut three lemons into tliin slices and pound 
them with a mallet, then take enough coffee to make a quart, boil it 
down to a pint and pour it while quite hot over the lemons. Let it 
stand till cold, then strain through a cloth, and take the whole at ouo 
dose, immediatehj after the chill is over, and hefore the fever comes on. 

To Improve the Voice. — Beeswax, 2 drs. ; copaiba balsam, 3 drs. ; 
powder of liquorice root, 4 drs. ; melt the copaiba balsam with tlio 
wax in a new earthen pipkin ; when melted, remove them from the 
fire, and mix in the powder ; make the piUs of 3 grs. each. Two of 
these pills to be taken occasional! j"-, 3 or 4 times a day. Very best laio wu. 

Cure for Tape Worm. — Take at one dose, ether | oz. 2 hours 
after this take castor oil, 1 oz. The worm is discharged, entire or al- 
most so, and always with the head intact. 

Necessary Rules for Sleep. — There is no fact more clearly 
established in the physiology of man than this, that the brahi expends 
its energies and itself during the hours of wakefulness and that these 
are recuperated during sleep. If the recuperation does not equal the 
expenditure, the brain withers ; this is insanity. Thus it is in early 
English history, persons who were condemned to death by being pre- 
vented from sleeping always died raving maniacs, and those who arc 
starved to death become msane ; the brain is not nourished and they 
can not sleep. The practical inferences are three; 1st. Those who 
think most, who do the most brain work, require the most sleep. 2d. 
The time "saved" from necessary sleep is infallibly destructive to 
mind, body and estate. 3d. Give yourself, your children, your servants, 
give all that are under you, the fullest amount of sleep they will take, 
by compelling them to go to bed at some regular early hour, and to 
rise in the morning at the moment they awake ; and, within a fort- 
night. Nature, with almost the regularity of the rising sun, will un- 
loose the bonds of sleep the moment enough repose has been secured 
lor the wants of the system. This is the only safe and eflacient rule. 

Signs of Disease in Children. — In the case of a baby not yet 
able to talk, it must a^ when it is ill. The colic makes a baby cry 
loud, long, and passionately, and shed teai-s — stopping lor a moment 
and beginning again. 

If the chest is affected, it gives one sharp cry, breaking off imrae- 
<liatoly, as if crj'iug hurt it. 



196 MEDICAL DErARTMEXT, ETC. 

If the head is affected, it erics, in sharp, piercinrj sJiricJ^s, -with loio 
moans and wails between. Or there may he quiet dozhig, and start- 
ings between. 

It is easy enough to perceive, where a child is attacked by disease 
that there is some change taking place ; for either its skin will be dry 
and hot, its appetite gone ; it is stupidly sleepy, or fretful and crying •, 
it is thirsty, or pale and languid, or in some way betrays that sonic- 
thing is wrong. When a child vomits, or has a diarrhoea, or is cos- 
tive and feverish, it is owing to some derangement, and needs atten- 
tion. But these various symptoms may continue for a day or two 
before the nature of the disease can be determined. A warm batli, 
Avarm drinks, etc, , can do no harm, and may help to determine tlic 
case. On coming out of the bath, and being well rubbed with the 
liand, the skin ^vill show symj)toms of rash, if it is a skin disease 
which has commenced. By the api^earance of the rash, the natiivo 
of the disease can be learned. Measles are in patches, dark red, and 
come out first about the face. If scarlet fever is impending, the sl:in 
will look a deep pink all over the body, though mostly so about the 
neck and face. Chicken-pox shows fever, but not so much runnhig 
at the nose, and appearance of cold, as in measles, nor is there as 
much of a cough. Besides, the spots are smaller, and do not run 
much together, and are more diffused over the whole surface of the 
skin, and enlarge into little blisters in a day or two. 

Let the room where the child is sick be shady, quiet, .ind cool. Bo 
careful not to speak so suddenly as to startle the half-sleeping patient 
and handle it with the greatest tenderness when it is necessary to 
move it. If it is the lungs that suffer, have the httle patient some- 
what elevated upon the pillows for easier breathing, and do everthing 
to sooth and make it comfortable, so as not to have it cry, and to thus 
distress its inflamed lungs. If the child is very weak, do not move it 
too suddenly, as it may be startled into convulsions. In administering 
a bath, the greatest pains must be taken not to frighten the child. 
It should be put in so gradually, and so amused by something placed 
in the water on purpose as to forget its fear ; keep up a good supply 
of fresh air, at a temperature of about 60° Fah. If a hired nurse 
vmst be had, select if possible a woman of intelligence, gentle and 
loving disposition, kind and amiable mamiers, and of a most pacific 
unruffled, and even temper. If a beinj? can be got possessed of these 
angelic quahties, and 'we believe there are many such, you will be 
quite safe in intrusting to her care the management of your sick child 
or yourself either, in case of sickness. She should not be mider 
twenty-five or over fifty-five, as between these two ages she will, if 
healthy, be in her full strength and capacity. 

Whooping Cough. — To empty the child's stomach by a lobelia 
emetic, is the first step. After this make a syrup of sugar, gmger- 
root, a little water, and enough lobelia tincture to produce a slight 
nausea. This, given two or three times a day, will loosen the cough 
very much. See " Whooping Cough Syrup." 

Diarrhoea. — Nothing is better for looseness of the bowels than 
tea made of ground bayberry. Sweeten it well, and give a half- 
teacupful once in two hours, until the child is better. Bathing must 
not be neglected. For Croup Remedy see " Cure for Lockjaw." 

Colic— This can be cured with warm injections cf simple soap- 



MEDICAL DErAKT3IENT, ETC- 197 

suds, or ■u-arni water with a warming tincture jn it. ' A little warm 
tea may be given at the same time, and the bowels rubbed. Every 
family should have a small and large syringe. Nothing is oftcner 
needed, particularly in the care of children. 

I'evek. — Where a child has a simple fever from teething or any 
other cause not connected with acute disease, give a teaspoonf ul of 
syrup of rhubarb, a Avarm injection, and sponge-baths. These will 
generally be all that is needed. 

Rickets and Scrofula. — If children have either of these, or both 
these diseases, a good, nutritive diet is a great essential. Then the 
alkaline-bath, a little lime-water, say a teaspoonful three times a day, 
and out-door exercise, are the chief remedies. 

Fits — Spasms — When these are brought on by indigestion, place the 
child in a warm bath immediately, give warm water, or a lobelia 
emetic, rub the skin briskly, etc., to get up an action. In brain disease 
the warm water is equally itseful. In fact, unless the fit is constitu- 
tional, the warm bath will relieve the patient by drawing the blood to 
the surface. 

Enlargement of the Brain. — This chiefly effects children, and 
consists in an unnatural growth of the brain. The skull may grow 
with it, and there be no symtoms of disease, though children with this 
large brain are apt to die of some brain disease. The symptoms of 
e::largement of the brain are, dullness of intellect, indifference to ex- 
ternal objects, irritable temper, inordinate appetite, giddiness, and 
habitual headache. Sometimes there are convulsions, epileptic fits, 
and idiocy. There is also a pecular projection of the parietal bones 
in this disease. 

Treatment. — As much as possible, repress all exercise of the mind. 
Do not suffer the child to go to school ; but put it to the most active 
and muscular exercise in the open air. The moment there is any heat 
in the top of the head, apply cold water, ice, or cold evaporating lo- 
tions. The diet should be very simple, bread and milk only, if, as the 
child grows up, the signs of the disease increase. 

Water in the Head, — Another disease of children, and especially 
of scrofulous children. It is inflammatory, and should be early no- 
ticed. 

Symptoms. — Capricious appetite, a foul tongue, offensive breath en- 
larged, and some times tender belly, torx)id bowels, stools light-colored 
from having no bile, or dark from vitiated bile, fetid, sour-smelling, 
slimy and lumpy. The child grows pale and thin ; and is heavy, l.in- 
guid, dejected ; it is fretful, iiTitable, uneasy, and apt to be tottering 
in its gait. 

The disease may begin, after these symptoms, by pains in the head, 
becoming more severe and frequent, sharp and shooting, causing the 
child to waken and shriek out. As the drowsy state advances, the 
shrieking gives place to moaning. There is great stiffness in the back 
of the neck, pain in the limbs, tenderness m the scalp, vomiting, sigh- 
ing, intolerance of light, knitting of the brows, and increased disturb- 
ance of the stomach and bowels. This may last from ten to four- 
teen days, the patient growing more weak and peevish. Another 
form of attack is marked by acute pain in the head, high fever, con- 
vulsions, flushed face, brilliant eyes, intolerance of light and sound, 
l)ain. tenderness in the belly, stuixar, great i-rritibility of stomach, 



198 MEDICAL DErART3IENT, ETC. 

causing retching and vomiting on every attempt to sit up. The third 
mode of attack is very Insidious — the early symptoms being so mild 
as hardly to be noticed. lu tliis case, the convulsions or palsy come 
suddenly, without notice, bringing swift and unexpected destruc- 
tion. In the first stage of the disease there is increased sensibility ; 
in the second decreased sensibility ; in the third, palsy, convulsions, 
squinting of the eyes, rolling of the head, stupor, and a rapid, thread- 
like pulse. 

Treatment, — ^In the first stage, purging is very important, and 
must be continued for three or four days. An excellent purgative 
is this : pulverized scammony, six grains ; croton oil, four drops ; 
j)nlverized loaf sugar, sixteen teaspoonf uls. Rub well together in a 
mortar. Give one teaspoonful every hour or two, till it operates. 
Apply cold water or ice to the head. In the second stage put blisters 
upon' the back of the neck, and one on the bowels, if very tender. 
In the third stage use the warm bath, also alteratives and diuretics. 
For an alterative, use iodide of potassium, one dram ; water, half an 
ounce ; mix. Thirty drops to a child seven years old every hour. 
For a diuretic, use tincture of digitalis, one ounce ; syrup of squills, 
one ounce ; mix. Ten drops for a child seven years old every four 
hours. The patient should be kept in a dark room, away from all 
noise and excitement, and should lie upon a hair mattress, with his 
head somewhat elevated. The diet in the first stage should be noth- 
ing more than gruel ; after that, more nourishing, but easy of diges- 
tion, such as beef-tea, plain chicken-broth, animal-jellies, etc. At 
the same time the patient should be supported by the cautious use of 
wine-whey, valerian, or ten drops of aromatic spirits of ammonia 
every four hours. 

Mumps. — This disease, most common among cnildren, begins witn 
soreness and stiffness in the side of the neck. Soon a swellmg of the 
paratoid gland takes place, which is joainful and contmues to increase 
for four or, five days, sometimes making it difficult to swallow, or 
open the mouth. The swelling sometimes comes on one side at a 
time, but commonly upon both. There is often heat and sometimes 
lever, with a dry skin, quick pulse, furred tongue, constipated bowels, 
and scanty and high-colored urine. . The disease is contagious. 

Treatment. — Keep the face and neck warm, and avoid taking cold. 
Drink warm herb teas, and if the sjinptoms are severe, 4 to G grs. 
of Dover's powder ; or if there is costiveness, a slight physic, and 
observe a very simple diet. If the disease is aggravated by taking 
cold, and is very severe, or is translated to other glands, physic must 
be used freely, leeches applied to the swelliug, or cooling poultices. 
Sweating must be resorted to in this case. 

Scarlet Fever is an acute infiamniation of the sKin, both exter- 
nal and internal, and connected with an infectious fever. 

Symptoms. — The fever shows itself between two and ten days after 
exposure. On the second day of the fever the eruption comes out in 
minute pimples, which are either clustered together, or spread over 
tlie surface in a general bright scarlet color. The disease begins with 
languor, pains in the head, back, and limbs, drowsiness, nausea and 
chills, followed by heat and thirst. When the redness appears the 
Ionise is quick, and the patient is restless, anxious and often delirious. 
The eyes arc red. the face swollen, and the tongue covered in the 



MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC. 199 

Middle witli white mucus, through which are seen elevated points of 
extreme redness. The tonsils are swollen, and the throat is red. 
By the evening of the third or fourth day the redness has reached its 
height, and the skin becomes moist, wlieu the scarf-skin begins to 
come off in scales. 

In this fever the flesh puffs up so as to distend the fingers, and 
disfigure the face. As it progresses the coating suddenly comes ofE 
the tongue, leaving it and the whole mouth raw and tender. The 
throat is very much swollen and inflamed, and ulcers form on the 
tonsils. The eustachian tube which extends up to the ear, the glands 
under the ear and jaw, sometimes inflame and break ; and the ab- 
scesses formed in the ear frequently occasion deafness, more or less 
difficult to cure. The symptoms of this disease may be known from 
that of measles by the absence of cough ; by the finer rash ; by its 
scarlet color ; by the rash appearing on tlie second instead of tho 
fourth day ; and by the ulceration of the throat. 

Treatment. — Inordinary cases the treatment required is very simple. 
The room where the patient lies should be kept cool, and the bed- 
covering light. The whole body should be sponged with cool water as 
often as it becomes hot and dry, and cooling drinks should be admm- 
istered. A few drops of belladonna, night and morning, is all that is 
needed. 

If there is much fever and soreness of throat, give the following 
tincture of hellebore often enough to keep down the jiulsc : — 

Tincture of American hellebore, 1 dr. ; tincture of black cohosh, 2 
oz. ; mix. Take 1 teaspoonf ul 3 to G times a day. 

It would also be useful to commence treatment with an emetic • 
and to soak the feet and hands in hot water contauiing a littlo 
mustard or cayenne pepper ; continuing this bath 20 minutes, twice 
a day, for 2 or 3 days. The cold stage being passed, and the fever 
having set in, warm water may be used without the mustard or 
pepper. If the head is affected, put drafts upon the feet ; and if the 
bowels be costive, give a mild phj-sic. Solid food should not bo 
allowed; but when the fever sets in, coolmg drinks, such as lemonade, 
tamarind-water, rice-water, flaxseed tea, then gruel, or cold water 
may be given in reasonable quantities. To stimulate the skin, 
muriatic acid, 45 drops in a tumbler filled with water and sweetened, 
and given in doses of a teaspoonful, is a good remedy. 

Where the disease is very violent, and the patient inclines to sink 
immediately; where typhoid symptoms appear and there is great 
prostration ; the eniption strikes in ; the skin changes to a mahogany 
color ; the tongue is a deep red, or has on it a darlc brown fur, ani 
the ulcers in the throat become putrid, the treatment must be differ- 
ent from the above. In this case it must be tonic. Qaiuia must bo 
given freely ; and wine whey, mi«;ed with toast- water, will be useful. 
Quinia is made as follows : — Sulphate of qumine, 1 scruple ; alcohol, 
4 ozs. ; sulphuric acid, 5 drops ; Madeira wine, 1 quart ; mix. Two 
wine-glassfuls a day. Tincture of cayenne, in sweetened water, may 
be given in small doses. Gargles are also necessary. A good one is 
made of pulverized cayenne, 1 dram ; salt, one dram ; boiling water, 
1 gill. lilix, and let them stimd 15 minutes. Then add 1 gill vinegar. 
Let it stand an hour and strain. Put a teaspoonful in Mio child's 
. mouth once in an hour. A warm batli should bo used daily as sooj* 



200 MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC. 

as the skin begins to peel off, to prevent dropsy. If dropsy sets in, 
the bath once in 3 days is sufficient, and sweating should be promoted 
by giviug the tincture of Virginia snake-root and similar articles ; a 
generous diet should be allowed at the same time, to bring up the 
child's strength 

Measles is an acute inflammation of the skin, internal and exter- 
nal, combined with an mfectious fever. 

Symptoms. — Chills succeeded by great heat, languor, and drowsi- 
ness, pains in the head, back, and limbs, quick pulse, soreness of 
throat, thirst, nausea and vomiting, a dry cough, and high-colored 
urine. These symptoms increase iu violence for four days. The eye3 
are inflamed and weak, and the nose pours forth a watery secretion, 
with frequent sneezing. There is considerable inflammation in the 
larynx, windpipe, and bronchial tubes, with soreness of the breast and 
hoarseness. About the fourth day the skin is covered with a breaking 
out which produces heat and itcliuig, and is red iu spots, uiDon the 
face first, gradually spreadmg over the whole body. It goes off in 
the same way, from the face first aud then from the body, and the 
hoarseness and other symptoms decline with it; at last the outside 
skin peels off in scale?. 

Treatment. — ^In a mild form, nothing is required but a light diet, 
slightly acid drinks, and flax seed or slippery elm tea. Warm herb 
teas, and frequent sponge baths with tepid water, serve to allay the 
fever; care should be taken not to let the patient take cold. If the 
fever is very high, and prevents the rash coming out, a slight dose of 
salts, or a nauseating dose of ipecac, lobelia, or hive-syrup should be 
given, and followed by teasponful doses of compound tincture of 
Virguiia snake-root imtil the fever is allayed. If the patient from any 
derangement takes on a low tyjihoid type of fever, and tlie rash does 
not come out until the seventh day, and is then of a dark and livid 
color, tonics and stimulants must be given, and expectoration promo- 
ted by some suitable remedy. There is always danger of the lungs 
being left iu an mflamed state after the measles, imless the greatest 
care is taken not to suffer the i:)atient to take cold. Should there be 
much pain, and a severe cough, this must be treated as a separate 
disease, with other remedies. 

Typhoid Fever. — Symptoms. — ^Is generally preceded by several days 
of languor, low spirits, and indisposition to exertion. There is also, 
usually, some paui in the back and head, loss of appetite, and 
drowsiness, though not rest. The disease shows itself by a chill. 
Durmg the first week there is uicreased heat of the surface, frequent 
pulse, furred tongue, restlessness, sleeplessness, headache, and pain in 
the back; sometimes diarrhoea and swelling of the belly, and some- 
times nausea and vomiting. 

The second week is often distinguished by small, rose-colored spots 
on the belly, and a crop of little watery pimples on the neck and chest, 
having the appearance of minute drops of sweat; the tongue is dry 
and black, or red and sore ; the teeth are foul ; there may be delirium 
and dulbiess of hearing; and the symptoms every way are more 
rerious than during the first week. Occasionally, the bowels are at 
this period perforated or ate through by ulceration, and the patient 
suddenly sinks. If the disease proceeds imfavorably into the third 
vcek, there is low, muttering delirium; jjrcat exhaustion; sliding 



GROCERS AND CONFECTIONERS' RECEIPTS. 201 

down of the patient toward the foot of the bed; twitcliing of the 
muscles, bleedmj; from the bowels; and red or piii-ple spots upon tlio 
skin. If, on the other hand, the patient improves, tlie countenance 
brightens up, the pulse moderates, the tougue cleans, and the dis- 
charges look healthy. 

Treatment. — Give the patient good air, and frequent spongings with 
water, cold or tepid, as most agreeable. Keep the bowels in order 
and be more afraid of diarrhoea than costiveness, Diarrhoja sliould 
be restramed by a little brandy, or by repeated doses of Dover's 
powder. For costiveness, give mild injections, made slightly loosen- 
ing by castor oil, or common molasses. To keep down the fever, and 
produce perspiration, give tincture of veratrum viride, 10 drops every 
iiour. If the bowels a"re swelled, relieve them by hot fomentations of 
hops and vinegar. If the pain in the head is very severe and constant, 
let the hair be cut short, and the head bathed frequently with cold 
water. Give light nourishment, and if the debility is great, broth and 
wine will be needed. Cleanse the mouth with very weak tea — old 
liyson. If the fever runs a low course, and the patient is very weak, 
quinine may be given from the beginning. Constant care and good 
nursing are very important. 

Typhus fever is distinguished from typhoid by there being no marked 
disease of the bowels iu tyi)hus. 



GROCERS AND CONFECTIONERS* RECEIPTS. 

Cheap Vin:egab. — Mix 25 gals, of warm rain water, with 4 gals, 
molasses and 1 gal. yeast, and let it ferment; you will soon have the 
best of vinegar; keep adding these articles iu these proportions as the 
stock is sold. 

For Grocers' Sai.es — Take three barrels ; let one of them bo 
your vinegar barrel ; fill this last up before it is quite empt^^, with 
molasses, 2 gals. ; soft water, 11 gals ; yeast. 1 qt. ; keeping these pro- 
portions in filling up the whole three barrels ; sell the vinegar out of 
your old vinegar barrel as soon as it is ready, which will be in a short 
time ; when nearly empty, fill it np Avith the fluid as before, and pass 
on to sell out of the next barrel; by the time it is disposed of go on to 
the last ; then go back to the first, filling up your barrels in every 
case when nearly empty, and you will always keep a stock of good 
vinegar on hand imless your sales are very large ; in which case, fol- 
low the next process. Have the bung-holes open in the barrels to 
admit air. The free admission of warm air hastens the process. 

Vinegar in Three Days. — Get a quantity of maple, beech, or 
basswood chips or shavings, and soak these in good vinegar, for two or 
three days. With these chips you will fill a barrel, which has been 
pierced with a large number of inch noles all around the sides for tho 
free admission of air among the chips (the more holes in the barrel 
the better, for the more air the sooner the vinegar will be made) cut 
another barrel in two halves, place one half below the barrel with tho 



202 OJllOCERS AND CONFECTIONERS' RECEIPTS. 

chips and the other half above it. The top tub must have its bottom 
l)ierced with a number of gimlet holes, in which are placed several 
threads of twine, to conduct the vinegar evenly over the chips. The 
liquid drains down slowly through the chips and out of a faucet near 
the bottom of the barrel into the lower tub. It should run through 
every four hours, and then be baled or pumped back. Directions to 
make vinegar from sugar : Use 1^ lb. to each gal. of water ; of the 
dregs of molasses barrels, use 2 lb." to each gal. of water ; small beer, 
lager beer, ale, &c., which have become sour, make good vinegar by 
being reduced with water ; small beer needs but little Avater, lager beer 
as much water as beer ; to 2 gals, cider, add ^ gal. of water ; you can 
also make excellent vinegar out of the artificial cider mentioned below. 
Use, in every case, soft water to make vinegar, and use 2 qts, yeast 
to every barrel. It makes much quicker if the fluid is slightly 
lukewarm. Leach eitlier of these preparations through the shavings. 

This process should be attended to during wann weather, or in 
a room where a pretty high temperature is kept up, as it will not 
work otherwise. 

Excellent Vinegar, Cheap. — Acetic acid, 5 lbs. ; molasses, 2 
gal. ; yeast, 2 qts, ; put them into a fort^^-gal. cask, and fill it up with 
rain water ; stir it up, and let it stand one to tliree weeks, letting it 
have all the air possible, and you will have good vinegar. If wanted 
stronger, add more molasses. Should you at any time have weak 
vinegar on hand, put molasses into it to set it working. This will 
soon correct it. Make in a warm place. 

■\VniTE Wine Vinegar. — Mash up 20 lbs. raisins, and add 10 gala, 
water ; let it stand in a warm place for one month, and you will have 
pure white Avine vinegar. The raisins may be used a second time tho 
same way. 

To Preser^T5 Eggs. — To each patent x)ailful of water, add 2 pts, 
of fresh slacked lime, and 1 pt. of common salt ; mix: well. Fill your 
barrel half full with this fluid, put your eggs down in it any time af- 
ter June, and they will keep two years if desired. 

Liquid Mucilage. — Fine clear glue 1 lb. ; gum arabic, 10 oz. ; 
water, 1 qt. ; melt by heat in a glue kettle or water bath ; when en- 
tirely melted, add slowly 10 ozs. strong nitric acid, set off to cool. 
Then bottle, adding in a couple of cloves to each bottle. 

Candied Lemon Peel. — Take lemon peels and boil them in syrup ; 
then take them out, and dry. 

Baking Powder. — Tartaric acid, 5 lbs. ; pure sesquicarbonate of 
soda. 8 lbs. ; j)otato farina, or other flour or starch, IG lbs. Dry 
separately by gentle heat. Mix this iDsrfectly iu a dry room, pass 
the mixture through a sieve and put up at once into damp proof 
hard pressed packages. To use, 1 or 2 teaspoonfuls are mixed Avith 
dry flour,. which is then mixed with cold water, and baked imme- 
diately. Another. — Tartaric acid, 1 lb. ; pure bicarbonate of soda | 
lbs. ; ]wtato farina, | lb. Treat the same as the last. 

To ;Make an Ice Chest. — Take 2 drygoods boxes, one of which is 
enough smaller than the other to leave a space of about 3 inches all 
around when it is placed inside. Fill the space between the two with 
sawdust ijacked closely, and cover with a heavy lid made to fit neat- 
ly inside the larger box. Insert a small pipe iif the bottom of tho 
chest to carry oiT tho water from the uieltiji^' ice. For family use or 



GROCERS AND CONFECTIONERS' RECEIPTS. 203 

gi-ocers, use this "will prove as serviceable as refrigerators that cost 
twenty times as mucli. 

Soap Mantjfacture. — "When wood ashes cannot conveniently h© 
had it is usual for soap manufacturers to use equal quantities of re- 
cently^ slacked lime, aud sal soda, soda ash or caustic soda, using water 
enough to give the ley sufficient strength to support a fresh egg. It 
must be very strong. The solution can be effected by heat, or stir- 
rhig, or by both methods, finally drawing off, or bailing out the liquid 
clear of sediment, previously throAving m salt and giving time for the 
sediment to settle ; 1 ton of yellow soap will require about 1000 lbs. 
tallow and 350 lbs. resin, with ley sufficient. The same quantity of 
white soap will require nearly 1300 lbs. tallow, boiling in every case 
with the proper quantity of lej'', until it forms a perfectly homoge- 
neous mass by a perfect blending of the component parts all togetlier, 
when it is poured out into suitable frames to liarden and cool. It is 
afterwards cut up into proper sized bars by means of wires to which 
handles are attached and then piled up to dry. 

Transparent Soap. — Slice G lbs. nice yellow bar-soap into shav- 
ings ; put into a brass, tin or copper kettle, with alcohol, ^ gal., heat- 
ing gradually over a slow fire, stirring till all is dissolved •, then add 
1 oz. sassafras essence, and stir until all is mixed ; now pour into 
pans about 1^ inches deep, and when cold cut into square bars the 
length or width of the i^an, as desired. 

Knglish Bar-Soap. — Six gals, soft water ; G lbs. good stone lime; 
20 lbs. sal-soda ; 4 oz, borax ; 15 lbs. fat (tallow is best) ; 10 lbs. pul- 
verized resm, and 4 oz. beeswax ; put the water in a kettle on the 
fire, and when nearly boiling add the lime and soda ; when these aro 
dissolved, add the borax ; boil gently, and stir until all is dissolved ; 
then add the lat, resin, and bees-wax : boil all gently imtil it shows 
ilaky on the stick, then pour into moulds. 

Best Soft Soap. — Mix 10 lbs. potash in 10 gals, warm soft water 
over night ; in the luoruing boil it, adding G lbs. grease ; then put all 
in a barrel, adding 15 gals, soft water. 

Soap WITHOUT Lye or Grease, In a clean pot put i lb. home- 
made hard or mush soap, and ^ lb. sal-soda, and 5 pts. of "soft water. 
Boil the mixture 15 minutes, and j'ou will have 5 lbs. good soap for 
7^ cents. Hard Soap. — Take 5 lbs. hard soap, or 7 lbs. soft soap, and 
4 lbs. sal-soda, and 2 oz, borax, and 1 oz. hartshorn ; boil one quarter 
hour with 22 qts. water ; add, to harden, ^ lb, resin. 

German Yellow Soap.— Tallow and saUsoda, of each 112 lbs., 
resin, DGlbs. ; stone lime, 28 lbs, ; palm oil, 8 oz. ; soft water, 28 gals. 
l*ut soda, lime, and water into a kettle and boil, stirring well ; then 
let it settle, and pour off the lye. In another kettle, melt the tallow, 
resm, and palm oil ; having it hot, the lye being also boiling hot, mix 
all together, stirring well and the work is done. For small qiiavtities, 
—Tallow and sal'Soda each, 1 lb. ; resin, 7 oz, ; stone lime, 4 oz. ; 
palm oil, 1 oz. ; soft water, 1 qt. 

llARD Soap with Laiw.— ^SaUsoda and lard, each fl lbs. ; stono 
lime, 3 lbs. ; soft water, 4 gals. ; dissolve the lime and soda in the 
water by boiling, stirring, settling, and pouring off ; then return to 
the kettle (brass or copper), and add the lard, and boil it till it becomes 
goap ; then pour into a dish or moulds ; tmd, when cold, cut iftto bara, 
ftud dry it. 



204 GROCERS AND CONFECTIOXEKS' RECEIPTS. 

"White Haud Soap WTTn Tali^ow. — Fresh slacked lime, sal-soda, 
and tallow, of each, 2 lbs. ; dissolve the soda iu 1 gal, boiliu^ solt 
water ; now mix in the lime, stirring occasionally for a few hours ; 
after which, let it settle, pourmg off the clear liquor, and boiling the 
tiillow therein until it is all dissolved ; cool it in a flat box or pan, cut 
into bars or cakes as desired. It may be perfumed with sassafras oil 
or any other perfume desired, stirruig it in when cool. One hundred 
pminds soap, very cheap. — Potash, G lbs. ; lard, 4 lbs, ; resin, ^ lb. 
Beat up the resin, mix all together, and set aside for five days ; then 
init the wliole hito a 10-gal, cask of water, and stir twice a day for 
ten days, when it is ready for use. 

Variegated Soaps. — Soft water 3qts., nice white bar soap 31bs., 
sal-soda 2 ozs. ; Chinese vermilion and Chuiese blue, of each about 
7 grs,, oil sassafras ^oz, ; shave the soap into thin sUces and add it to 
the water as it begins to boil, when dissolved set it off the fire, take 
out a cup of soap and stir in the vermUlion, take out another cup of 
soap and stir in the blue ; then pour m the contents of the first cup, 
giving two or three turns only with a stirring stick, then add the other 
cupful iu the same waj"", then pour into moulds, or into a proper box, 
and when cold it can be cut into bars ; it will x^resent a beautiful 
streaked appearance, 

CABipnoR So^vp,— Curd soap 28 lbs., otto of rosemary IJlbs, Reduce 
the camphor to powder, add one ounce almond oil, then sift it, when 
the soap is melted and ready to turn out, add the camphor and rose- 
mary. White Windsor Soap. — Curd soap 1 cwt., marine soap 21 lbs. 
oil soap 14 lbs., oil caraway, l^lbs., oil thyme and rosemary of each ^ 
lb. oils of cassia and cloves of each ^ lb. Broion Windsor Soap. 
Curd soap | cwt. , marine soap ^ cwt, , yellow soap ^ cwt,, oil soap \ cwt. 
Brown coloring (caramel) ^ pt. oils caraway, cloves, thyme, cassia, petit 
gram and French lavender of each 2 oz. Sand Soap. — Curd soap 7 lbs. 
marine soap 7 lbs., sifted silver sand 28 lbs,, oils thyme, cassia, cara- 
■way, and French lavender of each 2 oz. 

Solid Candles fkom lard. — Dissolve | lb, alum and J lb, salt- 
petre in ^ pt. water on a slow fire ; then take 3 lbs. of lard cut into 
small jiieces, and put into the pot with this solution, stirring it con- 
stantlj"^ over a very moderate fire until the lard is all dissolved ; then 
let it simmer until all steam ceases to rise and remove it at once from 
the fire. If you leave it too long it will get discolored. These can- 
dles are harder and better than tallow. 

Tallow — To Cleanse and Bleach. — Dissolve alum, 5 lbs., in 
■water, 10 gals., by boiling ; and when it is all dissolved, add tallow, 
20 lbs. ; continue the boiling for an hour, constantly stirring and 
skimming ; when sufficiently cool to allow it, strain through thick 
muslin ; then set aside to liarden ; when taken from the water, lay 
it by for a short time to drip. 

Imitation Wax Candles. — ^Purify melted tallow by throwing in 
powdered quick lime, then add two parts wax to one of tallow, and 
a mast beautiful article of candle, resembling wax, Avill be tlie result. 
Dip the wicks in lime water and saltpetre on making. To a gallon of 
Avater add 2 oz, saltpetre and ^ lb, of lime ; it improves the light, 
and prevents the tallow from running. 

Adamantine Candles from Tallow. — Melt together 10 oz. mut- 
ton tallow ; camphor, ^ oz. ; bccs-wax, 4 oz, : alum,"2 oz. 



TABLES, &C., FOR MERCHANTS. 



205 



Table of Miscellaneous Weights A^'D Measures. 



Apples, dried, bush, about 25 lbs. 
Almonds, seion of, 1 to 2 cwt. 
Beef, tirkin, 100 lbs. 

'' or Pork, barrel, 200 lbs. 
Buckwheat, bush, usually 59 lbs. 
Beans, white, bushel, 60 lbs. 
Butter, barrel, 224 lbs. 

«' tirkin, 56 lbs. 

'< tub, 84 lbs. 
Coffee, tierce of, 5 to 7 cwt. 

" bags of Rio, about 162 lbs. 

'< " St. Domingo, about 130 
lbs. 

" pocket of Java, about 50 lbs. 

'•■ bale of Mocha, 2 to 21,2 cwt. 
Clover seed, cask, 7 to 9 cwt" 

" " bushel, usually 60 lbs. 

Corn, per bushel, in most places, 5G 

lbs. 
Cement, barrel, 300 lbs. 
Cotton, bale, N. Orleans and Alaba- 
ma, 400 to 300 lbs. 

" '< East Indies, 320 to 380 

lbs. 

" " Carolina, Georgia & West 
Indies, 300 to 312 lbs. 

« " Brazilian 160 to 200 lbs. 

Dried Peaches, bush, usually 33 lbs. 
Flax, bale, Russian, 5 to 6 cwt. 
Fish, quintal, 112 lbs. 

«' barrel, pickled, 200 lbs. 
Flaxseed, bush, in most places, 55 

lbs. 
Flour, bbl. net, 196 lbs. 

" including bbl., 216 lbs. 

'< sack, 5 bushels, 280 lbs. 
Figs, drum, 24 lbs. 
Ginger, ground, box, 24 lbs. 
Honey, gal., 12 lbs. 
Hops, bag of, about 21/4 cwt. 
Hempseed, bush, in most places 44 

lbs. 
Indian Meal. hog?head, 800 lbs. 
Lime, bbh, 225 lbs. 
Lemons, box, Sicily, about 350 lbs. 
Mace, case, about I14 cwt. 



Molasses, hhd. from 130 to 150 gals. 
Oats, per bush., 32 lbs. 
Oranges, box, double O, 300 to 350 
lbs. 
" " single O, 175 to 350 

lbs. 
Eye, bush, in most places, 56 lbs. 
Salmon, box, 120 to 130 lbs. 
Salt, hhd., 3 bush. 

" bbl., 31/2 bush. 

" bushel of, tine ground, 70 lbs. 
Sugar, bbl., 200 to 250 lbs. 

" box, 400 to 500 lbs. 
Soap, bbl. 256 lbs. 

" box, 75 lbs. 
Tea, chest. Congou, 75 lbs. 

" " Hyson, 60 to 84 lbs. 

" 1/2, about 40 lbs. net. 
Timothy Seed, bushel, 45 lbs. 
Wheat, bushel, GO ILs. 

Beer, hhd., 54 gals. 

Butt of Sherry, 108 gals. 

Brandy, puncheon of, llOto 120 gals, 

'' hhd., E5 to 60 gals. 
Claret, hhd., 46 gals. 
Puncheon of Scotch Whiskey, 110 to 
130 gals. 
'« Rum, 100 to 110 gals. 
Pipe of Port, 115 gals. 
" Maderia, 92 gals. 
" Tenei-iffe, 100 gals. 
A hogshead is one-half, a quarter 
cask is one-fourth, and an oc- 
tave is one-eighth of a pipe, butt, 
or puncheon. 

Bkitish Measuees of Volume. 

The Imperial gallon measures 277- 
274 cubic inches, and contains 10 
lbs avoirdupois of distilled 
water at 32° Fahr. 

The Ale gallon is 282 cubic inches, 
and contains 10.2 lbs. avoirdupois 
of distilled water. 



The wine gallon of 231 cubic ins. containing 8.355 lbs. avoirdupois of dis- 
tilled water, is the government or customs gallon of the United States, 
and the legal gallon of each State in which no law exists fixing a State or 
statute gallon, and the Standard U. S. bushel is the Winchester, contain- 
ing 2150.42 cubic inches, or 77.627413 lbs. avoirdupois of distilled water. 

The Imperial bushel =-221%. \^ cubic ins. The heaped bu6hel=19.5 ins. 
diameter, cone 6 ins. high=2815.4872 cubic ins. For Grain— % bushels= 
1 quarter. 1 quarter= 10.2694 cubic feet. Coal or Heaped measure— 3 
bushels=l sack, 12 sacks=l chaldron ; 1 chaldron =.58.656 cubic feet and 
weighs 3136 lbs. 1 6tone=14 lbs. 1 Quarter is equal to 8V4 U. S. bushels 
1 sack flour=5 bushs.=280 lbs. Anthracite coal per cubic ft. weighs 90 to 
102 lbs. Bituminous coal, per cubic ft. 79 to 82 lbs. Coal as couventional- 



206 TABLES, &C., FOR MERCHANTS. 

ly purcliased=43.56 cubic ft. to a ton (or about 28 bushels and 5 pecks), in 
the U. S., and is bought wholesale by the dealer at 2240 lbs. per ton, and 
retailed at 2000 lbs. In commerce, 1 ton of flour is 8 sacks, and 1 ton of 
potatoes 10 bushels. The weight and measures in the Dominion of Can- 
ada are the same as those of Great Britain, but the United States bushel 
and gallon are most in use. The dimensions of a barrel should be, diam. 
of head, 17 ins., do. at bung, 19 ins.-, length, 28 ins. ; volume 7689 cub. ins. 
A tun is 2 pipes, 4 hogsheads, 3 puncheons, 8 barrels, or 252 gals. 

Quantity of Goods estimated to compose a Tox in calcula- 
ting Freights by Water. — Lemons, 20 boxes ; Raisins, 20 casks ; do., 
80 boxes ; do., 160 half boxes ; do., 320 quarter boxes ; Almonds, 16 frails ; 
Grapes, 40 kegs ; Wine, Malaga, 8 quarter casks ; ditto, 14 Indian barrels ; 
Cassia, 25 piculs ; Jute, 4 bales ; Linseed, 1600 lbs., or SVg bags per ton; 
Ginger, 110 lbs.; Twine, 890 lbs.; Matting, 4-4, 8% rolls of 40 yds. ; do., 5-4, 

7 rolls of 40 yds. ; do., 6-4, 5% rolls of 40 yards ; Gunny bags, large, 425 ; 
medium do., 500 ; small do., 625 ; Saltpetre, 11 to 12 bags per ton of 2240 lbs. 

New York Freights.— Quantity of Goods which compose a 
Ton. — Extract from the Bye-Laios of the New York Chamber of Commerce. 
In freighting vessels by the ton, in the absence of a definite agreement 
between the owner of the vessel and freighter of the goods, the following 
regulations shall be the standard of computation : That the articles the 
hulk of ivhich shall compose a Ton, to equal a Ton oflieavy materials, shall 
be in "weight as follows. Coffee in casks, 1568 lbs. ; Coffee in bags, 1830 
lbs. ; Cocoa in casks, 1120 lbs. ; Cocoa in bags, 1307 lbs. ; Pimento in casks, 
952 lbs. ; Pimento in bags, 1110 lbs. ; Dry hides, 10 cwt. ; Chinese raw silk, 

8 cwt. ; Bohea tea, net, 10 cwt. ; Green teas, 8 cwt. ; Ship-bread, bulk, 8 
cwt. ; Ship-bread, bags, 7 cwt. ; Ship-bread, casks, 6 cwt. ; Grain, Peas, or 
Beans in casks, 22 bushels ; Grain, in bulk, 36 bushels ; European salt, 31 
bushels ; West India salt, 31 bushels ; Sea coal, 29 bushels ; Tobacco, 
hhds. ; Pig and Bar iron. Potashes, Sugar, Logwood, Fustic, Nicaragu.* 
wood and Heavy Dye-woods, Rice, Honey, Copper ore, and all othef^ 
heavy goods, 20 cwt.=l ton ; Coffee, cocoa, and dried codfish in bulk, if 
cwt.=l ton ; Dried Codfish, in casks of any size, 12 cwt.=l ton ; Oil, Wine, 
Brandy, hr any kind of liquor, reckoning the. full contents of the cask, wiue 
measures 200 gals.=l ton. Mahogany, Square timber. Oak Plaiik, Pine and 
other boards. Beavers, Furs, Peltry, Beeswax, Cotton, Wool, and ale 
of all kinds, 40 cubic ft.=l ton. Flour, in bbls. of 196 lbs. each 8 bbls.= 
Iton; Beef, Tallow, Pickled fish, Pitch, Tar, and Turpentine, 6bbls.=lton. 

A Cak-load. — As a general rule the following quantities constitute 
a car-load throughout Canada and the United States, viz. : 20,000 lbs. 
or 70 bbls. of salt, 70 of lime, 70 of flour, 60 of whiskey, 200 sacks of 
flour, 6 cords of hard wood, 7 of soft wood, IG head of horses, 18 to 20 
head of cattle, 50 to 60 head of hogs, 80 to 100 head of sheep, 9,000 
feet of solid boards, 17,000 feet of siding, 13,000 feet of flooring, 40,000 
shingles, one-half less of hard lumber, one-fourth less of green lum- 
ber, one-tenth less of joists, scantling and all other large timber, 340 
bushels of Avheat, 360 of com, 680 of oats, 400 of barley, 360 of flax-seed, 
360 of apples 430 of Irish potatoes, 356 of sweet potatoes, 1,000 bushels 
of brau. 

Exchange on England. 

Exchange is the method of adjusting accounts or paying debts, when 
the debtor and creditor are distant from each other, by means of an order 
or draft called a hill of exchange, so as to aA'oid the transmission of either 
money or goods ; for example, A of New York wishing to pay a debt to B. 
of London, pays an equivalent amount to C, of New York, who has a 
debtor, D, in London ; and A receives from C an order, addressed to D, 
requesting him to pay the amount to B. This is sent in a letter to B, who 
presents it to D for acceptance or payment. Thus tlie debtor in one place 
is substituted for the debtor in another, and two accounts may be adjust- 
ed at the same time by the simple transmission of a letter. ' J^ar of ex- 



TABLES, &C., FOR MERCHANTS. 



207 



change, is the equivalency of a certain amount of the currency of one 
country to the currency of another, the currencies of both being of the 
precise weight and purity fixed by their respective mints. Tlius accord- 
ing to the mint regulations of England and France, £1 sterling is equal 
to 25 francs, 20 centimes, which is consequently said to be the i?a?- between 
London and Paris. Exchange is made to diverge from par, either by de- 
preciation of the currency in either country below the mint standard, or 
by the difference in the amounts of indebtedness between one country 
and another, called the balance of trade, which effects the relative de- 
mand for bills of exchange. Thus in the following table, the present 
standard value of £1 stg. in the United States, being $4.84.4, when ex- 
change is at 9 per cent., it is then at par ; if higher than 9, it is above par, 
if less than 9, it is below, as shown by the table. 

EXCHANGE TABLE. 



5 per cent. 


^i.m.i 


7% 


per cent. 


;i?4.78.9 


10 percent. 14.88.9 


51/2 


4.68.0 


8 




4.80.0 


IOV4 " 


4.90.0 


5% " . 


4.70.0 


8V4 


'i 


4.81.1 


IOV2 ' 


4.91.1 


6 " 


4.71.1 


8V0 




4.82.2 


10% ' 


4.92.2 


6V4 " 


4.72.2 


83/^ 




4.83.3 


11 ' 


4.93.3 


6% " 
6% " 


4.73.3 


9 




4.84.4 


IIV4 ' 


4.94.4 


4.74.4 


91/, 




4.85.6 


111/2 ' 


4.95.6 


7 " 


4.75.6 


9% 




4.86.7 


11% ' 


4.96.7 


71/4 " 


4.76.7 


9% 




4.87.8 


12 ' 


4.97.8 


IV2 " 


4.77.8 













The following Table exhibits the Legal Equivalents of 
Bhitish Money in American Dollars and Cents. 



s. 


$ c. m. 


S. 


$ c. m. 


£ 


$ c. 


£ 
11 


$ c. 


£ 


$ c. 


£ 


$ c. 


£ 


$ c. 


1 


24.2 


11 


2.66.2 


1 


4 84 


53 24 


21 


101 64 


31 


150 04 


41 


198 44 


2 


48.4 


12 


2.90.4 


2 


9 68 


12 


58 08 


22 


106 48 


32 


154 88 


42 


203 28 


3 


72.6 


13 


3.14.6 


3 


14 52 


13 


62 92 


23 


111 32 


33 


159 72 


43 


208 12 


4 


98.8 


14 


3.38.8 


4 


19 36 


14 


67 76 


24 


116 16 


34 


164 56 


44 


212 96 


5 


1.21.0 


15 


3.63.0 


5 


24 20 


15 


72 60 


25 


121 00 


35 


169 40 


45 


217 80 


6 


1.45.2 


16 


3.87.2 


6 


29 04 


16 


77 44 


26 


125 84 


36 


174 24 


50 


242 00 


7 


1.69.4 


17 


4.11.4 


7 


33 88 


17 


82 28 


27 


130 68 


37 


179 08 


60 


290 40 


8 


1.93.6 


18 


4.35.6 


8 


38 72 


18 


87 12 


28 


135 52 


38 


183 92 


70 


338 80 


9 


2.17.8 


19 


4.59.8 


9 


43 56 


19 


91 96 


29 


140 36 


39 


188 76 


80 


387 20 


10 


2.42.0 


20 


4.84.0 


10 


48 40 


20' 96 80 


30 


145 20 


40 


193 60 


90 


436 00 



Flavoring Extracts, Vanilla, Ginger, &c. — Vanilla beans, 
4 ozs. ; sugar, 2 ozs. ; alcohol, 4 fluid ozs. ; simple syrup, 4 ozs. ; brandy, 
1 pt. Cut the beans finely, and rub thoroughly with the sugar, put 
all into a strong stone bottle, secure the cork with twine, and boil in 
a water bath for \ hour, then transfer to a filter and allow it to per- 
colate through, then add brandy sufficient to make 4 pts. Other 
extracts, as ginger, &c., can be made in a similar manner, by using 
the respective ingredients. 

Essential oils of aniseed, lavender, peppermint, cloves, cinnamon, 
&c., are obtained by submitting parts of the plants, previously ground 
to a coarse powder, to distillation witli water, Avhen the oils are carried 
over in a minute state of division with the aqueous vapor. The 
essential oils enclosed in the skins of lemons, oranges, bergamots, 
&c., are obtained by pressing the rinds of these fruits. 

To Preserve Apples.' — Pack in boxes or barrels elevated from the 
cellar floor, with a layer of dry sawdust at the bottom of each box or 
barrel, then a layer of apples placed out of contact with each other, 
then a layer of sawdust, and so on till all are full. Sound apples 
packed in this way will keep fresh a long time. 



208 GROCERS AND CONFECTIONER'S RECEIPTS; &C. 

Weights, ix Pounds, of Various Articles, as Rated by Railway 
Companies, when their Weights cannot otherwise be ascer- 
tained. 

POUNDS. 

Ashes, pot or pearl Barrel 450 

Apples, and barrelled fruits Barrel 200 

Apples Bushel 50 

Barley Bushel.... 45 

Beef, pork, bacon Per hhd 1,000 

Butter, tallow, lard Per bbl 333 

Salt fish and meat Per firkin 100 

Bran, feed, shipstuffs, oats Bushel 35 

Buckwheat Bushel .... 48 

Bricks, common Each. .. 5 

Bark: . . Cord. . . .2,000 

Charcoal Bushel .... 22 

Coke, and cake meal Bushel 40 

Clover seed < Bushel 62 

Eggs Barrel. . . . 200 

Fish and salt meat Per firkin 100 

Flour and meal Per bushel, 66 lbs, Barrel 216 

Grain and seeds, not stated Bushel ... 60 

Hides (green) Each. ... 85 

Hides (dry), salted or Spanish Each 33 

Ice, coal, lime Bushel 80 

Liquors, malt and distilled Barrel 350 

Liquors Per gallon 10 

Lumber — pine, poplar, hemlock Ft. b. m 4 

Lumber — oak, walnut, cherry, ash Ft. b. m 5 

Nails and spikes Keg 106 

Onions, wheat, potatoes Bushel — 60 

Oysters Per bushel, 100 lbs., per 1,000 350 

Plastering lath Per 1,000.... 60() 

Resin, tar, turpentine .... Barrel — 300 

Sand, gravel, etc Per cubic ft — 150 

Shingles Per M., short, 900 lbs,, Long.... 1 400 

Salt Per biishel. . . . 70 

Stone, undressed Perch 4,000 

Stone, dressed Cubic ft 180 

Timothy and light grass seed Bushel 40 

Wood— hickory Cord. . . .4,500 

Wood— oak Cord. .. .3,500 

1 ton (2240 lbs.) cured h!iy is 425 cubic ft.; 1 ton of hay in mow, 414.37 
lbs., or a cube of 71/2 ft. Hay, as usually delivered, weighs 5 lbs. per cubic 
ft.; do., well pressed, 8 lbs. Straw, loose, weighs 3% lbs. per cubic ft.; 
do., well pressed, 5% lbs. U. S. gallon of water weighs 8.33 lbs. ; do., of 
molasses, 11%; do., of turpentine, 7.31; do., of alcohol, 6.96. 

Belfast Cinger Ale.— Double refined sugar, powdered, 1 lb. ; 
bicarbonate of soda, 3^ ozs. ; citric acid, 4J ozs. ; concentrated ess. of 
ginger, 1^ ozs. ; ess. of "cayenne, 2 drs. ; ess. of lemon, 40 drops. The 
soda, acid and sagar must be carefully dried separately at a temiiera- 
tnre not exceeding 120"; and the sugar before drying must be thor- 
oughly incorporated with the essences, to vi^hich a small quantity of 
caramel, as color, may be added. The whole forms a powder, a des- 
sertspoonful of which will make a tumblerful of the drink. 

Unfermented Wine. — To make this, boil grapes of any kind over 
a slow fire till the pulp has thoroughly separated from the skin, add- 
ing just enough water to prevent burning at the bottom of the vessel, 
then press the juice through a fine cloth and add ;| its weight of sugar, 



GROCERS AND CONFECTIONERS* RECEIPTS, &C. 209 



mix well, bring the juice to the boiling point once more, and cnn it 
in air-tight jars. This wine will keep sweet for years, and has the 
color of port. 

To Impkove Spoiled Butter. — The cut represents an excellent 
arrangement for the restoration of bad butter hy means of the Avell- 
known absorbent and deodorizing qual- 
ities of charcoal. The tainted butter is 
removed from the firkin or other ves- 
sel by removing the staves and hoops 
surrounding it. It is then placed in a 
clean bag and buried in granulated 
charcoal in a suitable barrel or box. In 
a short time, the offensive odor and 
bad smell Avill disappear, and a fine, 
fresh, marketable appearance will be 
imparted to the butter by the conserv- 
ing operation of the charcoal. 

Another way, melt the butter in twice 
its weight of boiling water, shake well 
and pour the melted butter into cold 
water to regain a proper consistence. 
Or, wash in good new milk, in which the butyric acid, which causes 
the rancidity, is freely soluble. Wash afterwards in cold spring 
water. Another good way is to wash the butter in strong lime water, 
previously permitting the lime ample time to settle, and using the clear 
portion. 

To Can Fruit. — The following instructions for boiling and can- 
ning fruit will prove useful to many. The first number after the 
name of the fruit has reference to the number of minutes required for 
boiling, and the second to the ounces of sugar required to each quart. 
Currants, 6, 8 ; cherries, 5, G ; crab-apples, 25, 8 ; blackberries, 6, 6 ; 
gooseberries, 8, 8 ; grapes, 10,8; plums, 10, 8; peaches (Avhole), 15, 
4; peaches (halves), 8, 4 ; pears (whole), 30, 8 ; quinces (sliced), 15, 
10 ; tomatoes, 30, (no sugar) ; beans and peas, 3 to 4 hours, no sugar. 

To Can Green Corn. — Dissolve 2^ ozs. tartaric acid in 1 pt. water, 
and use 1 teaspoonfnl to every pintof com while the com is at boiling 
heat. When opened for use, add one teaspoonful of soda to every 3 
cans of corn. 




Percentage of Alcohol, in 100 Parts of the following 
Liquors. — Prof. Brande. 



Scotch "WTiiskey 54. .'jS 

Iiisli do 5.3.9 

Rum 53. G8 

Gin 51.6 

Brandy 53.30 

Burgundy 14.57 

Cape Muscat 18.25 

Champagne (still) 13.80 

Do. (sparkling) 12.61 

Cider 5.2 to 9.8 

Constantia 19.75 

Gooseberry Wine 11 .48 



Cun-ant Wine 20.50 

Port 22.90 

Maderia 22.27 

Teneriffe 19.79 

Sherry 19.17 

Claret 15.1 

Elder 8.79 

Ale 6.87 

Poi-ter 4.2 

Malacra 17.26 

Rhenisli 12.8 

Small Boer 1.28 



210 GROCERS AND CONFECTIONERS* RECEIPTS. 

Rapid Process of marking Goods at any desired per ce>t. 
Pkofit. — Retail merchants, in buying goods by wholesale, buy a great 
many articles by the dozen, such as boots and shoes, hats and caps, 
and notions of various kinds ; now, the merchant, in buying, for in- 
stance, a dozen hats, knows exactly what one of these hats will retail 
for in the market where he deals ; and, unless he is a good accountant, 
it wiU often take him some time to determme whether he can afford 
to purchase the dozen hats and make a living profit by selling them by 
the shigle hat ; and in buying his goods by auction, as the merchant 
often does, he has not time to make the calculation before tlie goods arc 
bid off. He therefore loses the chance of making good bargauis by be- 
ing afraid to bid at random, or if he bids, and the goods are cried off, 
he may liave made a poor bargain, by bidding thus at a venture. It then 
becomes a useful and practical problem to determine instantly what 
per cent, he would gain if he retailed the hat at a certain price, to 
tell what an article should retail for to make a profit of 20 per cent. 

Rule. — Divide ivhat the articles cost per dozen by 10, which is done 
hy removing the decimal point one place to the left. 

For instance, if hats cost S17.50 per dozen, remove the decimal point 
one place to the left, making $1.75, what they should be sold for 
apiece to gain 20 per cent on the cost. If they cost $31.00 per dozen, 
tliey should be sold at $3.10 apiece, etc. We take 20 per cent, as the 
basis for the following reasons, viz : because we can determine instant- 
ly, by simply removing the decimal point, without changing a figure, 
and, if the goods would not bring at least 20 i)er cent, profit in the 
home market, the merchant could not afford to purchase, and would 
look for cheaper goods. ^ 

The reason for the above rule is obvious, for if wc divide the cost 
of a dozen by 12, we have the cost of a single article ; then if we wish 
to make 20 per cent, on the cost (cost being 1-1 or 5-5), we add tho 
per cent., which is 1-5, to the 5-5, making 0-5 or 12-10 ; tlieu as wo 
multiply the cost, divided by 12, by the 12-10 to find at wliat price one 
must be sold to gam 20 per cent., it is evident that the 12s will cancel 
and leave the cost of a dozen to be divided by 10, to do this remove the 
decimal point one place to the left. 

Example 1. — If I buy 2 do.-^en caps at $7.50 per dozen, what shall I 
retaU. them at to make 20 per cent. ? Ans. 75 cents. 

Example 2.— When a merchant retails a vest at $4.50 and makes 
20 per cent, what did he pay per doz. ? Aiis. $45. 

Example 3. — At what price should I retail a pair of boots that cost 
$85.00 per doz. to make 20 per cent ? Ans, $8.50. 

Now, as removing the decimal pomt one place to the left, on the cost 
oi a dozen articles, gives the selling price of a single one with 20 per 
cent, added to the cost, and, as the cost of any article is 100 per cent., 
it is obvious that the selling ]>rice would be 20 per cent, more, or 120 
per cent. ; lience, to find 50 per. cent, profit which would 
make the selling price 150 per cent., we would first find 120 
per cent, then add 30 per cent, by increasing it one-fourth itself ; 
ior 35 per cent., increase it one-eight itself, etc. Hence to mark an 
article at any per cent, profit we find the following: 

— Genebal 'Ruj^TS,.—Firstfind 20 per cent, profit by remx>ving the dec- 
imal point one place to the left on the price the articles cost per doz.; 
then, as 20 per cent profit is 12.0 per cent, add to or subtruct from this 



GROCERS AND CONFECTIONERS' RECEIRTS. 211 

amount Vie fractional part that tlie required per cent, added to 100 ia 
more or less than 120. 

Iklercliants, iii marlung goods, generally take a per cent, that is an ali- 
quot part of 100, as 25, 33 1-3, 50, &c. The reason they do this is be- 
cause it makes it much easier to add such a per cent, to the cost ; for 
instance, a merchant could mark almost a dozen articles at 50 per cent. 
]irofit in the time it would talce him to mark one at 49 per cent. 
The following is arranged for the convenience of business men in 
marking the prices of all articles bought by the dozen. 
To make 20 per cent, remove the point one pLice to the left. 

" 80 *' " " " "" 

«« GO " '* " 

" 50 " " " 

(( A± (( (( (( 

<; 40 '< " «' 

(< qy (( <c (( 

♦' 35 " " •' 

♦' 331-3" " " 

(( QO <( (< (C 

u 30 " " " 

(( 28 " " " 

« 2G " " " 

" 25 " " " 

«< 12i " " " 

" 16 2-3 " " " 

«< jga " «< «« 

If I buy a doz. shirts for S28.00, what shall I retail them for to 
make 50 per cent. ? Ans. S3. 50 

Explanation. — Remove the point one place to the left, and add ^ 
itself. 

Aliquot Parts of 100 and 1000.— ]\[erchants in selling goods gen- 
erally make the price of an article some aliquot part of 100, as in sell- 
ing sugar at 12^ cents per lb., or 8 lbs. for §1.00, or in sell- 
ing calico for 16 2-3 cents per yard, or yds. for Sl.OO, etc. The 
following table will be found valuble for all such calculations. 
12^ is 1-8 part of 100. 8^ is 1-12 part of 100. 

25 is 1-4 part of 100. 16 2-3 is 2-12 or 1-6 of 100 

37^ is 3-8 part of 100, 33 1-3 is 4-12 or 1-3 of 100. 

50 is 4-8 or ^ of 100. G6 2-3 is 8-12 or 2-3 of 100 

G2i 5-8 part of 100. 83 1-3 is 10-12 or 5-6 of 100 

75 is 6-8 or 3-4 part of 100. 125 is 1-8 part of 1000. 
87h is 7-8 part of 100. 250 is 2-8 or i of 1000. 

6± is 1-16 part of 100. 375 is 3-8 part of 1000, 

18| is 3-16 part of 100. 025 is 5-8 part of 1000. 

3l| is 5-16 part of 100. 875 is 7-8 part of 1000. 

To multiply by an aliquot part of 100. 

Rule. — Add two cyphers to the multiplicand, then take such part 
of it as the multiplier is part of 100. 

N". B. If the multiplicand is a mixed number reduce the fraction to 
a decimal of two places before dividing. 

N. B. For the gake of uniformitv, it has been thought best to 
classify the Coal, Interest and Ready Reckoner Tables at tUo end (if 
the Engineers' DepartmenU 



and add \ itself. 


(( 


1-3 " 


<( 


1-4 " 


(( 


1-5 " 


(( 


1-G " 


(( 


1-7 " 


(( 


1-8 « 


<( 


1-9 " 


(( 


1-10 " 


u 


1-12 " 


u 


1-15 « 


(( 


1-20 « 


(( 


1-24 " 


subtract 


1-10 " 


«( 


1-36 « 


(C 


1-96 « 



21? CnOCERS AND COXFECTIOXERS' KECEirTS. 

Teas. — The names of the different kinds of tea relate to the time 
of their being gathered, or to some peculiarity in tlieir manufa<iturc. 
Jt is a general rule, that all tea is fine in proportion to the tenderness 
and immaturity of the leaves. The quality and value of the differ- 
ent lands diminish as they are gathered later in the season. 

Black Teas. — As soon as the leaf-bud begins to expand, it is 
gathered to make Pekoe. A few days' later p-owth i^roduces black- 
leaved Pekoe. The next picking is called Souchonrj ; as the leaves 
l^row larger and more mature, they fonn Congou ; and the last pick- 
ing is Bohea. Bohea is called by the Chinese, Ta-clia (large tea), on 
account of the maturity and size of the leaves ; it contains a larger 
proportion of woody fibre than other teas, and its infusion is of a 
darker color and coarser flavor. Congou, the next higher kind, is 
named from a corruption of the Chinese Koonfi-foa (great care, or 
assiduity). This forms the bulk of the black tea imported, and is 
mostly valued for its strength. 

Souchong — Seaoa-choong (small scarce sort), is the finest of the 
v«?trongest black tea, with a leaf that is generally entire and curly. It 
is much esteemed for its fragrance and luie flavor. Pekoe is a corrup- 
tion of the Canton name, Pak-ho (white down), being the first sprouts 
of the leaf-buds ; they are covered Avith a white silky down. It is a 
delicate tea, rather deficient in strength, and is principally used for 
flavoring other teas. 

Green Teas. — The following are the principal kinds, licankay, 
Ilyson-Skin, Hyson,Gunpoioder, and Young ILj son. 

Young Ilysion is a delicate yoimg leaf, called in the original Ian- 
guage Yn-tsien (before the rains), because gathered in the early 
spring. Hyson, from the Chmese word Ile-tchune, which means, 
flourishing spring. This fine tea is gatliered early in the season, and 
prepared with great care and labor. Each leaf is picked separately, 
and nipped off above the footstalks ; and every separate leaf Is 
rolled in the hand. It is much esteemed for its flavor. Gunpowder 
Tea is only Hyson rolled and rounded to give it the granular appear- 
ance whence it derives its name. The Chinese call it Choo-cha (peal 
tea). Ilyson-Skin is bo named from the Chinese term, in which 
comiection skin means the refuse, or inferior portion. In preparuig 
Ilyson, all leaves that are of a coarse yellow, or imperfectly t^visted 
ap]")earance, are separated, and sold as skin-tea, at an inferior price. 

Ticankay is the last picking of green tea, and the leaf is not rolled 
or twisted as much as the dearer descriptions. There is altogether 
less trouble bestowed on the preparation. 

Coffees. — Java Coffee. — Use of the imported article, 20 lbs. ; 
dried dandelion root, 7 lbs. ; chiccory, 13 lbs. Roast and grind 
well together. 

For West India, use rye roasted with a little butter, and ground 
very fine. 

For Turkey Coffee, use rice or wheat roasted with a little 
butter, 7 lbs. ; chiccory, 3 lbs. ; grind. 

Essence op Coffee is made by boiling down raolasses till 
hard ; grind to a powder ; add h lb, of good Java coffee to every 4 
lbs. of the mixture. Put up for" sale in round tin cans or air-tight 
paper packages. 

Coffee fob PouiO) Packages.— Best Java coffee, 1 lb. ; rye, 3, 



GKOCERS AND CONFECTIONERS' RECEIPTS. 213 

lbs. ; carefully clean the rye from all bad crrains, ■wash to remove 
dust, drain off the Avater, and put the grain into your roaster, 
carefully stirrincr to browni it evenly. Brown the rye and coffee 
separately, gi'ind and put up in tight packages to preserve the 
aroma. 

To Flavor Tobacco, — ^This is done by means of a mixture of 1 part 
each of lemon peel, orange peel, figs, coriander seed and sassafras ; 
^ part each of elderflowers, elderberries, and cinnamon ; 2 parts of 
saltpetre, 3 of salt, and 4 of sugar. This mixture must be digested ui 
50 parts of water, and, before applymg it flavored with an alcoholic 
solution of gum benzion, mastic, and myrrh. It is said that this 
decoction gives a flavor to common leaves resembling Porto Kico, but 
to this end the leaves must be well dried, about a year old, well per- 
meated viith the preparation, kept in a x)ile for 8 days, turned daily, 
and finally dried. 

Flavor for Cigar Makers. — Take 2 ozs. tonqna beans and 1 
oz. cinnamon ; bruise and pulverize them to a powder, and put 
them uito 1 pint of Santa Cruz rum ; let it stand for a few days to 
macerate ; stir all together, and with this liquid sprinkle your 
common or inferior tobacco. Dry out of the sun, and the flavor 
will be iftequalled. 

Tabac Perfumee aux Fleurs is made by putting orange flowers, 
jasmines, tube roses, musk roses, or common roses, to snuff in a close 
chest or jar, sifting them out after 24 hours, and repeating if necessary. 

Maccaboy Snuff is imitated by moistening the tobacco with a 
mixture of treacle and water, and allowing it to "ferment. 

Spanish Snx'ff is made, from unsifted Havana snuff, reduced by 
addmg ground Spcmish nutshells, sprinkling the mixture with treacle 
water, and allowing it to sweat for some days before packing. 

Yellow Snuff is prepared from ordinary pale smi^tt\ moistened 
with a mixture of yellow ochre diffused in water, to which a few 
spoonfuls of thin mucilage has been added. 

Perfumes for Snuff. — Tonqua beans, essence of ditto, ambergris 
musk civet, leaves of orchis f usca, and essence of orris root, essence 
or oils of bergamot, cedar, cloves, lavender, petit grain, noroli and 
roses, as well as several others, either alone or compounded. 

Unerring Tests for good Flour. — Good flour is white, vntn a 
yellowish or straw-colored tint Squeeze some of the flour in 
your hand ; if good, it Avill retain the shape given by pressure. 
Knead a little between your fingers ; if it works soft and sticky, it is 
poor. Throw a little against a dry perpendicular surface: if it fall 
like powder, it is bad. 

To CoRiiECT Musty Flour. — Carbonate of magnesia, oi bs.; flour, 
7G5 lbs. ; mix. This improves bad flour, causing it to become more 
wholesome, producing lighter and better bread than when alum is 
used, and absorbs and dissipates the musty smell. 

Xrated Bread. — 1 lb. flour, 100 grs. carb. of soda ; GO grs. com- 
mon salt; 1 teaspoon powdered sugar; 120 grs. muriatic acid, more or 
less, according to its strength ; 1 wine pt. of water, inferior flour will 
require less. Well mix the flour, soda, salt, and sugar in an earthen 
vessel, then add the acid mixed with the water, stir "with a wooden 
Bpoou. Bake in one loaf about 1 hour. Bake in tin or iron jians, but 
sivoid the use of metallic vessels or spoons while mixing. 



214 GKOCEKS AST> COXFECTIOXEKS' RECEirXS. 

Patent Self-Raising Floub. — Kiln-dried flour, 1 cwt. ; tartaric 
acid, 10^ oz. ; mix tliorouglily. Alter 2 or 3 days, add, of bicarb, 
soda, 12 oz. ; lumj) sugar ^ lb. ; common salt, 1^ lb. Mix, and pass 
through the " dressing machine.' ' Have all the articles perfectly dry, 
and separately reduced to fine powder before adding to the flour. MLx 
Avith cold water, and bake at once. It i)roduces light and porous 
bread. 

To Cure Butter. — Take 2 parts of fine salt ; 1 jiart loaf sugar ; 
1 part saltpetre ; mix completely. Use 1 oz. of this mixture to 
each pound of butter ; work well. Bury your butter firkins in the 
eaith in your cellar bottom, tops nearly level with the ground, or 
store away m a very cool place, covering the butter with a clean 
cloth and a strong brine on the top, and it will keep two years 
if desired. 

To Keep Butter during Hot Weather. — A simple mode of 
Iceepmg butter in warm weather is to invert a large crock of earthen, 
or a flower iDot if need be, (varj-ing with the size of the vessel con- 
tainmg the butter, ) over the dish or firkin in which the butter is hekU 
The porousness of the earthenware will keep the biitter cool, and all 
the more so if the pot be wrapped in a Avet cloth, with a little water in 
the dish with the butter. Not the porosity of tlie earthei^are, but 
the rapid absorption of heat by external evaxioration causes the butter 
to become hard. 

To restore Rancid Butter. — Use 1 pt. water to each lb. of but- 
ter, previously adding 20 grs. chloride of hme to each pt. of water ; 
wash well the butter in this mixture, afterward re-wash in cold 
■water and salt ; or melt the butter in a water bath with animal 
charcoal, coarsely powdered and previously well sifted to free 
it from dust ; skim, remove, and strain through flannel ; then salt 

Tomato Catsup. — Boil 1 bushel of tomatoes till they are soft; 
squeeze them through a fine wire sieve; add 1^ pts. salt, 2 oz. cayenne 
pepper, and 5 heads of onions, skinned and separated; mix together, 
and boil till reduced one half; then bottle. 

The Northern-Light Burning Fluid. — Get good deodorized 
"benzine, GO to 65 gravity, and to each brl. of 42 gals, add 2 lbs, pulver- 
ized alum, Sg oz. gum camphor, and 83 oz. oil of sassafras, or 2 oz. oil 
bergamot ; stir up and mix thoroughly togetlier, and it will soon be 
ready for use. N. B.-^As this fluid creates a much larger volume of 
light and flame than carbon oil, it is necessary to use either a high 
burner, such as the sun burner, to elevate the flame away from the 
lamp, in order to keep it cool, or instead thereof, to use a burner pro- 
vided with a tube for the escape of the gas generated from the fluid, 
such, for histance, as the Meriden burner. 

Test for Burning Oil. — ^Heat water in a pot on the fire to 120'' 
Fahr. Take a tin and put in it a tablespoonful of the oil you wish to 
test, place the tm containing the oil in the hot water, let it cool down 
to H2° Fahr. ; when at this point, approach a light very cautiously to- 
wards the on, and if it takes fire before the light touches it you "will 
be safe in rejecting it. 

Preserved or Solidified Milk.t— 1. Fresh ^skimmed milk, 1 gal. ; 
sesquioarbonate of soda (in powder), 1^ dr. Mix; evaporate to ^ part 
by heat of steam or waterbath, with constant agitation ; then add of 
jjowdered sugai: 0^ lbs, and complete the evaporatioa at a reduced 



GKOCEKS AND COXFECTIONERS' RECEIPTS. 215 

temperature. Reduce the dry mass to po-wder, add the cream well 
drained, "svliich was taken from the milk. After thorough admixture, 
put the whole into weU stopped bottles or tins, and hermetically seal. 
2. Carbonate of soda, ^ dr.; water, 1 fluid oz.; dissolve; add of fresh 
milk, one qt. ; sugar, 1 lb. ; reduce by heat to the consistency of a syrup, 
and finish the evaporation on plates by exposure, in an oven. 
Obsei've — About 1 oz. of the powder agitated with 1 pt, of water forms 
a good substitute for milk. 

Sealing-wax, Red. — Shellac (very pale), 4 oz. ; cautiously mel-t in 
a bright copper pan over a clear charcoal fire ; when fused, add 
Venice turpentine, Ij oz. Mix, and further add vermilion, 3 oz. ; 
remove the pan from the fire, and pour into a mould. For a black 
color, use ivory black, or lampblack, mstead of the vermilion ; for a 
blue color, use"^Prussianblue, mstead of the vermilion, same quantit5^ 
Each color must be well mixed with the composition; of the lampblack, 
use only sufficient to color. 

lIORTicuLTURATi IxK. — Copper, 1 part ; dissolve in nitric acid, 10 
parts, and add water, 10 parts ; used to write on zinc, or tin labels. 

Bottle AVax — Black, — Black resin, 6| lbs. ; beeswax, ^ lb. ; finely 
powdered ivory black, 1^ lbs. Melt together. Red, as the last, but 
substitute Venetian red,"or red lead, for the ivory black. 

Gold-colored Sealing-wax. — Bleached shellac, 3 lbs.; Venice 
turpentine 1 lb. ; Dutch leaf groimd fine, 1 lb., or less. The leaf should 
be ground, or powdered sufficiently fine, without being reduced to 
dust. Mix with a gentle heat, and pour into moulds. 

Lithographic Ink. — ^Venice turpentine 1 part, lampblack 2 parts, 
hard tallow soap 6 parts, mastic in tears, 8 parts, shellac 13 i^arts, 
wax 16 parts ; melt, stir, and pour it out on a slab. 

Inks. — 1. Fine Black writing Ink. — To 2 gals, of a strong decoc- 
tion of logwood, well strained, add 1^ lbs. blue galls in coarse powder, 
G ozs. sulphate of iron, 1 oz. acetate of copper, G ozs, of well ground 
sugar, and 8 oz. gum arable. Set the above on the fire until it begins 
to boil; strain, and then set it away until it has acquired the desired 
black, 2, Green Ink. Cream of tartar 1 part, verdigris 2 parts, 
water 8 parts. Boil till reduced to the proper color. 3, Blue Ink. 
Take sulphate of indigo, dilute it with water till it produces the i-c- 
quired color, 4, Violet Ink. Is made by dissolving some violet 
aniline in water to which some alcohol has been added : it takes very 
little aniline to make a large quantity of the ink. 5. Gold Ink. 
Mosaic gold, two parts, gum arable, one part, rubbed up to a proper 
condition, G. Silver Ink. Triturate in a mortar equal parts of silver 
foil and sulphate of potassa, imtil reduced to a fine powder, then wash 
the salt out, and mix the residue with a mucilage of equal parts of 
gum arable water. 7. Fidlam's Recipe for Indelible Stencil-plate 
Ink. 1 lb. precipitate carbonate of iron; 1 lb. sulphate of iron; 1.^ 
lbs. acetic acid. Stir over a fire until they combine ; then add 3 lbs. 
1 )r inter's varnish and 2 lbs. fine book ink, and stir until Avell mixed. 
Add 1 lb. of Ethiop's mineral, 8 Exchequer Ink. Briised galls, 40 
lbs, ; gum, 10 lbs. ; green sulphate of iron, 9 lbs. ; soft water, 45 gals. 
Macerate for 3 weeks with frequent agitation and strain. This ink 
will endure for ages, 9. Asiatic Ink. Bruised galls, 14 lbs. ; gum, 5 
lbs. Put them in a small cask, .and add of boiling soft water, 15 gals. 
Allow the whole to macerate, with frequent agitation, for two weeks, 



216 GROCERS AND CONFECTIONERS' RECEIPTS. 

then further ndd green copperas, 5 lbs., dissolved in 7 pts. -u-ater. 
Again mix -well, and agitate tlie "whole daily for two or three -weeks 

10. Extra f/ood Blade Ink. Bruised galls, 2 lbs., log\\^ood chips, 
green copperas and gum, of each, 1 lb. ; Avater, 7 gals. Boil 2 hours 
and strain. Product. 5 gals. 11. Broicn Ink. A strong decoction of 
catechu. The shade may be varied by the cautious addition of a little 
■weak solution of bichromate of potash. 12. Indelible, Ink. Nitrate 
of silver, ^ oz. ; Avater, | oz. Dissolve, add as much of the strongest 
liquor of ammonia as will dissolve the precipitate formed on its first 
addition; then add of mucilage 1^ dr., and a little sap green, syrup of 
buckthorn, or finely powdered indigo, to color. Turns black on being 
held near the fire, or touched with a hot iron. 13. Indelible Ink for 
Glass or Metal. Borax, 1 oz; sliellac, 2 oz. ; water, IS flxdd oz, ; boil 
in a covered vessel, add of thick mucilage, 1 oz. ; triturate it with 
levigated indigo and lampblack q. s., to give it a good color. After 2 
hours' repose, decant from the dregs and bottle for use. It may bo 
bronzed after being applied. Resists moisture, clilorine, and acids. 

11. Common Ink. To 1 gal. boiling soft water, add f oz. extract log- 
wood ; boil two minutes ; remove from the fire, and stir in 48 grains 
bichromate of potash, and 8 grains prussiate of potash; for 10 gals, nse 
G^ oz. logwood extract; 1 oz. bichromate of potash, and 80 grains 
l)russiate of potash ; strain. 15. Black Copyinr/ Ink, or Writinr/ flidd 
Take 2 gals, rain water and put into it gnm arable, ^ lb. ; brown "Sugar, 
^ lb. ; clean copperas, ^ lb. ; powdered nutgalls, | lb. ; mix, and shako 
occasionally for ten days and strain; if needed sooner, let it stand in 
an iron kettle until the strength is obtained. This ink will stand the 
action of tlie atmosphere for centuries, if required. IG. Bed Ink^ 
In an ouuce phial put 1 teaspoonful of aqna-ammonia; gnm arable 
size of two or three peas; and G grains of No. 40 carmine; fill np with 
soft water, and it is soon ready for use. 

Liquid Blacking. — Ivory black, 2 lbs. ; molasses, 2 lbs. ; sweet oil, 
1 lb. ; rub together till well mixed ; then add oil vitrol, ^ lb. ; add 
coarse sugar, ^ lb. ; and dilute with beer bottoms ; this cannot be 
excelled. 

TiCKETii^-G Ink for Gkoceiis,&c. — Dissolve 1 oz. of gum arable in 
C oz. water, and strain ; this is the mucilage ; for black color, use 
drop black, powdered, and ground with the mucilage to extreme fine- 
ness ; for blue, ultra-marine is used in the same manner ; for preen, 
emerald green ; for ivhite, flake white ; for red, vermilion, lake, or 
cai-mine ; for yellow, chrome yellow. When ground too thick they arc 
thinned with a little water. Apply to the cards with a small brush. The 
cards may be sized with a thin glue, and afterwards varnished, if it is 
desired to preserve them. 

Bluing for Clothes. — Take 1 oz. of soft Prussian blue, powder it, 
and put in a bottle with 1 quart of clear rain water, and add ^ oz. of 
pulverized oxalic acid. A tablespoonful is sufficient for a largo wash- 
ing 

Premium Method of keeping nA3is, &c. — To 4 gals, water, add 8 
lbs. coarse salt ; J oz. potash ; 2 oz. saltpetre ; 2 lbs. brown sugar. 
Boil together, skim when cold, put on the above quantity to 100 lbs. 
meat ; hams to remain in eight weeks, beef, three weeks. Let the 
liams dry several days before smoking. Meat of all kinds, salmon 
iiud other fish, lobsters, &e., may bo preserved for years by a light ap- 



GROCERS AND CONFECTIONERS* RECEIPTS. 217 

plication of pyroligneous acid applied with a brusli, sealing up in cans 
as usual. It imparts a splendid flavor to the meat, is very cheap, and 
an effectual preservative a^auist loss. 

To PRESERVE Meats, Salmon, Lobsters, &c., hermetic alt. y 
SEALED.— The meat to be preserved is first parboiled or somewhat moio 
and freed from bones. It is then put into tin cases or canisters, which 
are quite filled up with a ricli gravy. A tin cover, with a small aper- 
ture, is tlieu carefully fixed on by solder ; and, while the vessel is per- 
fectly full, it is placed in boiling water, and imdergoes the remainder of 
the cooking. The small hole in the cover is completely closed up by 
soldering while the whole is yet hot. The canister, with its ingredients, 
is now allowed to cool, in consequence of which these contract, and 
the sides of the vessel are slightly forced inward by atmospheric pres- 
sure, and become a little concave. The vessel being thus hermet- 
ically sealed, and all access of the air prevented, it may be sent into 
any climate without fear of putrefaction ; aud the most delicate 
food of one country may be used m another in all its original j^erfec- 
tion, months and years after its preparation. Lobsters should be boil- 
ed longer than meats, and the scales removed i)revious to puttmg into 
the canisters. Salmon put up by this process is most deUcious. By the 
French process the mejit is boiled till it is three-quarters done, when 
two-thirds of it are taken out, the remainmg one-third is boiled into a 
concentrated soup, aud the meat previously taken out is put into the 
canisters, which are then filled up with the soup ; the tin cover vrith 
aperture is soldered on, and the canister with its contents sub- 
mitted to farther boiling in hot water, when the aperture is closed, as 
above stated, and the canisters laid away in store. 

To PRESERVE Fruits without Sugar. — Fill some stone widc- 
raouthed bottles with the fruit carefully picked, and set them in 
a copper or large kettle ; then fill the kettle with cold water nearly 
up to the mouths of the bottles. Corks should be prepared to fit 
the bottles, and a cloth should be put under the bottoms of the 
bottles to ]->revent their cracking with the heat. Light the fire un- 
der the kettle, and heat the water to 1G0° or 170°. This heat should 
be continued for half an hour, when the fruit will be sufficiently 
scalded ; after that, fill up the bottles with boiling water to within 
an inch of the cork, and cork them tightly. Lay the bottles on 
their sides ; change the position of the bottles once or twice a 
Aveek during the first two months, turning them romid to prevent 
any fermentation that might take place. Fruits could also be 
kept by the process mentioned above for meats, remembering that 
they are to be scalded only, not boiled, as in the case with meats. 

Another Method. — After paring and cormg, put among them 
sufficient sugar to make them palatable for present eating, about 
3 or 4 lbs. only t® each bushel ; let them stand awliile to dissolve 
the sugar, not using any water ; then heat to a boil, and continue 
the boiling with care for 20 to 30 minutes, or sufficiently long to 
heat them through, which expels the air. Have ready a kettle of 
hot water, into which dip the can or bottle long enough to heat it ; 
then fill in the fruit while hot, corking it immediately, dipping the 
end of the cork into the bottle-wax preparation described else- 
where. 

Worcesteesittr!; SArcE.^—Whito vinegar 15 gals. ; walnut catsup 



218 GROCERS AND CONFECTIONERS' RECEIPTS. 

30 gals. ; Maderia wine 5 gals. ; mushroom catsup 10 gals. ; tablo 
salt 25 lbs. ; Canton soy, 4 gals. ; powdered capsicum 2 lbs. ; powdered 
allspice 1 lb. ; powdered coriander, seeds 1 lb. ; cloves, mace, and cin- 
namon, of each, ^ lb. ; asaf cetida ^ lb. ; dissolved in brandy 1 gal. Boil 
20 lbs. hogs livers in 10 gals, of water for 12 hours, renewing the water 
from time to time. Take out the liver, chop it, mix with water, work 
through a sieve, and mix with the sauce. 

Gherkins. — Take small cucumbers (not young), steep for a week 
in verxj strong brme ; it is then poured off, heated to the boiling 
point, and again i:)oured on the fruit. The next day the gherkijis 
are drained on a sieve, wiped dry, put into bottles or jars, with 
some spice, ginger, pepper, or cayenne, and at once covered with 
strong pickling vuiegar. 

Mixed pickles from cauliflowers, white cabbage, French beans, 
onions, cucumbers, &c., are treated as gherkins, with raw ginger, 
capsicum, mustard-seed and long pepper, added to each bottle. 
A little bruised turmeric improves both the color and flavor. 

Indian pickle. — Piccalilli. — Take one hard white cabbage 
(sliced), 2 cauliflowers, pulled to pieces, 20 French beans, 1 stick 
of horse-radish, sliced fine, 2 doz. small white onions, and 1 doz. 
ghcrkuis. Cover these with boiling brine ; next day, drain the 
Avhole on a sieve, put it into a jar, add of curry powder, or tur- 
meric, 2 oz. ; garlic, guiger, and mustard-seed, of each 1 oz. ; cap- 
sicum \ oz. Fill up the vessel with hot pickling vmegar ; bung 
it up close, and let it stand for a month, with occasional agitation. 

To Preserve Fruit Juice without Heat. — ^Ingredients : 10 lbs. 
of fresh-gathered, picked, red-ripe currants, or other fruit, 2 qts. 
cold water, 5 oz. taitaric acid, G lbs. of coarse sifted sugar. Put 
the fruit into a large earthen pan, pour the water with the tartaric 
acid dissolved in it over the fruit, cover the pan with some kind of 
lid, and allow the Avhole to steep for 24 hours iu a cold j)lace, and 
it would be all the better if the pan containing the fruit could be 
immersed in rough ice. Next, pour the steeped fruit into a sus- 
pended stout flannel bag, and when aU the juice has run through, 
tie up the open end of the bag, and place it on a large earthen 
dish, with another dish upon it ; place a half-hundred weight upon 
this, to press out all the remaiuing juice, and then mix it with the 
other juice. You now put the sifted sugar into the juice, and stir 
both together occasionally, imtil the sugar is dissolved, and then 
bottle up the syrup, cork, and tie down the bottles with wire, and 
keep them in the ice well or in a cold cellar, in a recluiing position. 

To RESTORE Injured Meat. — ^AVhen the briue sours and taintg 
the meat, pour it off ; boil it, skim it well, then pour it back again 
on the meat boiling hot ; this will restore it, even when much 
injured. If tainted meat is injured, dip it in th^ solution of chlo- 
ride of lime prescribed for rancid butter ; it will restore it Fly- 
blown meat can be completely restored by immersing it for a few 
hours m a vessel containing a small quantity of beer ; but it will 
taint and impart a putrid smell to the liquor. Fresh meat, ham.^, 
fish, &c., can be preserved for an indefinite length of time without 
salt, by a light application of pyroligneous acid applied with a 
brush ; it imparts a fine smoky flavor to the meat, and is an effect- 
ual preservative. But pure acetic acid may be used instead. 



GROCERS AND CONFECTIONERS' RECEIPTS. 219 

Fresh IMeat — to keep a "Week or Two in Suivi>rER. — Farmers 
or others living at a distance from butchers can keep fresli meat 
very nicely for a week or two, by putting it into sour milk, or but- 
ter milk, placing it in a cool cellar. The bone or fat need not bo 
removed. Rinse well when used. 

Milkman's Process. — To give a body to diluted milk nsc the 
following nutritive and healthy compound at the rate of 8 oz. to 
every 5 gals., stirring it up in the milk, tiU all is dissolved: arrow- 
root, G oz. ; magnesia, C oz. ; starch, 1 lb. ; flour, ^ lb. ; white sugar 
in powder, 1 lb. ; mix all intimately together, and keep in a dry 
place for use. 

Custard Powders. — Sago meal and flour, 1 lb. each ; color with 
turmeric to a cream color. Flavor with essential oil of almonds, 1 
dr. ; ess. of lemon, 2 drs. Use with sweetened milk to form ex- 
temporaneous custards. 

CuRRy Powder. — Turmeric, and coriander seeds, of each, 4 oz. ; 
Ulack pepper, 2^ oz. ; ginger 14 drs. ; cinnamon, mace, and cloves, each, 
h oz. ; cardamon seeds, i oz. ; cummin seeds, 2 drs. ; cayenne x^cpper, 
1 oz. ; powder and mix. 

Napoleon's Camp Sauce.— Old strong beer, 2 qts.,white wine, 1 qt., 
anchovies, 4 ounces ; mix ; boil for ten minutes ; remove it from the 
fire, u,nd add peeled shallots, 3 ounces ; macerate for 14 days, 
and bottle. 

Pickled Onions. — Choose small round onions, remove the skins, 
steep them in strong brine for a week in a stone vessel, pour it off, 
and heat till it boils ; then pour on the onions, boiling hot ; after 
24 hours, di-ain on a seive, then put them in bottles, fill up over them 
with strong spiced vinegar, boiling hot, cork down immediately, and 
wax over the cork. In a similar manner are pickled mushroons, 
cauliflowers, samphires, peas, beans, green gooseberries, walnuts, 
red cabbages (witliout salt, with cold vinegar). Obsen-e that the soft 
and more delicate do not require so much soaking in brine as the harder 
and coarser kinds, and may be often kept by simply pouring very 
strong pickling vinegar on them without the application of heat. For 
peaches, select ripe but not soft ones ; rub with a dry cloth ; put font 
cloves, free from their heads, in each large peach, and two in small 
ones ; to 1 gallon vinegar, put G lbs. brown sugar ; put the peaches in 
a jar and put the vinegar (diluted with water, if too strong), and 
sugar in a preser\'ing kettle over the fire ; boil and skim it ; pour it 
boiling hot over the peaches, covering them closely ; repeat the 
operation three times ; then seal them tightly in cans or bottles. 

French Patent Mustard. — Flour of mustard, 8 lbs. ; wheat flonr, ^ 
8 lbs. ; bay salt, 2 lbs. ; cayemie pepper, 4 oz. ; vinegar to mix. 

Common Mustard. — Flour of mustard 28 lbs. ; wheat flour, 28 ids. , 
en yenne pepper, 12 oz., or as required ; common salt 10 lbs. ; rape 
oil 3 lbs. ; turmeric to color ; mix weU, and pass through a fine seive. 

Starch Polish. — White wax, 1 oz. ; spermaceti, 2oz, ; melt them 
together with a gentle heat. "When you have prepared a sufficieut 
r.mount of starch, in the usual way, for a dozen pieces, })ut into it a 
jiiece of the polish about the size of a large pea ; more or less, accord- 
ing to large or small washings. Or thick gum solution (made l)y pour- 
f'ag boiling water upon gum arabic), one tiblespooii to a pir.t of starch. 
jrlv*>3 clothes a bcautifiU gloss^ 



220 GROCERS AND COXFECTIOXERS' RECEIITS. 

Fire KrNT)LEir55. — To make very nice fire kindlers, take resin, any 
quantity, and melt it, putting in for eacli poimd being used, from 2 to 
3 oz. of fcillow, and wlien all is hot, stir in pine sawdust to make 
very thick ; and, while yet hot, spread it out about 1 inch thick, 
upon boards which have fine s.awdust sprinkled upon them, to prevent 
it from sticking. When cold, break up into lumps about 1 inch square. 
Ihit if for sale, take a thin board and press upon it, while yet A'-;\rm, 
to lay it off into inch squares ; this makes it break regularly, if you 
press the crease sufficiently deep, greasing the marked board to j)revent 
it from sticking. 

To Keep Cider sweet, a^td Sweeten Sour Cider. — To keep 
cider perfect, take a keg and bore holes in the bottom of it ; spread a 
piece of woollen cloth at the bottom ; then fill with clean sand closely 
packed ; draw your cider from a barrel just as fast as it will run 
through the sand ; after this, put in clean barrels which liave liad a 
piece of cotton or linen cloth 2 by 7 inches dipped in melted sulphur 
and burned inside of them, thereby absorbing the sulphur fumes 
(this process will also sweeten sour cider) ; then keep it in a cellar or 
room where there is no fire, and add h lb. white mustard seed to each 
barrel. If cider is long made, or souring when you get it, about 1 qt. 
of hickory ashes (or a little more of other hard wood ashes) stirred 
into each barrel will sweeten and clarify it nearly equal to rectifying it 
as above ; but if it is not rectified, it must be racked off to get clear of 
the pomace, as with this in it, it will sour. Oil or whisky barrels are 
best to put cider in, or ^ pint sweet oil to a barrel, or a gallon of 
whisky to a barrel, or both, may be added with decidedly good 
effects ; isinglass, 4 oz. to each barrel, helps to clarify and settle ci- 
der that is not to be rectified. 

Ginger Wine. — ^AVater, 10 gals., lump sugar, 20 lbs., bruised gin- 
ger, 8 oz. ; 3 or 4 eggs. Boil Avell and skim ; then pour hot on six or 
seven lemons cut in slices, macerate for 2 hours ; then rack and fer- 
ment ; next add spirit 2 qts., and afterwards finings, 1 pint ; rum- 
mage well. To make the color, boil ^ oz. saleratus and ^ oz. alum in 
1 pint of water till you get a bright red color. 

Ice Cream. — Have rich, sweet cream, and a half-pound of loaf 
sugar to each quart of cream or milk. If you cannot get cream, the 
best imitation is to boil a soft custard, G eggs to each quart of milk (eggs 
well beat). Or another is made as follows : boil 1 quart of milk, and 
stir into it, while boiling, 1 tablespoonful of arrowroot wet with cold 
milk ; when cool stir into it the yolk of 1 egg to give it a rich color, 
rive minutes' boilmg is enough for either plan. Put the sugar in af- 
ter they cool ; keep the same proportions for any amount desired. 
Or thus : to 6 quarts of milk add | lb. Oswego starch, first dissolved ; 
put the starch in 1 quart of the milk ; then mix altogether, and sim- 
mer a little (not boil) ; sweeten and flavor to your taste ; excellent. 
The juice of strawberries or raspberries gives a beautiful color and 
flavor to ice creams, or about ^ oz. essence or extract to 1 gallon, or 
to suit the taste. Have your ice well broken, 1 qt. salt to a bucket of 
ice. About one hour's constant stirring, with occasional scrajiiug 
down and beating together, will freeze it. 

Chicago Ice Creaji. — ^Irish moss soaked in warm water one hour, 
and rinsed well to cleanse it of sand and a certahi foreign taste ; then 
steep it iu milk, keeping it just at the ix)int of boiling or simmering 



GliOCERS AND CONFECTIONERS' RECEIPTS. 221 

for one hour, or until a rich yellow color is given to tlie milk ; -with- 
out cream or eggs, from 1 to Ih oz. to a gal. only is necessary, and 
this will do to steep twice. Sweeten and flavor like other creams. 

St'BSTiTUTE FOR Cream. — Take 2 or 3 whole eggs, beat them well 
up in a basin ; then i)our boiling hot tea over them ; pour gradually 
to pi.-event curdling. It is difficult for the taste to distinguish it from 
rich cream. 

Ginger Beer. — Take SJ gals, water, f lb. ginger root bruised, 
tartaric acid, ^ oz., white sugar, 2^ lbs., whites of 3 eggs well 
beaten, 10 small teaspoonfiils of lemon ess. ; yeast, 1 gill ; boil the 
root for 30 mhiutes in 1 gal. of the water; strain off, and put the ess. 
in while hot; mix, make over night; in the morning, skim and bottle, 
keeping out the sediments. 

PiriLADELrHiA Beer. — Take 30 gals, water, brown sugar, 20 lbs. 
ginger root bruised, ^ lb. , cream of tartar, IJ lbs. , carbonate of soda, 
3 oz., oil of lemon, cut in a little alcohol, 1 teaspoonful, the white of 

10 eggs well beaten, hops, 2 oz., yeast, 1 qt. The ginger root and hops 
should be boiled for twenty or thirty minutes in enough of the water 
to malce all milk- warm ; then strained into the rest and the yeast added 
and allowed to work itself clear; then bottle. 

Cider without Apples, — Water, 1 gallon; common sugar, lib.; 
tartaric acid, ^oz. ; yeast, 1 tiiblespoonf ul ; shake well, make in the 
evening, and it will be fit to use next day. 

For Bottling. — Put in a barrel, 5 gals, hot water; 30 lbs. common 
sugar; | lb. tartaric acid; 25 gallons cold water ; 3 pints of hop or brew- 
ers' yeast, worked into paste with 1 pint of water and 1 lb. flour. Let 
it work in the barrel forty-eight hoiirs, the yeast running out of the 
bunghole all the time, putting in a little sweetened water occasionally 
to keep it full; then bottle, puttmg in two or three broken raisins to 
each bottle; and it will nearly equal champagne. 

Cheap Cider. — Put in a cask 5 gals, hot water ; 15 lbs. brown sugar; 
1 gal. molasses; ^ gal. hop or brewers' yeast; good vinegar, G qts. ;'stir 
well, add 25 gals, cold water, ferment as the last. 

Another Cider. — Cold water, 20 gals., brown sugar, 15 lbs., tar- 
taric acid, ^ lb. ; rummage well together, and add, if j'ou liave them, 
3 or 4 lbs. of dried sour apples, or boil them and pour in the express- 
ed juice. This cider will keep longer than the others. 

Spruce and Ginger Beer. — Cold water, 10 gals. ; boiling water, 

11 gals. ; mix in a barrel; add molasses, 30 lbs., or browni sugar, 24 
lbs. ; oil of spruce or any oil of which you wish the flavor, 1 oz. ; add 1 
pint yeast, ferment, bottle in two or three days. If you wish white 
spruce beer, use lump sugar; for ginger flavor, use 17 oz. ginger root 
bruised, and a few hops; boil for thirty minutes m three gals, of the 
water, strain and mix well; let it stand two hours and bottle, using 
yeast, of course, as before. 

Hop Beer, very fine. — Mix 14 lbs.of molasses and 11 gals, water 
well together, and boil them for 2 hours witli 6 oz. hops. AVhen quite 
cool, add a cupful of yearit, and stir it well by a gallon or two at a 
time. Let it ferment for 16 hours, in a tub covered with a sack, then 
put it in a 9-gallon cask, and Iceep it filled up ; bung it down in 2 days, 
and in 7 days it will be fit to drink:, and will be stronger than London 
porter 

Edinbubgh Ale.— Employ the best pale malt— 1st, mash 2 barrcld 



222 GROCERS AND CONFECTIONERS' RECEIPTS. 

pr. quarter, at 183°, mash three-quarters of an hour, let it stand 1 
liour, and allow half an hour to run oif the "vvort; 2d, mash 1 barrel 
per quarter. 180°, mash three-fourths of an hour, let it stand about 
tliree-fourths, and tap as before; 3d, mash 1 barrel per quarter, 
at 170°, mash half an hour, let it stand half an hour, and tap as 
before. The first and second wort may be mixed together, boiling 
them about an hour or an hour and a quarter, with a quantity of 
hops proportioned to the time the ale is required to be kept. The 
first two may be mixed at the heat of C0°, in the glyetun, and the 
second sliould be fermented separately for small beer. The best 
hops should be used in the proportion of about 4 lbs. for every 
quarter of malt employed. 

Bottling Porter.— Browk Stout. Pale malt, 2 quarters ; amber 
and brown malt, of each 1^ do. ; mash at 3 times, with 12, 7, and 
() barrels of Avater ; boil with hops, 50 lbs ; set with yeast, 29 lbs. 
Product, 17 barrels, or 1^ times the malt. 

Lemon Beer. — To make 20 gals, boil 6 oz. of ginger root bruised, 
J lb. cream of tartar, for 20 or 30 minutes, in 2 or 3 gals, water ; 
this will be strained in 13 lbs. coffee sugar, on which you have 
put ^ oz. oil of lemon, and six good lemons squeezed up together, 
Laving warm water enough to make the whole 20 gals, just so 
liot that you can hold your hand in it without burning, or about 
70 degrees of heat ; put in 1^ pints of hop or brewers' yeast, worked 
Into paste with 5 or G oz. flour. Let it work over night, then strain 
and bottle for use. 

Table Beer. — Malt, 8 bushels ; hops, 7 lbs ; molasses, 25 lbs. ; brew 
for 10 barrels ; smaller quantity in proportion. 

Ilor Beer. — Hops, G ounces ; molasses, 5 quarts ; boil the hops till 
the strength is out, strain them into a 30-gallon barrel ; add the 
molasses and one teacupful of yeast, and fill up with water ; shake it 
well, and leave the bung out till fennented, which will be in about 
24 hours. Bang up, and it will be fit for use in about three days. 

Molasses Beer. — Hops, loz. ; water, 1 gal. ; boil for ten minutes, 
strain, add molasses, 1 lb. ; and when lulce-warm, yeast, 1 spoonful. 
Ferment. 

ItooT Beer. — Water 10 gals, heat to 60° Fah. then add 3 gals, mo- 
lasses ; let it stand 2 hours, pour it into a bowl and add powdered or 
bruised sassafras and wintergreen bark of each ^ lb. ; yeast 1 pt. ; 
bruised sarsaparilla root, -^ lb. ; add water enough to make 25 gals, iu 
all. Ferment for 12 hours, then bottle. 

Ottawa Beer aist) Ginger Ale. — Ottawa beer is made by using 
8 ozs. of a fluid extract which contains the concentrated strength of 4 
lbs. of 13 different roots and barks, added to 1 gal. syrup which is mixed 
with 14 gals, water, into which carbonic acid gas is forced at a pressure 
of 80 lbs. to the square inch. Ginc/er Ale is made in the same way 
except that 4 ozs. of extract is suflicient. When the ginger is really 
used, an extract deprived of resinous impurities is made use of, 
which gives a clear amber colored drink. 

Cheap Beer. — ^Water, 15 gals. ; boil half the water with ^ lb. 
hops ; then add to the other naif in the tun, and mix well with 1 
gal. molasses and a little yeast. 

To restore Sour Beer. — Good hops, J lb., powdered chalk, 2 lbs. 
Put L^ the hole of the cask, and bung close for a few days ; for frosted 



GROCERS AND CONFECTIONERS' RECEIPTS. 223 

beer, add some finings, a few handfuls of flour, and some scalded 
hops ; for ropy beer, use a handful or two of flour, the same of hops, 
with a little powdered alum to each barrel. Rummage well. 

To Ijiprove the Flavor of Beer. — Bruised ginger, 1 oz. ; bruised 
cloves, ^ oz. ; a few scalded hops and a doz. broken coarse biscuits 
to every two barrels. Rummage well. 

Lemonade. — White sugar, 1 lb., tartaric acid, J ounce, essence of 
lemon, 30 drops, water 3 qts. Mix. 

Cream Soda. — Loaf sugar, ten lbs., water, 3 gals. ; warm gradu- 
ally so as not to burn ; good rich cream, 2 quarts ; extract vanilla, 
1^ ounces ; extract nutmeg, ^ ounce ; tartaric acid, 4 ounces. Just 
biing to a boilhig heat ; for if you cook it any length of time, it will 
crystallize ; use I or 5 spoonfuls of this syrup instead of three, as in 
other syrups ; put ^ teaspoonful of soda to a glass, if used without a, 
fomitain. For charged fountains no acid is used. 

Freezing Preparation. — Common sal-ammoniac, well pulverized, 
1 part ; saltpetre, 2 parts ; mix well together. Then tiilve common 
soda, well pulverized. To use take equal quantities of these prepa- 
rations (which must be kept separate and well covered previous to 
using) and put them in the freezing pot ; add of Avater a proper 
quantity, and put in the article to be frozen in a proper vessel ; cover 
up, and your wants will soon be supplied. For freezing cream oi* 
wines this cannot be beat. 

SAitsAPARiLLA INIead. — 1 lb. of Spanish Sarsaparilla, boil 5 hours 
and strain olf 2 gals : add sugar 16 lbs. and tartaric acid 10 ozs., half 
a wine glass of syrup to half pint tumbler of water, and half teasiDOon- 
ful of soda is a fair proportion for a druik. 

I'D RT ABLE LEMONADE. — Tartaric acid, 1 ounce, white sugar, 2 lbs., 
essence of lemon, quarter ounce ; powder and keep dry for use. One 
dessert spoonful will make a glass of lemonade. 

lau'ERiAL Cream Nectar. — Part 1st, take 1 gallon water, loaf 
sugar, (> lbs., tJirtaric acid, 6 ounces, gum arable, i ounce. Part 2d, 
lioui', 4 teaspoonf uls, the whites of 5 eggs ; beat finely togetlier ; 
then add h pint water ; when the first part is blood warm, put in the 
second ; boil 3 minutes, and it is done. Directions : 3 tjiblespoonfuls 
of syrup to two-thirds of a glass of water ; add one-third teaspoonful 
of carbonate of soda, made fine ; stir well, and drink at your leisure. 

Peppermint Cordial. — Good whisky, 10 gals., water 10 gals., 
white sugar, 10 lbs., oil peppermint, 1 ounce, in 1 ])int alcohol, 1 Ib.flour 
Avell worked in the fluid, * lb. bunied su^ar to color. !Mix, and let it 
stiind one week before using. Other oil in place of peppermint, and 
you have any flavor desired. 

Silver-top Drinic. — Water, 3 qts. , white sugar, 4 lbs. , ess. of lemon, 
4 teaspoonf uls, white of 5 eggs, beat with 1 tablespoonful of flour ; 
boil to a syrup ; then divide into equal parts, and to one add 3 ounces 
tartaric acid, to the other 4 ounces of carbonate of soda ; put in a 
teaspoonful of each of the syrups, more or less (according to the size 
of the glass), to two-thirds of a glass of water ; drink quick. 

Sangaree. — Wine, ale, or porter, or two-thirds water, hot or cold, 
according to the season of the year, loaf sugar to taste, with luitmeg. 

Soda Syrups. — Loaf or crushed sugar, 8 lbs., pure water, 1 gallon, 
glim arable, 2 oz. ; mix in a bi*ass or copper kettle. Boil until the 
gum is dissolved, then skim and strain through white flamiel, after 



224 GROCERS AND CONFECTIONERS' RKCEIPTS. 

which add tartaric acid, 5^ oz. ; dissolve in hot water ; to flavor, use 
extract of lemon, orange, vanilla, rose, sarsaparilla, strawberry, &c,, 
&c., ^ oz. or to your taste. If you use juice of lemon, add 2^ lbs. of 
sugar to a pint, you do not need any tartaric acid with it ; iiow use 
two tablespoon! uls of sj^rup to j of a tumbler of water, and ^ te;i- 
spoonful of suijer-carbonate of soda, made fine ; drink quick. Fur 
Boda fountains, 1 oz, of super-carbonate of soda is used to 1 gallon of 
water. For charged fountains no acids are needed in the syrups. 

Stoughton Bitteks. — Gentian, 4 omices, orange peel, 4 ounces, 
Columbo, 4 ounces, camomile flowers, 4 ounces, quassia, 4 ounces, 
bunted sugar, 1 lb., Avhiskey, 2^ galls. Mix and let it stand 1 week. 
Bottle the clear liquor. 

CojoiON Small. Beer. — A handful of hops to a pail of water, a 
pint of bran, add half a pint of molasses, a cup of yeast, and a si^oon- 
f ul of ginger. 

Royal Pop. — Cream tartar, 1 lb., ginger, l^oz., white sugar, 7 
lbs., essence of lemon, 1 drachm, water, G galls., yeast 1 pint. Tie 
the corks down. 

Raspbekky Syrup without Raspberries. — First make a syrup 
with 36 lbs. of white sugar, and 10 gallons of water, and put it into 
a clean mixing barrel. Then dissolve ^ lb. of tiirtaric acid in 1 qt. 
of cold water, and add to the syrup. Kext take ^ lb. orris root 
and pour over it half a gallon of hoUinrj water ; let It infuse iintQ 
cold, then filter, and put it into the mixing barrel, stirring it well. 

To Color. — Boil ^ oz. of cocliineal ; f oz. cream tjirtar; ^ oz, 
saleratus ; and \ oz. alum in 1 qt. of water mitil you get a bright red 
color, and add this to the syrup till the color suits. The above is a 
very valuable receipt, and will make 16 gals, syrup at a very low cost 
per gallon. If it is desirable to produce a richer syrup, add more 
sugar. Colors should be made in a brass or copper kettle. 

Bottled Soda Water without a Machine. — In each gallon of 
water to be used, carefully dissolve | lb. crushed sugar, and one ounce 
of super-carbonate of soda ; then fill pint bottles with this water, have 
your corks ready ; now drop uito each bottle \ dram of pulverized 
citric acid, and immediately cork, and tie down." Handle the bottles 
carefully, and keep cool until needed. More sugar may be added if 
desired. 

Oyster Soup. — To each dozen or dish of oysters, put h phit of 
water ; milk, 1 gill ; butter ^ oz, ; powdered crackers to thicken ; 
bring the oj^sters and vs^ater to a boil, then add the other ingredients 
previously mixed together, and boil from three to five minutes only 
feeasou with pepper and salt to taste. 

Mock Terrapin. — A supper dish. ITalf a calf's liver ; seasoned, 
fry brown. Hash it, not very fine, dust thickly witli flour, a teaspoon- 
ful mixed mustard, as much cayenne pepper as M-illlie on a half dime; 
2 hard eggs, chopped fine, a lump of butter as large as an egs:, a teacup 
of water. Let it boil a minute or two ; cold veal wiU do, if liver is not 
liked. 

Blackberry \Vixe. — ^Wash the berries, and ponr 1 qt. of boil- 
ing water to each gal. Let the mixture stjind 24 hours, stirring occa- 
sionally ; tlien strain and measure into a keg, adding 2 lbs. sugar, 
and good rj'e whiskey 1 pint, or best alcohol, ^ ]5int to each gal. 
Cork tight, and i)ut away £or use. The best wine that can be made 



GROCERS AND CONFECTIONERS' IlECEirXS. 225 

MuTTOX IIarricot. — Take a. loin of mutton, cut it into small chops, 
season it with ground pepper, allspice, and salt, let it stand a night, 
and then fry it. Have good gravy well seasoned with flour, butter, 
catsup and pepper, if necessary. Boil turnips and carrots, cut tliem 
small, and add to the mutton stewed in the gravy, with the yolks of 
hard boiled eggs, and forced meat balls. 

Lmxtation Apple Butter. — Vinegar, 1 qt. ; cheap molasses 1 qt. ; 
mix together, set over the fire till it commences to cook ; take it off, 
add 10 tablespoonfuls of wheat flour, and cold Avater to make a bat- 
ter, then add 1 qt. sciilding water, stir and cook for fifteen minutes. 
^ Lemox Syrup. — Havana sugar, 1 lb. , boil in water down to a quart, 
drop in the white of 1 egg, and strain it. Add ^ oz. tartaric acid; let 
it stand 3 days; shake often; 12 drops essence of lemon will much 
improve it 

Superior Raisin Wixe. — Take 30 lbs. of chopped raisins free from 
stems and dust; put them in a large keg, add to them 10 gals, soft 
water; let them stand two weeks unbunged, shaking occasionally 
(warm place in winter), then strain through woollen, or filter; color 
witli burnt sugar ; bottle and cork well for use. The mo^e raisins the 
better tlie wine, not exceeding 5 lbs. to each gallon. 

Kaisin Wine equal to Sherry. — Boil the proper quantity of 
water and let it stand till cold. To each gal. of this add 4 lbs. of 
chopped raisins, previously well washed, and freed from stalks ; let 
•Jie whole stand for 1 month, stirring frequently; then remove the 
jiiaisins, and bmig up closely for 1 month more ; then rack into another 
vessel, leaving all sediment behind, and repeat till it becomes fine: 
then to every 10 gals. addG lbs. of fine sugar, and 1 doz. of good 
oranges, the rinds being jiared very thin, and infused in 2 qts. of 
brandy, which should be added to the liquor at its last racking. Let 
the whole stand three months in the cask, then bottle. It should re- 
main bottled twelve months. To give it the flavor of Madeira, when 
it is hi the cask, put in a fcouple of green citrous, and let them remain 
till the wme is bottled. 

Port wine. — ^^Yorked cider, 42 gals. ; good iiort wine, 13 gals ; 
good brandy, 3 gals. ; pure spirits, G gals ; mLx. Elderberries and 
aloes, and the fruit of the black haws make a fine purple color for 
wines, or use burnt sugar. 

AiMERiCAN CHAm'AGNE. — Good cidcr (crab-apple cider is the best), 
7 gals. ; best fourth-proof brandy, 1 qt. ; genume champagne wine, 5 
l)ts. ; milk, 1 gal. ; bitartrate of potassa, 2 oz. Mix, let stand a slioit 
time; bottle while fermenting. An excellent imitation. 

British Chasipagne. — Loaf sugar, 5G lbs. ; brown sugar (pale), 48 
lbs. ; water (warm), 45 gals. ; white tartar, 4 oz. ; mix, and at a proper 
tenq^erature add yeast, 1 qt. ; and afterwards sweet cider, 5 gals. ; 
bruised wild cherries, 14 or 15 oz. ; pale spirits 1 gal. ; orris-iiowder, ^- 
oz. Bottle while fermenting. 

British ^Madeira. — Pale malt, 1 bushel ; boiling water, 12 gals. ; 
mash and strain; then add white sugar, 4 lbs. ; yeast 1 lb. Fer- 
ment, next add raisin or Cape wine, 3 qts. ; brandy, 3 qts. ; sherry, 3 
qts. ; iwrt, 2 qts, ; bimg down. The malt may be mashed again for 
bottle beer 

Currant and other Fruit Wines.— To every gallon of expressed 
juice, add 2 gals, soft water, G lbs, brovaisugari cream tartar, Ih oz,; 

15 



226 GROCERS AXD COXFECTIOXERS' RECEIPTS. 

and qt. brandy to every G gals. ; some prefer it witliout orandy. Aftei 
fermentation, take 4 oz. isinglass dissolved in 1 pt. of tlic Avine, and 
put to each barrel, which will fine and clear it: when it must be 
drawn into clean casks, or bottled, which is iirefcrable. 

Blackberky a:sd Strawberry AVines are made by taking the 
above wine when made with port wine, and for every 10 gals, from 4 
to G qts. of the fresh fruit, bruised and stramed, are added, and let 
stand four days till the flavor is extracted; when bottling, add 3 or 
four broken raisins to each bottle. 

MoRELLA Wine. — ^To each quart of the expressed juice of themor- 
ella, or tame cherries, add 3 qts. water and 4 lbs. of coarse brown su- 
gar; let them ferment, and skim till worked clear; then draw off, 
avoiding the sediment at the bottom. Bung up, or bottle, which is 
best for all wines, letting the bottles lie always on the side, either for 
wines or beers. 

London Sherry. — Chopped raisins, 400 lbs. ; soft water, 100 gals. ; 
Bugar, 45 lbs. ; white tartar, 1 lb. ; cider, IG gals. Let them stand to- 
gether in a close vessel one month ; stir frequently. Then add of spirits, 
i> gals. ; wild cherries bruised, 8 lbs. Let them stand one month longer, 
and fine with isinglass. 

English Patent Wine from Rhubarb. — To each gai. of juice, 
add 1 gal. soft water, in which 7 lbs. brown sugar have been dissolved ; 
fill a keg or barrel with this proportion, leaving the bung out, and keej) 
it filled with sweetened water as it works off, imtil clear. Any other 
vegetable extract may be used if this is not liked ; then bung down or 
bottle as you please. The stalks will yield f their weight in juice; 
fine and settle with isinglass as above. This wine will not lead to 
intemperance. 

Various Win:es. — ^To 28 gals, clarified cider add good brandy 1 gal. ; 
crude tiirtar (this is what is deposited by grape Avines), milk to settle 
it, 1 pt. ; draw off 3C hours after thoroughly mixing. 

Ginger AVine. — Put one oz. of good ginger-root bruised in l qt. 95 
per. cent, alcohol; let it stand nine days, and strain; add 4 qts. water, 
and 1 lb. Avhite sugar dissolved in hot water, color with tincture of 
Sanders to suit. 

Another. — To 1 qt. 95 per cent, alcohol add 1 oz. best ginger-root 
(bruised but not ground), 5 grs. capsicum and 1 dr. tortaric-acid. Let 
it stand one week and filter; noAv add 1 gal. water in which 1 lb. of 
crushed sugar has been boiled. Mix Avhen cold. To make the color, 
boil ^ oz. cochineal, f oz. cream tartar, ^ oz. saleratus, and ^ oz. alum, 
in 1 pt. of Avater till you get a bright-red color. 

To RESTORE Flat AVine. — Add 4 or 5 gals, of sugar, honey, or 
bruised raisins to every 100 gals., and bung close; a little spirits may 
be added, to roughen ; take bruised aloes, or powdered catechu, and 
add to the wine in suitable proportions, or add a small quantity of 
bruised berries of the mountain ash, to allay inordinate flatness. Let 
it stand 2 hours and bottle, using yeast, of course, as before. 

White AVinks are generally fined by isinglass in the proportion of 
IJ oz. (dissolved in li pts. of water, and thinned with some of the wine) 
to the ho.^shead. lied Wines are generally fined Avith tlie Avhites of 
eggs, in tno proportion of 12 to 18 to each pipe ; they must be Avell 
beaten, to a froth Avith about 1 pt. of water, and afterwards mixed Avitli 
a nttlo of the AA'ine before adding them to the liquor, liummage avoII. 



GK0CEE3 AND CONFECTIONERS' RECEIPTS. f*!! 

CnAJiTAGNE Cider. — Good pale cider, 1 hhd. ; spirits, 3 gals. ; sugar, 
20 lbs.; mis, and let it staud one fortnight; then fine with skimuied 
milk, ^ gal. ; this Avill he very pale, and a similar article, when pro- 

Ecrly bottled and labelled, opens so brisk, that even good judges 
ave mistaken it for genuine champagne. 

Berlin Cakrawat Cordial. — Take 8 gals, spirit, SOper cent. ; 1 oz. 
oil of carraway, which you dissolve in spirit 95 per cent. ; 8 lbs. sugar ; 
8 lbs. water. Dissolve your sugar in the wa.ter ; mix, stir and filter. 

Stomach Bitters Equal to Hostetters'. — ^European gentian 
root, 1^ oz. ; orange peel, 2^ oz. ; cinnamon, ^- oz. ; anise seed, \ oz. ; 
coriander seed, ^ oz. ; cardamon seed, | oz. ; unground Peruvian 
hark, h oz. ; gum kino, ^ oz. ; hruise all these articles, and put them 
into the best alcohol, 1 pt. ; let it stand a week, and pour off the 
clear tincture ; then boil the dregs a few minutes m 1 qt. of water, 
strain, and press out all the strength ; now dissolve loaf sugar, 1 lb. 
in the hot liquid, adding 3 qts. cold water, and mix Avith the spirit 
tincture first i^oured off, or you can add these, and let it stand on 
the dregs if preferred. 

Boker's Bitters. — Rasped quassia, I20Z. ; calamus, 1^ oz. ; i)ow- 
dcred catechu, 1^ oz. ; cardamon, 1 oz. ; dried orange peel, 2 oz. ; 
macerate the above ten days in ^ gfil. strong whiskey, and then fil- 
ter, and add 2 gals. Avater ; color with mallow or malva flowers. 

CuRACOA Cordial, 40 Gals. — Essence of bitter oranges, 2 oz. ; ess. 
of ueroli, 2 oz. ; ess. of cinnamon, ^ oz. ; 3 drs. mace, infused in alco- 
hol. Dissolve the above essence in 1 gal. alcohol, 95 per cent. ; 
then put in a clean barrel 13 gals, alcohol, 85 per cent. ; 26 gals, 
sugar syrup, 30 degrees Baurae ; and add 1 gal. perfumed spirit as 
above. Color with saffron or turmeric. 

CuRAcoA d'Hollaxde, 20 Gals. — Curacoa orange-peel, 2 lbs ; ^ lb. 
Ceylon cuuiamon. Let them soak in water ; boil them lor five 
minutes with the iuico of 32 oranges and 14 gals, of plain white 
syrup ; then add 6" gals, alcohol, 95 per cent. ; strain, filter ; color 
dark yellow with sugar coloring. 

AxisETTE Cordial, 40 Gals,— Put in a barrel 13 gals, alcohol, 75 
per cent. Dissolve 3^ oz. essence of green anise-seed in 1 gal. 95 
per cent, alcohol, and add ^ gal. orange-flower water ; 8 or ten drops 
infusion of mace, and 5 drops essence of cinnamon. Tlien put ui the 
barrel 2G gals, sugar syrup, 25 degrees Baume ; stir fifteen minutes, 
and let it rest four or five days ; "then filter. Add 2 or 3 sheets of 
filtering paper. 

Ratafia. — ^Ratafia may be made "witli the juice of any fruit. Take 
3 gals, cherry juice, and 4 lbs. sugar, which you dissolve in the juice ; 
steep in 2^ gals, brandy ten days ; 2 drs. cinnamon, 24 closes ; 1(> 
oz. peach-leaves ; 8 oz. bruised cherry kernels, Eilter, mix both 
liquids, and filter again. 

Arrack Punch Svrup. — 53^ lbs. sugar ; SJ gals, water. Boil up 
well ; then add 1§ gals, lemoii- juice to the boiling sugar, and stir 
till the liquid is clear ; pour it in a clean tub, and when nearly cool, 
add 5 gals. Batavia arrack, then filter. 

Syrups for Soda Fountains, &c. — 1. Simple syrup. AYliite sugar, 
10 lbs ; water, 1 gal ; best isinglass, ^ oz. Dissolve the isinglass in 
hot water, and add it to the hot syrup. The syrup is to be made with 
gentle heat and tlicn strained. 2. LzDxon — a — (jratc off tlie yellow rind 



228 GROCERS AXD COXFECTIOXEKS' RECEirTS. 

of lemons and beat it np witli a sufficient quantity of granulated 
sugar. Express the lemon juice, add to each pt. of juice 1 pt. of 
water, and 3 lbs. of granulated sugar, iacludiug that rubbed with tho 
rind ; warm until the sugar is dissolved and strain. 3. Lemon — h — 
Simple syrup 1 gal., oil of lemon 25 drops, citric acid 10 drams. Rub 
the oil of lemon with the acid, add a small portion of syrup, and 
mix. 4. StraicberTy — a — Strawberry juice Ipt., simple syrup 3 pints, 
solution of citric acid 2 drams. 5. Strawherivj — h — Fresli strawber- 
ries 5qts. white sugar 12 lbs., Avater, Ipt. Sprinkle some of the sugar 
over the fruit in laj^ers, and allow the whole to stand for several 
hours ; express the juice and strain, washmg out the pulp with water ; 
add the remainder of the sugar and water, briug the fluid to the poijit 
of boiling, and then strain. This will keep for a long time. G. Jiasp- 
berry. Raspberry juice 1 pt., simple syrup 3 pts., citric acid 2 drams. 
Raspberry syrup may also be made in a way similar to No. 5 for 
strawbeny. 7. Vanilla. — Fluid extract of vanilla loz., citricacid,f oz., 
simple syrup 1 gal. Rub the acid with some of the syrup, add tho 
extract of vanilla, and mix. 8. Vanilla Cream. — Fluid extract of 
vanilla loz., simple syrup 3 pts., cream or condensed milk Ipt. ; may 
be colored with carmine. 9. Cream. — Fresh cream 1 pt., fresh milk 1 
X>t., powdered sugar 1 lb. ; mix by shaking, and keep in a cool place. 
The addition of a few grains of bicarbonate of soda will for some 
time retard souring. 10. Ginger. — Tincture of ginger 2 fluid ozs. 
simple syrup 4 pts. 11. Orange. — Oil of orange 30 drops, tartaric acid 
4 drams, simple syrup 1 gal. Rub tlie oil with the acid, and mix. 12. 
Pineapple. — Oil of pineapple 1 dram, tartaric acid 1 dram, simple 
syrup 6 pts. 13. Orgeat. — Cream syrup 1 pt, vanilla syrup 1 pt. , oil of 
bitter almonds 4 drops. 14. Nectar. — ^Vanilla syrup 5 pts., pineapple 
syrup Ipt., strawberry, raspberry or lemon 2 pts. 15. Sherbet. — 
Vanilla syrup 3 pts., pinea^jple 1 pt., lemon sjTup 1 pt. 16. Grape. — 
Brandy | of a pt, spirits of lemon ^ oz., tincture of red sanders 2 ozs., 
simj)le syrup 1 gal. 17. Banana. — Oil of banana 2 drams, tartaric acid 
1 dram, simj^le syrup 6 pts. 18. Coffee. — Coffee roasted fibs., boiling 
water 1 gal. Enough is filtered to inake about ^gal. of the infusion, 
to which add gramilated sugar 7 lbs. 19. Wild Cherry. — Wild cherry- 
bark coarse powder, 5 ozs. Moisten the bark with Avater, and let it 
stand for 24 hours in a close A'essel. Then pack it firmly in a per- 
colator, and pour water upon it until 1 pt. of fluid is obtained. To 
this add 28 ozs. of sugar. 20. Wintergreen. — Oil of wintergreen 25 
drops, simple syrup 5 pts., and a suflicient quantity of burnt sugar to 
color. 21. Sarsaparilla — a — Oil wintergreen 10 drops, oil of anise 10 
drops, oil of sassafras 10 drops, fluid extract of sarsapariUa 2 ozs. 
simx:)le syrup 5 pts. , powdered extract of licorice 1 oz. 22. SarsapariUa 
— b — Simi^le syrup 4 pts., compound syrup of sarsapariUa 4 fluid ozs., 
caramel 1^ ozs., oil of wintergreen C drops, oil of sassafras 6 drops. 
23. il/«pZe.— Maple sugar 4 lbs., water 2 pts. 24. Chocolate. — Best 
chocolate 8 ozs., water 2 pts., white sugar 4 lbs. Mix the chocolate 
in water, and stir thoroughly over a slow fire. Strain, and add tlie 
sugar. 25. Coffee Cream. — Coffee syrup 2 pts., creani 1 pt. 20. Am- 
brosia. — ^Raspberry syrup 2 pts., vanilla 2 pts., hock wme 4 ozs. 27. 
Uock and Claret. — llock or claret wme 1 pt., simple syrup 2 pts. 28. 
Solfcrino. — ^Brandy 1 pt., simple syrup 2 pts. 29. Fruit Acid. — (Used 
in some of the syrups). Citiic acid 4 ozs., water, 8 oz3. Most of tho 



GROCEKS AND CONFECTIONEKS' RECEIPTS. 229 

pyrnps not made from fruits may have a little gum arable added in 
order to produce a rick froth. 

BuxvKic Ether is much used to impart a pine ar)plc flavor to 
rum. Dissolved in 8 or 10 parts of alcohol, it forms the pine apple 
essence. From 20 to 25 drops of this essence, added to 1 lb. su,l,';u', 
coutahiing a httle citric acid, imparts to the mixtuie a strong taste of 
pine apple. 

Amylo- Acetic Ether is a preparation of fruit-oil and other ingre- 
dients, and when diluted witli alcohol, it is sold as essence of Jargonelle. 
j)ear, and is used for flavoring different liquors. Fifteen parts amj-lo- 
acetic ether, vritli half a part of acetic ether, dissolved in 100 parts of 
alcohol, form what may be called the Bergamot-pear essence, which, 
when employed to flavor sugar, acidulated with a Httle citric acid, ini- 
paits the odor of the Bergamot pear, and a fruity, refreshing taste. 

Pelargoxate or Etuvlig Ether (pelargouic ether), has the 
agreeable odor of the quince, and, Avhen dissolved in alcohol in duo 
proportion, forms the quince essence. 

Acetate of A^ivlic Ether (same as amylo ether), nuxcd with 
hulyric ether, forms in alcoholic solution the banana essence. 

Valeriajs'atb of AMYI.IC Ether. — An alcoholic solution of this 
ether in the proportion of 1 part to or 8 of alcohol, forms a flavorhig 
liquid uuder the name of apple essence. 

MiLi\. Punch. — One tablespoonful of fine white sugar, 2 ditto of 
water, 1 wine glass of Cognac brandy, h ditto Santa Cruz rum, ^ tum- 
blerful of shaved ice; fill with milk. Shake the ingredients well to- 
gether, and grate a little nutmeg on top. To make it hot, use hot milk 
and no ice. 

Glasgow Pltnch. — Melt lump-sugar in cold water, with the juice 
of a couple of lemons, passed througli a flue wire strainer; this is sher- 
bet, and most be well muigled. Then add old Jamaica rum, one jiait 
of rum to five of sherbet. Cut a couple of lemons in two, .and rini 
each section rapidly around the edge of the jug or bowl, gently 
squeezmg in some of the delicate acid, when all is ready. 

Men't Jltlep. — One tablespoonful of white pulverized sugar, 2^ ditto 
water ; mix well with a spoon. Take 3 or 4 sprigs of fresh inint,"press 
them well in the sugar and water, add 1^ wine glasses of Cognac 
brandy, and fill the glass with shaved ice, then draw out the sprigs of 
mint, and insert them in the ice with the stems downwards, so that 
the leaves will be above in the shape of a bouquet; arrange berries and 
small pieces of sliced orange on top in a tasty manner, da.sh with 
Jamaica rum, and sprinkle sugar ou top. Sip with a glass tube 
or straw. 

Cider Xectar. — One qt. cider, 1 bottle soda water, 1 glass sherry, 
1 small glass brandy, juice of half a lemon, peel of ^of a lemon, sugar 
and nutmeg to taste. Flavor it with extract of i^ine apple, strain, and 
iie it all well. 

ILalf and IIaef, — In London, this drink is made by mixing half 
porter and half ale ; in America, it is made by mixing half new and 
half old ale. 

Apple Toddy. — One tablespoonful of fine white sugar, 1 wine- 
glass of cider brandy, ^ of a baked apple. Fill the glass two-thirds 
full of boiling water, and grate a little nutmeg ou top. 

Appijs Punch. — L:iy in a china bowl sUces of ai)ples and Icraona 



230 GROCEKS AND COXFECTIOXERS' RECEIPTS. 

a.Iternately, each layer hclng thickly strewed -u-ith powdered sugar. 
Tour over the fruit, wheti the bowl is half filled, a bottle of claret ; 
cover, aud let it stand for G hours. Theu pour it through a muslm 
bag, aud it is all ready. 

Old Man's Milk. — One wine-glass of port wine, 1 teaspoon! ul of 
sugar. Fill the tumbler one third full of hot milk. 

Perfect Love. — One tablespoonf ul sugar, 1 piece each of orange 
and lemon jieel. Fill the tumbler one-tliird full of shaved ice, and 
fill balance with wine ; ornament in a tasty manner with berries in 
season ; sip through a straw. 

Molasses Candy. — West-Indian molasses, 1 gallon ; brown sugar, 
2 lbs. ; boil the molasses and sugar in a preservmg kettle over a 
slow fire ; when done enough it will cease boiling ; stir frequently, 
and when nearly done, stir m the juice of four lemons or two tea- 
spoonfuls of essence of lemon ' afterwards butter a x>an, and pour 
out. 

Confectioners' Colors. — lied, cochineal, 1 oz. ; boil 5 minutes 
in half pmt water ; then add cream tartiir, 1 oz. ; jiounded alum, h 
oz. ; boil 10 minutes longer, add sugar, 2 oz. ; and bottle for use. 
Blue, put a little warm water on a plate, and rub in indigo till the 
required color is got. Yellow, rub with some water a little yellow 
gamboge on a plate, or infuse the heart of a yellow-lily flower with 
milk-warm water. Green, boil the leaves of .spinach about 1 minute 
in a Uttle water, and. when strained, bottle for use. 

To Candy Sugar. — Dissolve 2 parts of double refined sugar in 1 
of water. Great care must be taken that the syrup does not boil 
over, and that the sugar is not burnt. The first degree is called the 
thread, which is subdivided into the little and great thread ; if you 
dip your finger in the syrup, and apply it to the thumb, tlie tenacity 
of the syrup will, on separating the finger and thumb, afford a threacl 
which shortly breaks, this is the little thread ; if the thread admits of 
a greater extension of finger and thumb, it is called the great thread; 
by longer boiling you obtain the pearl, which admits of being drawn 
without breaking by tlie utmost extension of finger and thumb ; 
this makes candied sugar: by further boiling you obtain the bloio, 
which is Icnown by dipping a skimmer with holes in the syrup, and 
blowing through them ; if bubbles arc perceived, you have got the 
blow. The featlier implies more numerous bubbles, and then the sugar 
will fly off like flakes while the skimmer is being tossed. By boil- 
ing longer, you obtain the cirick ; it will crack when broken, and does 
not stick to the teeth ; dip a teaspoon into the sugar, and let it drop to 
tlie bottom of a pan of cold water. If the sugar remains hard, it has 
attained the degree termed crack. 

Fig Candy, — Take 1 lb. of sugar and 1 pint of water ; set over a 
slow fire. When done add a few drops of vinegar and a lump of but- 
ter, and pour into pans in which split figs are laid. 

Kaisin Candy can be made in the same manner, substituting 
stoned raisins for the figs. Common molasses ciiudy is very nico 
Avith all kinds of nuts added. 

Scotch Butter Candy. — ^Take lib. of sugar and 1 pint of water; 
dissolve and boil. AVhen done, add one tablespoonful of butter, 
and enough lemon juice and oil of lemon to flavor. 

CojDiiON Lemon Candy.— Take 3 lbs. coarse brown sugar : add to 



ghoci:ks and confectioxeks' nixriPTs. 231 

it three toacupfiils of water, and set over a slo-n^ firo for half 
an hour; put to it a little gum arable dissolved in hot\vnter; this is 
to clear it. Continue to take off the scum as long as any rises. When 
perfectly clear, try it by dipping a pipe-stem first into it and then into 
cold water, or by taking a spoonful of it into a saucer; if done, it will 
snap like glass. Tlavor with essence of lemon and cut it into sticks. 

l*£rrEiiMiNT, KosR, oil HouEHOUXD Caxdv. — They may be mado 
as lemon cand3\ Flavor witli essence of rose or peppermhit or finely 
powdered horehound. Tour it out in a buttered paper, x)la.ced in a. 
siquare tin pan. 

I'orrED CoKX, dipped in boiling molasses, and stuck together, forms 
an excellent candy. 

Rock Caxdy. — To make fine rock candy, clarify double refined 
white sugar, filter it, and boil it till it is ready to crystallize, or 
boiled to a blister. The boiling sugar must measure 35° on tlie syrup 
weight, a degree more or less prevents its crystallization. Then take 
a brass kettle, of about IG or 18 inches diameter and from G to 8 inches 
deep, smooth and polished on the inside. Make 8 or 10 smaU holes at 
equal distances from each other in a circle aronud the sides of the 
kettle, about 2 inches from the bottom ; pass threads through these 
from one side to the other, and stop the holes on the outside with paste 
or i)aper to prevent the syrup from running out. Having thus pre- 
jiared the kettle, pour in the syrup, till it rises abont an inch above 
the threads ; then jilace it in a stove moderately heated, and leave it 
to crystallize, agitating it from time to time. The crystallization will 
take place in six or seven days. As soon as the crj'stals are formed, 
liour off the remaining syrup, and throw in a little water to wash the 
crystals that are left at the bottom of the vessel. So soon as the ma.s.i 
is thoroughly draiend set it in a very hot stove, leave it for two days, 
when it is fit for nse. Straw-colored rock candy is made by sub- 
stituting brown for loaf sugar. The syrup must be boiled over a very 
hot fire in order to render the candy perfectly white. The sides of tho 
kettle should be sponged repeatedly during the boiling x)rocess, to 
prevent the sugar from adhering and burning. 

Orange Rock Ca>T)Y is made by flavoring the syrup with a couplo 
of teaspoonfuls of orange flower Avater, and coloring with saffron, 
just as the syrup is about to be taken from tlie fire. Hose Hock Candi/ 
is flavored with rose water, and colored with clarified carmine lake. 
Vanilla Rock Candy is perfumed with vanilla, and colored with liquid 
A'iolet. The degree of coloring may be tested by dropi^ing a little of 
the colored syrup on a sheet of white paper. 

Ginger Caxdy. — Dissolve 1 lb. double-refined sugar in ^ pint of 
spring water; set it over a clear fire, and let it boil to a thin syrup, 
llave ready a teaspoonf ul of powdered ginger, mix it smoothly with 
2 or 3 spoonfuls of the syrup, then stir it^radually into the whole. 
Boil the mixture into a flake, watclung it carefully, that it inay not 
exceed this pomt; then add the freshly grated rind of a large lemon, 
and stir the sugar constantly and rapidly until it fall in a mass from 
the spoon, without sinking when dropped npon a plate. If boiled 
for a moment beyond the point, it will fall into a powder. Should 
this happen by mistJike, add a little water, and boil to the proper con- 
sistency. Dip the candy from the kettle, and drop it in small cakeu 
upon buttered pans, then set it away to cooL 



232 GKOCEKS A2sD COXFECTIONEKS' KECEirTS. 

CREA3T CajsDT. — To 3 Ibs. of loaf sn;;ar add h pt. -prater, and set it 
over a slow fire for half an hour; theu add a teaspoouful of gum 
arable dissolved, and a tablespoonful of vinegar. Boil it till it is brit- 
tle, then take it off, and flavor with vanilla, rose, or orange. Rub tlie 
hands Avith sweet butter, and pull the candy till it is white; then twist 
or break it, or stretch it out into thin white strips, and cut it off. 

Red Verdun Sugaiied Almonds. — Dry the almonds in a stove by 
a slow fire. When dry enough to snap between the teeth, put them 
into a swinging basin and gum them by throwing over them a little 
gum arable solution, cold; swmgthem constantly till dry; then give 
them another coating of gum arable mixed with 4 oz. sugar, and 
swing them again till dry, using no fire. When they are thoroughly 
drj^, set them over a moderate fire. Dissolve some sugar in orange 
or rose water, not too thin, set it over the fire 2 or 3 minutes, strain it 
through a sieve, and pour it over the almonds in the basin. Swing 
them till they are thoroughly coated and dried; then add another 
coatmg, composed'of 2 parts of carmine, one part of gum, and one ])art 
of sugar, and proceed as before. If the almonds are not perfectly 
covered, give them a coating in which there is considerable gum; and 
when thoroughly moistened, throw on them some sifted sugar, stir 
till the mixture is all absorbed, then add successive coatings of sugar 
till they are large enough, and put them into the stove to remain till 
the next dajj", when in order to lohiten them, you will j)roeeed to boil 
G or 7 lbs. of fine clarified sugar to a blister, add 1 lb. of starch after 
taking it from the fire, stiring it constantly till a paste is formed a 
little thicker than that used for pastilles; .a few drops of blue lake 
may be added to produce a pearl white. ]?ut the almonds, warm, in- 
to the swinging basin, add enough of the preimred sugar to coat them, 
swing the basin till they are nearly dry, tlien set on the fire to finish 
the drying, then take the basin off the fire, heap them up in the mid- 
dle, so as to allow the bottom of the vessel to cool; then add the coat- 
ing of sugar, swing and dry them as before, and continue the process 
xmtil 4 successive coatings of equal thickness have been given ; then 
lieat them well in the basin, put them into pans, and set them in the 
stove to remain over night. You will then proceed to polish them by 
giving them a coat of the prepared sugar and starch, and shake them 
violently until they are quite dry; give them another coating and pro- 
ceed as before, and continue the process until they have received 4 
successive coatings, when they will generally be found sufficiently 
polished. When the jDolishing is finished, put the almonds over a fire 
and stir gently till all are thoroughly heated, then place in a stove till 
the next day in a wicker basket lined with paper. 

Spanish Sugaeed Almonds. — Make vcrdun sugared almonds 
about the size of pigeon's eggs, whiten and polish tliem by tlie pre- 
vious directions, and pamt different designs on them when completed. 

Superfine Vanilla Sugared Alinionds. — Proceed in the same 
manner as in the manufacture of vcrdun sugared almonds, make 
tlie solution of sugar in pure water ; crush the essence of vanilla 
with a little sugar, and put in the solution. 

Common Sugared Almonds. — Common almonds, 20 lbs., sugar 8 
lbs., farina, 20 lbs., starch, 2 lbs. Heat the almonds in the swinging 
l)asin, when they boil, make them into a pulp with diluted starch; 
give first a warm then a cold coating, cover them with farina, shaking 



GROCERS AND CONFECTIONERS' RECEIPTS. 233 

the basin violently ; then, when the almonds have been coated to the 
lequisite size, spread them out on sieves ; after a foitnight put them 
in a stove to finish drying : Avliiten them, and finish by the i)rocess 
described for the fine sugared almonds. 

SuPERFEsTs Chocolate Sugared ^\xmonds. — Caraccasa cacao nuts, 
shelled and roasted, 20 lbs., Martinique sugar, 16 lbs., vanilla 4 drs., 
starch 10 oz. The same method is required as for the superfine 
vanilla sugar plums, but care must be taken in adding the coatings 
of gum, to touch the cacao nuts lightly, as they are very easily broken. 

SurERFiKE Sugared Filberts. — Filberts, 50 lbs., sugar, 4 lbs., 
starch, 4 oz. Emploj' the same process as for sugared almonds and 
flavor to taste. Rose Avater is generally preferred on account of its 
color and fragrance. 

CoRL^-DER Sugar Plums. — Coriander, 2 lbs., farina, SClbs., sugar, 
14 lbs. The vrashings of the basui are added to the' coriander and 
farina without making a paste, and the method is followed that has 
been prescribed for the common sugared almonds ; 8 lbs. of !<ugar 
are used to whiten them, and to polish them ; color after being 
l^olished with cannine, Prussian blue, and saffron. 

CoRLVXDER IX Bottles. — Coriander, 10 lbs., farina, 10 lbs., sugar 
for the whitening, 3 lbs., starch, 1 lb. These are simply colored, and 
do not require brilliancy. They are made of the size of small peas, 
and are put into little bottles. In making these follow the receipt for 
common sugared almonds. 

AxiSE-SEED Sugar Pluims. — ^Dry 2 lbs. of green anise-seed in the 
stove ; rub it in the hands to break off the stems, wimiow to rid of 
dust, then put it in a swijiging basin, and coat it with sugar boiled to 
a thread, so as to render the candies liard and brittle. When coated 
sufficiently, whiten and polish them, like the verdun sugared almonds. 
They vary in size, being generally as large as a pea. 

MmT Sugar Plums. — Dry some peppermint seed in a stove and 
coat it in the same maimer as anise seed (it must not, however, be 
whiter than rape seed), whiten and finish like anise seed. The first 
coatuig is sometimes composed of equal parts of i>eppermint and 
sugar. 

Co:ki:MO>r Twist Ca^jdy. — Clarify 3 lbs. of common brown sugar, 
and boil it till it is brittle, take it from the fire, pour it in buttered 
pans ; rub the hajids with a little butter, and as soon as it is cooled, 
pull it as you would molasses candy until it is i^erfectly white ; then 
twist and braid it, and cut it into sticks. 

Caramel is made by boiling clarified sugar till it is very brittle, 
then pouring it on an oiled slab or sheet of tin, and, as soon as it 
is cool enough to receive an impression with the finger, stampmg 
it in small squares, about an inch in size, with a caramel mould ; 
then turning over the mass, wiping the bottom to remove any oil 
that may have adhered from the slab, and putting it in a dry place to 
harden. If you have no caramel mould, you may score it on the 
slab with a common case knife, after which they are glazed with an- 
other coating with sugar. Keep them tightly closed from the air af- 
ter tliey are made. 

Lemon CabambIj is made by grating the yellow rind of a, lemon 
with a lump of sngar ; add to this a few drops of lemon jaice with 
water enough to dissolve the sugar completely and stir the whole ia- 



234 GROCERS AND CONFECTIONERS KECEirXS. 

to the boiled syrup a few minutes before it is taken from the fire. 
Orange and Lime caramels are prepared in the same manner from 
these respective fruits. Coffee caramel, coffee, 2 oz., sujxar 1 lb. Make 
an infusion of the coffee, lising as little water as possible ; strain it 
through a cloth, and stir it gradually into the boiled Byn\\} a few 
minutes before taking it from the lire. Chocolate caramel, choco- 
late, 4 oz., sugar 1 lb. Dissolve the chocolate in as little water as pos- 
sible, and add it to the boiled sugar, as in tlie coffee caramels. Van- 
illa and Orange cream caramels are made by using the respective es- 
sences of these fruits. 

Cocoa Nut Candy.— Pare and cut cocoa-nut into slips, or grato 
on a coarse grater tlie white meat of cocoa-nuts until you liave h a 
poiaid ; dissolve \ lb. of loaf sugar in 2 tablespoonf uls of water ; put 
it over the fire, and, as soon as it boils, stir in the cocoa-nut. Con- 
tinue to stir it until it is boiled to a flake, then pour it on a buttered 
pan or marble slab, and cut in Avhatever forms you wish, when it is 
nearly cold. Lemon or other flavors may be added. 

Candy Drops ob Pastilles.— Pound and sift double-refined su- 
gar, first through a coarse, and then through a fine sieve. Put the 
sugar into an earthen vessel, and dilute it with the flavoring extract, 
mixed with a little water. If too liquid, the syi'up will be too thin, 
and the drops will run together ; while, if too thiclc, the syrup will bo 
too compact, and cannot be j)oured out easily. AN'lien the sugar is 
mixed in a ratlier stiff paste, put it in a small sauccj^an with a spout 
and set it over the fire. As soon as it begins to bubble up the sides 
of the saucepan, stir it once in the middle, take it from tiie fire, and 
drop it in small lumps, of the size and shape required, upon sheets of 
tin, to stand for 2 hours, then put them in the stove to finish drying. 
As soon as they are jjerfectly hard and brilliant, take them from the 
fire, otherwise they will lose their aroma. Color thes^'ruj) just be- 
fore taking it from the fire. 

OiiANGE, Jasmine, and Clo^'es Dnors are made by mixing tlic 
above paste with these respective extracts : 

For Salad Drops. — Water distilled from lettuce is used. 

Saffron Drops. — Make an infusion of saffron, strain it, let it 
cool, use it to mix the paste, and jorocced as before. 

Heliotrope Drops. — Proceed in the same manner, flavoring the 
paste with a few drops of oil of ueroli, or oil of orange, jasmine and 
tube-rose, and color %'iolet. 

Pink Deops. — Flavor the taste with tincture of red pinks, and 
color with carmine lake. 

Cinxa:mon Drops. — Mix 5 drs. powdered cinnamon and 8 oz. of 
sugar with mucilage enough to make it into a i^aste, and proceed 
as above. 

Chewing Gum.— Take of prepared balsam of tulu. 2 oz. ; ^vhito 
sugar loz., oatmeal 3 oz., soften the gum in water bath and mix in 
the ingredients ; then roll in finely powdered sugar or flour to form 
sticks to suit. 

Marshmallow and Licorice drops are made the same way. 

KosE Drops.-— MLx the paste with rose water, and color with 
carmine lake. Proceed as above. 

Lemon ant) Orange Ditors. — Rasp off the yellow rind of an orange 
or lemon; mix the raspings with double-refined sugar; addogrs. of 



GROCERS AND COXFECTIOXERS* RECEIPTS. 235 

tiilaric acid to every pound of sugar, color Avith yeilow lake or saffron, 
and proceed as before. If too mucli tartaric acid is nscd, the candies 
Avill adhere to the sheets of tin. 

Violet Diiors. — Eiavor tlie paste ■with tincture of Florence iris, 
and color with blue and carmine lakes. A few drops of tailaric acid 
may be added to tustuin the blue. 

Coffee Diiors. — Substitute a strong, filtered infusion of coffee 
for water, in mixing the paste. 

Chocolate Diiors. — For every pound of sugar, take 5 pts. good 
chocolate, pulverize it, and mLx it into a paste, as alreadj'' directed, 
taking care not to boil thei)aste too long, lest it granulate, and become 
unfit for use. 

VAifiLLA Drops. — Mix the paste with extract of van^xia, or finely- 
ground vanilla bean ; to Avhich add 2 oz. 3 grs. of tartaric acid, dis- 
Bolved in water, to sustiiiu the blue, without which it would disappear. 

Imitation Currant Drops. — Mix the paste Avith Avater, addmg a 
little essence of raspberry and of violet, or Florence iris, Avith a little 
tailaric acid dissohed in Avatcr ; color Avith carmine, and x^roceed as 
above. 

PErPERJiixT Drops — Dissolve finely-powdered sugar with a nttlo 
strong peppermint- water in a saucepan with a spout. As soon as it is 
thoroughly dissolved, add an equal quantity of coarse-grained sugar 
Avith a few drops more of the peppermint, stir the whole for a few 
moments, then drop the mixture on paper, and dry it in the open air. 
In the same way are made lemon, rose, A'anilla, and other drops. 
Citric and tartaric acid may be used to increase the acidity of lemon 
drops. 

Exteimporaneous Pastilles. — ]Make the paste as usual, without 
flavoring the water, drop the pastilles upon paper, leave them for two 
hours, then take them off and put them into the stove to dry. When 
Avanted for use, put the quantity required into a large-mouthed jar, 
and flavor as desired. For instance, to make 2 lbs. of peppermint 
drops, take 5 pts. of sulphuric ether m which are diluted a few drops 
of essence of peppermint, and pour it over the candies, then cover 
the jar, and shake it imtil they are thoroughly moistened ; then place 
them on a sieve, and set them in the stove for 5 minutes, evaporate 
the ether. In this manner rose, orange, lemon, jonquil, tube-rose, 
mignonette, clove, cinnamon, or any other drops may bo made, dis^ 
solving their essential oils in sulphuric ether, 

GiNGEii Candy Tablets.— Take 1 lb, loaf sugar, a few drops of 
acetic acid or the juice of half a lemon, a dessert-spoonful of essence 
of Jamaica ginger. Boil the sugar vrith just water enough to 
dissolve it to the ball degree, then add the acid and the essence, 
and rub the sugar with the back part of the bowl of a silver spoon 
up against the sides of the sugar-boiler to Avhiten or grain it suffi- 
ciently to give to the Avhole an opalized appearance; then pour it 
into very small-sized moulds, measurmg half an inch or an inch 
oblong square, or else mto a tin pan, the bottom part of Avhich is 
marked out in small tablets, so that the candy may be easily broken 
Into squares when dry. Smear the moulds slightly with oil of ah 
monds. When the sugar is poured into the moulds, x^laco in the screen 
for half an hour or more, to dry them hard. 

01UXGE Floaver CA^'^)V TAELETS.--Ingrcdicnt3 : 1 lb. loaf sugar. 



236 GROCERS AND CONFECTIONERS' RECEIPTS. 

a tiblcspoonfnl of orange-flo^vcr '^ater, aud a few drops of acetic 
acid. Proceed as directed in the preceding. No color. 

Vanilla Candy Tablets. — Ingredients ; 1 lb. loaf sugar, a few 
drops of essence of vanilla, sugar, and a few drops of acetic acid. 
Proceed as for ornaments in grained sugar. 

Peppermint Candy Tablets. — Ingredients : 1 lb. of loaf sugar, 
a few drops of essence of pepi^ermint, and a few drox)s of acetic acid. 
Proceed as above. No color. 

Liquor Candy Tablets. — ^Ingredients : 1 lb. of loaf sugar, and 
a gill of any kind of liquor. Boil the sugar to the crack, then in- 
corporate the liquor, and finish as in the preceding. No color. 

Cinnamon Candy Drops. — Use 1 lb. loaf sugar, and a few drops 
essence of cinnamon. Proceed as in the last. This may be colored 
rose pink, the color is to be added while the sugar is boiling. 

Clove Candy Tablets are prepared in the same way as the fore- 
going, essence of cloves being used instead of cinnamon. 

KosE Candy Tablets. — Use 1 lb. loaf sugar, a few drops of es- 
sence of roses, a few drops of acetic acid, and a few drops of i:)repared 
cochineal. Proceed as in the preceding. 

pRUiT Candy Tablets. — Use 1 lb. of loaf sugar, ^ pint of the juice 
of any kind of fruit, either currants, cherries, strawberries, rasp- 
berries &c., extracted by pressing with a spoon througli a clean hair 
sieve. Boil the sugar to the crack, then incorporate the fruit juice 
by rubbing it with tlie sugar, as directed in the preceding, and nuisli 
the candies as therein indicated. 

To free IMoLAssES from its Sharp Taste, and to render 
IT FIT TO BE USED INSTEAD OF SuGAR. — Take 21 Ibs. molasscs, 2i 
lbs. water, and G lbs. of charcoal, coarsely pulverized ; mbc: them m a 
kettle, and boil the whole over a slow wood fire. When the mixture 
has boiled half an hour, pour it into a flat vessel, in order that the char- 
coal may subside to the bottom ; then pour off the liquid, and place it 
over the .fire once more, that the superfluous water may evaporate 
and the molasses be brought to its former consistence. 2i lbs. of 
molasses will produce 24 lbs. of syrup. 

Pepper:mint Lozenges. — Ingredients : 1 oz. of picked gum traga- 
oanth soaked with 5 oz. of tepid water in a gallii)ot (this takes some G 
hours), aud afterwards squeezed and wrung through a cloth, about IJ 
lbs. of fine icing sugar, and a teaspoonful of essence of peppermint, 
^V'ork the prepared gum with the flattened fist on a very clean slab 
until it becomes perfectly white and elastic, then gradually work in 
the sugar, adding the peppermint when the paste has become a com- 
pact, smooth, elastic substance ; a few drops of thick, wet, cobalt 
blue should also be added while working the paste, to give a brilliant 
whiteness. The paste thus prepared is to be rolled out with fine su- 
gar dredged over the slab to the thickness of two penny pieces, then if 
you possess a ribbed rolling-pin, use to roll the paste again in cross 
directions, so as to imprint on its whole surface a small lozenge or 
diamond pattern. You now use your tin cutter to stamp out the loz- 
enges ; as you do so place them on sugar powdered baking sheets to 
dry in the screen. 

Ginger Lozenges. — Proceed as in the last; use a tablespoonful of 
essence of ginger, or 1 oz, of ground ginger to flavor, and a few drops 
ot thick wet gamboge to color the paste, Jlorchound Lozenrjcs. lu' 



GEOCEKS AND CONFECTIOXEKS' KECEirXS. 237 

{^edicnts : 1 oz. of gnra dragon soaked in a gill of very strong extract 
of liorehoimd, 1^ lbs of fine icing sugar. Proceed as for the j^eppor- 
luint lozenges. Cinnamon Lozenr/es are prepared in the same 
manner as ginger or peppermint, Avith this difference only; a dessert- 
spoonful of essence of cinnamon is to be used in the flavoring of them, 
a few drops of thick, ground, "wet-burnt umber should be used with a 
pinch of carmine to give the paste the tinge of cinnamon color Clove 
Lozenr/es. The same as peppermint lozenges, using essence of cloves 
lor flavoring, and burnt imiber to color the paste. Orange Jx)zenfjes. 
Ingredients : 1 oz. prepared giim, 1^ lbs. sugar, 2 oz. of orange-sugar, 
the gum to be soaked in 2 oz. of orange flower water. Proceed as for 
pepi)ermint lozenges. Lemon Lozenges. Ingredients : 1 oz. prepared 
gum, 1^ lbs. of icing sugar, 2 oz. of lemon sugar, and a few drops of 
acetic add. Colt's foot Lozenges. Ingredients: 1 oz. of gum dragon 
soaked in 2 oz. of orange flower Avater, 1^ lb. of fine icing sugar, and 
^ oz. of essence of colt's foot. Proceed as for peppermint lozenges. 
Cayenne and Catechu Lozenges. Ingredients: 1 oz. of gum dnigon 
soaked in 2 oz. of water, 2 lbs. fine icing sugar, ^ oz, essence of 
cayenne, and h oz. of prepared catechu. Proceed as for pepj)ermint 
lozenges, 

Gtdi PASTrLi.F.P!, OK JfjjTJBES. — ^Ingredients: 1 lb. of picked gum 
arable, 14 oz. of the finest sugar pounded and sifted, h gill of double 
orange flower water, and 1 i)t. tepid water to soak the gum in, Avhich 
is aftei-wards to be strained off clean. Put the soaked and strained 
gum into a sugar boiler with the sugar, and use a clean spoon to stir 
it over a very moderate fire, while it boils and reduces to the small 
pearl degree; then add the orange flower water, stir all together on 
the fire, remove the preparation from the stove, skim off the froth, 
and use the mixture to cast the jujubes in levelled layers of starch 
powder contained in a flat box. 

SPA>TfSH Licorice Jujubes. — ^Ingredients : 1 lb. picked gum arable, 
14 oz, of sugar, and 2 oz. of Spanish licorice dissolved in a gill of hot 
water, and afterwards strained clean. First prepare the gum and 
boil it with sugar as directed in the preceding article, and when 
reduced by boiling to the small pearl degree, incorporate the prepared 
Spanish licorice with it, remove the scum from the surface, and finish 
the jujubes in the maimer indicated above. Rasphemj Jujubes. 
Ingredients : 1 lb. picked gum arable soaked in 1 pint of hot water 
and afterwards stramed, 14 oz. of sugar, 1 gill of filtered raspberry 
juice, and a few drops of cochineal. Proceed as directed in the 
foregoing case, adding the raspberry and coloring last. Black Cur- 
rant Jujubes. Proceed in all respects as indicated for raspberry 
jujubes, omitting the cochineal, black currant juice being used. Red 
Currant Jujubes. — Tlie same as black currant jujubes, red currant 
juice being used and a few drops of cochineal. Ordinary Jujubes. 
Ingredients : 1 lb. gum arable soaked m 1 i^t. of hot water and after- 
wards strained, 14 oz. sugar, J oz. essence of roses, and a few drops 
of i^repared cochineal. Let the mixture be prepared as for other 
jujubes, but instead of castmg them in impressions made in starch- 
powder, when the preparation is ready, jjour it into a very clean 
smooth tinned baking sheet to the depth of a quarter of an inch, and 
set it to dry in the screen, or hot closet (moderate heat) ; when suffi- 
ciently dried, so that on pressing the surface it proves gomewhat 



238 GROCERS AND COXFECTIOXERS' RECKIFTS. 

elastic to the touch, remove it from the heat, and allow it to become 
cold ; the sheet of jujube may then be easily detached, and is to be 
cut up Avith scissors in the shape of diamonds. 

Stick Apple Sugar. — Boil the sugar to caramel, flavor with apple 
juice together with tartaric or other acid, pour it on a marble slab, 
draw it into sticks, cut them of equal length, then roll them on a slab 
till they are perfectly cold ; when finished, wraxD them in tissue-i:)ai)cr 
and put them in fancy envelopes. 

CuKiiANT AND RASPBERRY PASTE Drops, — Ingredients : 1 lb. of 
pulp (the currants and raspberries in equal proportions boiled, and 
afterwards rubbed through a sieve), 1 lb. of sifted sugar. Stir both 
together in a copper sugar-boiler or i)reserving jDan over a brisk fire, 
until the paste becomes sufficiently reduced to show the bottom of 
the preserving pan as you draw the spoon across it ; then proceed to 
lay out the drops about the size of a florm, using a spouted sugar boiler 
for the purpose. The drops should then be placed in the screen to 
dry, at a low heat for an hour or so. When the drops are dry , use a 
thin knife to remove them from the tin sheet on which you laid them 
out, and put them away between sheets of paper in closed boxes, in a 
dry place. Damson Paste Drops. — ^Ingredients: 1 lb. of damson thick 
pulp, 1 lb. bruised sugar. Stir the xjulp and sugar on the fire until 
reduced to a thick paste, then proceed to lay out the drops on square 
sheets of polished tin ; dry them in the screen (moderate heat), and 
remove them in the manner aforesaid. These drops may be prepared 
with all kinds of plums and also with gooseberries. Pear Paste 
Drops. — Use 1 lb. pear pulp (made by peeling the pears, and boiling 
them to a pulp with ^ \)t. of cider or perry, and rubbing this througli 
a coarse sieve), 1 lb. of bruised sugar. Proceed as for damson 
paste. Apple Paste Drops. — Use 1 lb. of apple pulp (made by peel- 
ing, slicing and boiling the apples with -J pt. cider), 1 lb. of bruised 
sugar. Proceed as in the foregoing cases, adding a few drops of 
cochineal to half of the paste for the sake of variety. Pine Apple 
Paste Drops. — Use 1 lb. of x>ine-apple pulp (made by first pceluig, 
and then grating the pine-apple on a dish, using a clean coarse tin 
grater for the i^urposc), 1 lb. of bruised sugar. Proceed as in the 
former cases. 

Vases, Baskets, Figures, Aisemals, &c., in Gr.mned Sugar. — 
The sugar being boiled to the ball degree, add a few drops of acetic 
acid, and work the sugar with the back part of the bowl of a silver 
tablespoon up against the side of the sugar boiler, fetching up the 
whole in turns, so that every portion may acquire an opalized or 
whitish color. As soon as the sugar has been worked up to this 
state, which constitutes "graining," pour it immediately into tho 
ready prepared mould ; and when it has become i:)erfectly set firm in 
the centre, you may turn the vase, basket, animal, or whatever the 
object may be, out of its mould, and place it in the screen or hot 
closet to dry, at a very moderate heat. Afterwards they may be 
Ijainted in colors to imitate nature. 

EvERTON" Taffy. — To make this favorite and wholesome candy, 
take 1^ pounds of moist sugar, 3 ounces, of butter, a teacup and a 
half of water, and one lemon. Boil tho sugar, butter, water, and 
half the rmd of the lemon together; and, Avhcn done, — which will 
be kno'wn by droppuig into cold water, when it should be quite 



GKOCEKS AXD CO^'^ECTIO^'ERS' KECEIPTS. 239 

crisp, — let it stand aside till the boiling has ceased, and then stir in 
tlic juice of the lemon. Butter a dish, and pour it in about a quarter 
of an inch m thickness. The firo must be quick, and the taffy 
stirred all the time. 

C^VNDY FiiuiT. — Take one pound of the best loaf sugar; dip each 
lump into a bowl of water, and put the sugar into your preserving 
kettle. Boil it doAvn, and skim it until perfectly clear, and in a 
candymg state. AVhen sufficiently boiled, have ready the fruits you 
Avish to preserve. Large white grapes, oranges separated into small 
pieces, or i)reserved fruits, taken out of their syrup and dried, arc 
very nice. Dip the fruits into the prepared sugar while it is hot; put 
them in a cold place; they will soon become hard. 

JelLiIES -without Fkuit. — To 1 pint of water put ^ oz. alum ; boil 
a minute or two ; then add 4 lbs. white sugar; continue the boiling a 
little; strain while hot; and, when cold, put in half a twenty-five 
cent bottle of extract of vanilla, strawberry-, lemon, or any other 
flavor you desire for jelly. 

Pkize IIonev. — Good common sugar, 5 lbs.; water, 2 lbs. bring 
gradually to a boil, skimming when cool; add 1 lb. bees' honey and 4 
drops essence of peppermint. If you desire a better article, use white 
sugar, and ^ lb. less Avater, ^ lb more honey. 

AxoTnER. — Coffee sugar, 10 lbs. ; Avater 3 lbs. ; cream tartar, 2ozs. ; 
strong vinegar, 2 tablespoons; white of an es^g well beaten; bees' 
hone}', ^Ib; Lubin's extract of honeysuclde, 10 drops. Put on the 
sugar aiid Avater in a suitable kettle on the fire ; when lukewarm stir 
in the cream tartar and vinegar; add the egg; when the sugar is 
nearly melted put in the honey, and stir till it comes to a boil; take it 
off, let it stand a few minutes; strahi, then add the extract of honey- 
suckle last; stand OA^er night, and it is ready for use. Another. — 
Common sugar, 4 lbs. ; Avater, 1 pt. ; let them come to a boil, and 
skim. Then add pulverized alum, ^ oz. remove from the fire, and 
stir in cream of tartar, | oz. and water, or extract of rose, 1 table- 
spoonful, and it is fit for use. 

To Keep Fkuits Fiiesh. — ^Rosin 2 lbs, ; tallow, 2 oz. ; bees' -wax, 
2 oz. Melt slowly over the fire m an iron pot, but don't boil. Take 
the fruit separately, and rub it over Avith pulverized chalk or Avhiting 
(to prevent the coating from adliering to the fruit), then dip it into 
the solution once, and hold it up a moment to set the coatmg, then 
pack away carefully in barrels, boxes, or ou shelves, in a cool place. 
Uneqiialled for i)reserving apples, pears, lemons, &c. 

Acid Ditors. — Pound and sift into a clean i)ai\ 8 ozs. of double 
refined sugar, add sloAvly as much water as Aviil render the sugar 
sufficiently moist not to stick to the stirring spoon, jilace the pan 
on a small stoA'e or slow fire, and stir till it nearly boils, remove 
from the fire and stir in ^ oz. tartaric acid. Place it on the fire for 
half a minute, then dip out small quantities from the pan, and let 
it fall in small drops on a clean tin plate; remove the drops in 2 
hours Avith a luiife. Ready for sale in 24 hours. 

Chocolate Cream Candy. — Chocolate scraped fine, ^ oz., thick 
cream, 1 pt., best sugar, 3 ozs., heat it nearly boiling, then remoA^e it 
from the fire and millitAvell; when cold, add the whites of 4 or 5 
eggs; whisk rapidly and take up the froth on a sieve. Serve the 
cream h\ glasses and pile up the froth on top of them. 



240 LEATUER WOrvKEKS', «S:C., KECEirXS. 



TANNERS, CURRIERS, BOOT, SHOE AND RUB- 
BER M'FRS, MARBLE AVORKERS, BOOK- 
BINDERS, &c. 

Best Color for Shoe A^^) II.vrnt.ss Edge. — Alcohol, 1 pint ; 
tincture of iron, 1^ ozs, ; extract logwood, 1 oz. ; pulverized nutgalls, 
1 oz. ; soft water, "^ pint ; sweet oil, ^ oz. ; put this last into the alco- 
hol before adding the water. Notliing can exceed the beautiful finish 
imparted to the leather by this ijreparatiou. 

Cheap Color for the Edge. — Soft water, 1 gallon ; extract 
logwood, 1 oz. ; boil till the extract is dissolved ; remove from the 
fire, add copperas, 2 oz., bichromate of potash, and gum arable, of 
each i oz. , all to be pulverized. 

Beautiful Bronze for Leather. — ^Dissolve a little of the so-call- 
ed insoluble aniline violet in a little water, and brush the solution over 
the leather : after it dries repeat the process. 

Superior Edge Blacking. — Soft water 5 gallons; bring to a boil, 
find add 8 oz. logwood extract, pulverized ; boil 3 minutes, remove 
from the fire, and stir in 2^ oz. gum arable, 1 oz. bichromate of potash, 
iind 80 grains prussiate of potash. 

For a small quantity of this, use water, 2 quarts ; extract of log- 
wood, I oz. ; gum arable, 9G grains ; biclu'omate of potash, 48 grains; 
prussiate of potash ; 8 grains. Boil the extract in the water 2 mmutes ; 
remove from the fire and stir in the others, and it is ready for use. 

For tamiers' surface blacking, which is not required to take on a 
high polish, the gum arable m.ay be omitted. 

Sizing for Boots and Shoes in Treeing Out. — "Water, 1 quart; 
dissolve in it, by heat, isinglass, 1 oz. ; adding more water to replace 
loss by evaporation ; when dissolved, add starch, 6 oz. ; extract 
of logwood, beeswax, and talloAv, of each, 2 oz. Rub the starch up 
first by pouring on sufficieut boiling water for that purpose. It 
makes boots and shoes soft and j)liable, and gives a splendid appear- 
ance to old stock on the shelves. 

Black Varnish for the Edge. — Take 98 per. cent alcohol, 1 
pint ; shellac, 3 oz. ; rosin, 2 oz. ; pine turpentine, 1 oz. : lampblack, ^ 
oz. ; mix : and when the gums are all cut, it is ready for use. This 
preparation makes a most splendid appearance when a]iplied to boot, 
shoe, or harness edge, and is equally applicable to cloth or wood, 
where a gloss is required after being painted. 

Waterproof Varnish for Harness. — ^India-rubber, | lb. ; spts. 
turpentine 1 gal. ; dissolve to a jelly, then take hot linseed oil equal 
parts with the mass, and incorporate them well over a slow fire. 

Blacking for Harness. — Beeswax. ^Ib. ; ivory black, 2 ozs. ; spts. 
of turpentuie, 1 oz. Prussian blue, ground in oil 1 oz. ; copal varnish, 
^oz. ; melt the wax and stir mto it the other ingredients, before tho 
mixture is quite cold ; make it into balls, rub a little upon a brush, 
apply it upon the harness, and polish lightly with silk. 

Best Harness Varnish Extant. — Alcohol, 1 gallon ; white tur- 
pentine, 1^ lbs. ; gum shellac, 1^ lbs. ; Venice turpentine, 1 gill. Let 
them stand by the stove till the gums are dissolved, then add sweet 



LI:ATU£K workers', etc., RECEIl'TS. 241 

oil, 1 gill; nnd color it if yon wisli Trith lampblack, 2 oz. This will 
not crack like the old varnish. 

llAiiNESS OIL. — Neat' s-foot oil, 1 gal. ; lampblack, 4 oz. Mix well. 

Brilliajn-t French Varnish for Leather. — Spirit of wine, ^pint; 
vinegar, 5 pints ; gum Senegal in powder, ^ lb. ; loaf sugar, G oz. ; 
jiowdered galls, 2 oz. ; green copperas, 4 oz. Dissolve the gum and 
Fiigar in the water; strain, and put on a slow fire, but don't boil; now 
]iut in the galls, copperas, and the alcohol; stir well for five minutes; 
K't off; and when nearly cool, strain through flamiel, and bottle for 
ut;e. It is applied with a pencil brush. Most superior. 

Liquid Japan for Leather. — Molasses, 8 lbs. ; lam];)black, 1 lb. ; 
sweet oil, 1 lb. ; gum arabic, 1 lb. ; isinglass, 1 lb. Mix well in 32 lb.'', 
water; apply heat; when cool, add 1 quart alcohol; an ox's gall vdll 
improve it. 

^V■ATER^ROOF OiT.-B LACKING. Campheue, 1 pint; add all the 
India-rubber it will dissolve; curriers' oil, 1 pint; tallow, 7 lbs.; 
lampblack, 2 oz. Mix thoroughly by heat. 

Shoemakers' Heel Balls. — Beeswax, 8 oz.; tallow, loz. ; melt, 
and add powdered gum arabic, 1 oz., and lampblack to color. 

Best Heel Ball. — Melt together beeswax, 2 lbs.; suet, 3 ozs. ; stir 
in ivory black, 4 ozs., lampblack, 3 oz., powdered gum arabic, 2 oz., 
])Owdered rock candy, 2 oz., mix and when partly cold pour into tm 
or leaden moulds. 

Channellers ANT) SHOEMAKERS* Cement. — ^India-rubbcr dis- 
solved to a proper consistence in sulphuric ether. 

Ce:jient FOR Leather or K tJuiiER Soles and Leather Belting. — 
Gutta percha, 1 lb.; India-rubber, 4 oz.; x)itch, 2 oz.; shellac, 1 oz.; 
oil, 2 oz. ; melt, and use hot. 

German Blacking. — Ivory-black, 1 part; molasses, ^part; sweet 
oil, I part; mix, as before; then stir in a mixture of hydrochloric accd, 
^ part; oil of vitriol, ^ part; each separately diluted with twice its 
Aveight of water before mixing them. This forms the ordinary ]«aste 
blacldng of Germany, according to Liebig. 

Oil Paste Blacking. Ivory-black, 4 lbs.; molasses, 2 lbs.; sweet 
oil, 1 lb. ; oil of vitrol 3 lbs. ; mix and put in tins. 

Gold Varnish. — Turmeric, 1 dram ; gamboge, 1 dram ; turpen- 
tine, 2 pints ; shellac, 5 oz. ; sandarach, 5 oz. ; dragon's blood, 8 
drams ; thin mastic varnish, 8 oz. ; digest with occasional agitation 
for fourteen days ; then set aside to fine ; and pour off the clear. 

Grain Black for Harness Leather. — First stain in tallow ; 
then take spirits turpentine, 1 pint ; cream of tartar, 1 oz. ; soda 1 oz. ; 
gum shellac, ^ oz. ; thick paste, reduced thtu, 2 quarts. Mix well. 
This will finish 12 sides. 

Beautiful Stains for Boots, Shoes and Leather Goods. — 
Soft water 1 pt.; oxalic acid, 2 tablespoonfuls or more; if required 
'Stronger, dissolve, and for a red color, add finely pulverized rose-pink, 
vermilion or drop lake. Blue, add finely pulverized Prussian blue, 
or indigo. Yellow, king's yellow, yellow ochre, &c. White, flake 
white. Green, blue and yellow mixed. Orange, red and yellot? 
mixed. Purple, red and blue mixed. Pulverize the ingredients well 
before mixing with the water and acid. Any other shade desired 
can be selected from the " Compound colors" in the next department. 

Bridle Stain. — Skimmed milk, 1 pt. ; spirits of salts, h oz. ; spts. 

16 



242 LEATHER WOKKEKS', &,€., KECEIl'TS. 

of red laYCudcr, ^oz. ; gum araLic, 1 oz. ; and the juice of 2 lemons ; 
mix -well together, and cork for iise ; ajiply Avitli a sponge ; when 
dry, polish -^vith a brush or a piece of flauuel. If wished paler, put 
iu less red lavender. 

Ox RuEBER Goods. — As many parties require to use rubber goods 
who are entirely ignorant of the cheap mixtures which are vended 
ill large quantities, at enormous ju-ofits by mamifacturers, I have 
thought proper iu this place to irradiate the subject witli a little 
"light" for the benefit of those whom "it may concern," and ac- 
cordingly present the formuko for compounding the different mix- 
tures which enter into the comi)ositioii of many articles sold quite 
extensively as pure rubber goods, but which, owing to large adulter- 
ations, ill many cases cost 75 per cent, less than the imces charged 
for them. The first I shall present is for 

Light Buffer Springs. — Grind together clear Java rubber, 25 
lbs. ; Tara rubber, 5 lbs. ; commoii magnesia, 10 lbs. ; pure sulphur, 25 
ozs. This is brown at first, but in a few days turns grey or white, 
and just sinks in water. Springs made from this compound, 4^ x 2j 
X 1, i^ressed to half an inch, showed 3^ tons on the dial. 

Grey Packing for Marine Engines, &c.— Grind together clean- 
ed Java rubber, 5 lbs. ; Para rubber, 25 lbs. ; oxide of zmc, IG lbs. ; 
carbonate of magnesia, G lbs. ; Porcelain or Cornwall clay, 3 lbs. ; red 
lead, 2 lbs. ; pure sulphur, 30 ozs. It may be iiroper to state that 
good imrified Java rubber might be substituted by engineers with 
good effect for I'ara rubber in the above and some other com- 
positions. 

liAG 1*acking for Yatat-s, Bearing Springs, &;c. — This is made 
principally from the useless cuttings in the manufacture of India- 
rubber coats, when the gum is run or spread on calico foundations. 
Proportions as follows : grind together useless scraps, 35 lbs. ; black- 
lead 18 lbs. ; Java guxi, IG lbs. ; yellow sulphur, 1 lb. 

CO.ALPOSITION FOR SUCTION HOSE FOR PiRE ENGTN'ES, &C. — 

Grind together Java rubber, 20 lbs, ; Para do. 10 lbs. ; white lead, 11 
lbs. ; red lead, 14 lbs. ; yellow sulphur, I5 lbs. This is spread upon flax 
cloth, which weighs 10, IG, and 32 ozs. to the square yard. 

CoiEMON Black Packing. — Grind together, Java rubber, 15 lbs. ; 
Para do., 15 lbs. ; oxide of zinc, 15 lbs.; China or Cornwall clay, 15 
lbs. ; yellow sulphur, 28 ozs. 

Co>moN White Buffer Rings, &:c. — Grind together Java rub- 
ber, 30 lbs.; oxide of zinc, 18 lbs. carbonate of magnesia, G lbs.; 
clean chalk or whiting, G lbs. ; flour" of sulphur, 2 lbs. 

Vulcanite, or Ebonite. — If the amount of sulphur added to tho 
prepared rubber amounts to 10 per cent, and the operations of vul- 
canizing is performed in close vessels, at a temperature exceeduig 
300, or" tho heat required for Vulcanizing India-Rubber as de- 
cribed under that head, which see, an article will be produced known 
as vidcanite, or ebonite. It is a black, hard, elastic substance, re- 
sembling horn in its texture and appearance, and capable of taking a 
very high polish. It is of great use ui the arts, and is largely man- 
ufactured for making combs, door handles, and hundreds of articles 
liitherto made in ivory or bone. Its electrical properties also are 
verv great. 

Best Pure Spring, oii Wasizeks.— Grind together Para gum, CO 



LEATUKll AVOKKEKS', »S:C., J^ECEIl'TS. 243 

jbs. ; oxide of zinc, 5 lbs. ; carb. magnesia, 2 lbs. ; comnion cliaUi:, 3 
lbs. ; rorcelain or Cornwall clay, 2 lbs.; pure sulphur, 30 oz. 

Companion Quality to above. — Para rubber, 30 lbs.; oxide of 
zinc, 5 lbs. ; Porcelain or Cornwall clay, 5 lbs. ; pure sulphur, 32 oz. 

"llYTo" Cloth fok Waterproof Coats. — Grind together clean 
Java gum, 30 lbs. ; lampblack, 5 lbs. ; dry chalk or whiting, 11 lbs. ; 
sulphuret of lead, 5 lbs. This comjiosition is applied to waterproof 
garments. 

To VLTiCANizE India Rubiber. — The vulcanizing process patent- 
ed by the late Charles Goodyear consists in incorporating with the 
rubber from 3 to 10 per cent, of sulphur, together with various me- 
tallic oxides, chiefly lead and zinc, the quantity of the latter articles 
being regulated by the degree of elasticity &c.; required in the desired 
article. The goods of one large establishment are vulcanized in 
eylmdrical wrought iron steam heaters, over 50 feet long and from 
5 to 6 feet in diameter. These heaters have doors opening on hinges 
at one end, and through these doors the goods to be vulcanized are 
introduced on a sort of railway carriage, then, after the door is shut, 
steam is let on, and a temperature of from 250° to 300° of heat is 
kept up for several hours, the degree of heat being ascertained by 
means of thermometers attached to the heaters. The value, solidity, 
and quahty of the goods is much increased by keeping the articles 
miderthe pressure of metalic moulds or sheets while undergoing this 
process. The whole process requires careful manipulation and great 
experience to conduct it properly. 

To Deodorize Rubber. — Cover the articles of rubber with char- 
coal dust, place them in an enclosed vessel, and raise the tempera- 
ture to 94° Fahr., and let it remain thus for several hours, llemove 
and clean the articles from the charcoal dust, and they will be found 
free from all odor. 

Gutta-Percha and Rubber Waste. — The waste is cut into 
small pieces, and 100 lbs. of the same are placed in a well-closed 
boiler with 10 lbs. of bisulphide of carbon and 4 ozs. absolute al- 
cohol, well stirred; then the boiler is closed, and left a few hours to 
soak. After this time it is found to be changed into a soft douglx 
mass, which, after being ground or kneaded, is fit to be formed into 
any shape, Avhen the solvent will evaporate. If too much of the 
latter has been used, a thick immanageable liquid is obtamed. 

To Utilize Leather Scraps. — First clean the scraps, then soak 
them in water contjiining 1 per cent, of sulphuric acid until the 
material becomes soft and plastic, then compress into blocks and dry 
by steam. In order to soften the blocks, 1 lb. of glycerine is added 
to 100 lbs. of the material; they are then passed through rollers, 
and brought to the proper thickness to be used as inner soles of boots 
and shoes. 

Deer Skins. — Tanning and Buffing for Gloves. — For each 
skin, take a bucket of water, and put it into 1 qt. of lime ; let the 
Bkin or skins lie in from 3 to 4 days ; then ruise in clean water hair, 
and grain ; then soak them in cold water to get out the glue ; now 
scour or pound in good soap-suds for half an hour ; after which take 
white vitriol, alum, and salt, 1 tablespoonf ul of each to a skin ; these 
will be dissolved in sufficient water to cover the skin, and remain in it 
for 24 hours ; wring out as dry as conveuicut, and spread oa with a 



244 LEATHER TTORKERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 

brush ^ piiit of curriers' oil, and hanj? in the sun about 2 days ; after 
which you will scour out the oil with soap-suds, and luuig out again 
until perfectly dry ; then pull and work them until they are soft ; 
and if a reasonable time does not make them soft, scour out in suds 
again as before, until complete. The oil may be saved by pouring or 
takmg it from the top of the suds, if left standing a short time. 
The buff color is given by spreading yellow ochre evenly over the 
surface of the skin when finished, rubbing it well with a brush. 

TAiofiNG WITH Acid. — After having removed the hair, scouring, 
soaking and pomidingin the suds, &c., as in the last recipe, in place 
of the white vitriol, alum, and salt as there mentioned, take oil of 
vitriol (sulphuric acid), and water, equal parts of each, and thoroughly 
wet the flesh-side of the skin with it, by means of a sponge or cloth 
upon a stick ; then folding np the skin, lettmg it stand for 20 mmutes 
only, having ready a solution of sal-soda and water, say 1 lb. to a 
bucket of water, and soak the skin or skins m that for two hours, 
when you will wash in clean water, and apply a little dry salt, letting 
lie in the salt over night, or that length of time ; then remove the 
flesh with a blunt knife, or, if doing business on a large scale, by 
means of the regular beam and flesh-knife ; when dry, or nearly so, 
soften by pulling and rubbing with the hands, and also with a piece, 
of pumice-stone. This of course is the quickest way of tanumg, 
and by only wettuig the skins with the acid, and soaking out in 20 
muiutes, they are not rotted. 

Another Method.— Oil of vitriol, ^ oz. ; salt, 1 teacup ; millc 
sufficient to handsomely cover the skin, not exceeding 3 qts. ; warm 
the milk, then add the salt and vitriol ; stir the sldn in the liquid 40 
minutes, keeping it warm ; then dry, and work it as directed iii 
the above. 

Canadian Process. — The Canadians make four liquors in using 
the japonica. The first liquor is made by dissolving, for 20 sides of 
upper, 15 lbs. of terra japonica in sufficient wa.ter to cover the upper 
behig tanned. The second liquor contains the same amount of ja- 
ponica, and 8 lbs. of saltpetre also. The third contains 20 lbs. of ja- 
ponica and 4^ lbs. of alum. The fourth liquor contams only 15 lbs. 
of japonica, and 1| lbs. of sulphuric acid ; and the leather remams 4 
days in each liquor for upper ; and for sole the quantities and time 
are both doubled. They count 50 calf -skins in place of 20 sides of 
upper, but let them lie in each liquor only 3 days. 

To Tan Fctr Skins, &c. — To remove the legs and useless parts, 
soak the skin soft, and then remove the fleshy substances, and soak 
it in warm water 1 hour. Now take for each skin, borax, saltpetre, 
and Glauber-salt, of each | oz., and dissolve or wet with soft water 
sufficient to allow it to be spread on the flesh-side of the skin. Put 
it on with a brush thickest in the centre or tliicliest part of the skin, 
and double the skin together, flesh side in ; keeping it in a cool place 
for 24 hours, not allowing it to freeze. Then wash the skhi clean, 
and take sal-soda 1 oz. ; borax ^ oz, ; refined soap 2 oz. ; melt them 
slowly together, bemg careful not to allow them to boil, and apply 
the mixture to the flesh side at first. Boil up again and keep in a 
warm place for 24 hours ; then wash the skin clean again, as above, 
and have saleratus 2 oz., dissolved in hot rain water sufficient to well 
saturate the skin; take alum 4 oz, ; salt 8 oz, ; and dissolve also in hot 



LEATUEK WORKEES*, &C., KECEIPTS. 245 

rain •water ; -when sufficiently cool to allow tlic handling of it with- 
out scalding, put in the skin lor 12 hours ; then wring out the water 
and hang up lor 12 hours more to dry. Repeat this last soaking and 
drying 2 or 3 tunes, according to the desired softness of the skin when 
finished. Lastly finish, by pulling and workmg, and finallj"- hy ruh- 
hing with a i)iece of pumice-stone and fine sand-paper. This works 
Jike a charm on sheep-skuis, fur skins, dog, wolf, bear-skins; &c. 

Process of Taxxixo C-^vlf, Kip, axd Harness Leather in 
FROM G TO 30 Days. — For a 12-lb calf-skhi, take 3 lbs. of terra ja- 
ponica, common salt, 2 lbs. ; alum, 1 lb. ; i)ut them in a copper kettle 
with sufficient water to dissolve the whole without boiling. The skin 
will be limed, haired, and treated every way as for the old process, 
when it will be put uito a vessel with water to cover it, at which time 
you will put in 1 pint of the composition, stirruig it well, addmg tlio 
same night and morning for three days, when you will add the whole, 
handling 2 or 3 times daily all the time tanning ; j'ou can continue 
to use tlie tanning liquid by adding half the quantity each time, by 
keeping these proportions for any amount. If you desire to give a 
dark color to the Icatlier, you will put in 1 lb. of Sicily sumac ; kip 
skuis will require about 20 days, light horse hides for harness 30 days, 
calf-skins from G to 10 days at most. 

To Tan Raw Hide. — ^AVhen taken from the animal, spread it flesh 
side up ; then put 2 j)arts of salt, 2 parts of saltpetre and alum com- 
bined, make it fine, sprinkle it evenly over the surface, roll it up, let 
it alone a few days till dissolved ; then take off what flesh remains, 
and nail the skin to the side of a bam in the sun, stretch tight, to 
make it soft lilie liarness leather, put neat's-foot oil on it, fasten it up 
in the sun again; then rub out all the oil you can with a wedge- 
shaped stick, and it is tamied with the hair on. 

To Tax LIuskrat Skins avith the Fur on. — First, for soaking, 
to 10 gals, cold soft water, add 8 parts of wheat bran, old soap, ^ pt ; 
pulverized borax, 1 oz. ; sulphuric acid, 2 ozs. If the skins have not 
been salted, add ^alt, 1 pt. Green skuis should not be soaked more 
than 8 to 10 hours. Dry ones should soak till very soft. The sul- 
l)huric acid hastens the soaking process. For tan liquor, to 10 gals, 
warm soft water, add bran, ^ bushel; stir well, and let it ferment in a 
warm room. Then add slowly, sulphuric acid, 2^ lbs. ; stir all the 
time. Musk rat skins should remain in about 4 hours; then take out 
and rub with a fleshing knife ; an old chopping knife with the edge 
taken off will do. Then work it over a beam until entirely dry. 

To DvTE Furs. — Any dye that will color wool will also color furs, 
and an immense number of such dyes can be found under the dyers 
department. In buymg furs, examine the density and length of the 
down next the skin, this can easUy be done by blowing briskly against 
the set of the fur, if it is very close and dense it is all right, but if it 
opens easily and exposes much of the skin, reject it. 

French Finish for Leather. — Take a common wooden pailful of 
scraps (the legs and pates of calf-skins are best), and put a handful 
each of salt and alum upon them, and let stand three days ; then boil 
until they get a thick paste ; in using, you will warm it, and in the 
first application put a little tallow with it, and for a second time a 
little soft soap, and use it in the regular way of finishing, and your 
leather will be soft and pliable, like French leather, 



246 LEATUEK AVOllKEliS', AC, IIECEIPTS. 

French Patent Leather. — Work into the skin with appropriato 
tools 3 or 4 successive coatings of drying varnisli, made by boiling 
linseed oil Mitli Avhite lead and litharge, in the proportion of one 
pound of each of the latter to one gallon of the former, and adding a 
portion of chalk or ochre, each coating being thoroughly dried before 
the application of the next. Ivory black is then substituted for the 
chalk or ochre, the varnish tliiuned with spirits of turi^entine, and 
five additional applications made in the same manner as before, except 
that it is put on thin and not Avorked in. The leather is rubbed down 
with pumice-stone, in powder, and then placed in a room at 90 degrees, 
out of the Avay of dust. The last varnish is prepared by boiling i lb. 
asphaltum with 10 lbs. of the drying oil used in the first stage of the 
process, and then stirring in 5 lbs. copal varnish and 10 lbs. of turpen- 
tine. It must have 1 mouth's age before using it. 

CiiE.\j» Tanning without Bark or Mineral Astringents. — The 
astringent liquor is composed of water, 17 gals. ; Aleppo galls. ^ lb. ; 
Bengal catechu, l^oz. and 5 lbs. of tormentil, or septfoil root. Powder 
the ingredients, and boil in the water 1 hour ; when cool, put in the 
skins (which must be prepared by being plunged into a preparation of 
bran and water for 2 days previously) ; handle them frequently during 
the first 3 days, let them alone the next 3 days, then handle three or 
four times in one day ; let them lie undisturbed for 25 days more, 
when the process will be comi^lete. 

New Tanning Composition. — For harness leather, 4 lbs. catechu, 
8 pts. common ley, 3 oz. of alum. For icax leather (split leather), 3 
lbs. catechu, 3 jjts. common ley, 3 oz. alum. For calfskins 2 lbs. 
catechu, 1 pt. ley. For sheep-skim, 1 lb. catechu, Ipt. ley, 1 oz. alum. 
The catechu by itself Avill make the leather hard and brittle, the ley 
will soften it; the alum being only used for coloring, can be dispensed 
with, or other matter used in its place. The mixture is in eveiy 
case boiled, and the leather is then immersed in it long enougii to 
be thoroughly tanned, for which purpose the harness leather should 
be steeped from 18 to 20 days, wax leather from 12 to 14 days, calf- 
skins from 7 to 9 days, and sheep-skins from 2 to 4 days. 

French Polish or Dressing for Leather. — Mix 2 pts. best 
vinegar, Avith 1 pt. soft Avater; stir into it i lb. glue, broken up, i lb, 
logAA'ood-chips, I oz. of finely powdered indigo, ^ oz. of the best "soft 
soap, ^ oz. of isinglass; put the mixture over the fire, and let it boil 
ten minutes or more ; then strain, bottle, and cork. ^Vheu cold, it is 
fit for use. Apply with a sponge. 

Tanning. — ^The first operation is to soak the hide, as no hide can 
be properly tanned unless it has been soaked and broken on a fleshing 
beam. If the hide has not been salted add a little salt and soak it iii 
soft water. In order to be thoroughly soaked, green hides should 
remain in the liquor from 9 to 12 days; of course the time A'aries Avitli 
the thiclmess of the hide. The folloAving liquor is used to remove 
hair, or wool, viz. : 10 gals, cold water (soft); 8 qts. slacked lime, and 
the same quantity of wood ashes, Soak until the hair or wool Avill 
pull off easily. As it frequently happens it is desirable to cure the 
liide and keep the hair clean, the following paste should be made, 
A'iz: equal parts of lime and hard wood ashes (lime should be slaked) 
and made into a paste with soft Avater. This should be spread on tlie 
llesli side of the liide and the skia rolled up flesh side in and placed 



LEATUEll workers', &C., KECEirXS. 2-17 

i:i a tub just covering it with'water. It should remain 10 dayp or 
r.ntil the hair will pidl out easily, theu scrape with a knife. The 
^jkins of animals are composed mainly of glue or gluten. This is soluble, 
;uul the principle derived from the bark, ttinnin or tannic acid is also 
to a considerable extent soluble; when the latter is allowed to act 
upon the former, chemical combmationtiikes place, aud leather is iwo- 
duccd, which is insoluble. 

CuKUiEKs' Size. — Take of sizing, Iqt. ; soft soap, 1 gill; stuffing, 
1 gill ; sweet milk, h pt. ; boil the sizing in water to a proper consistence, 
f train, aud add tlie other ingredients; aud when thoroughly mixed, it 
is i^ady for use. 

Curriers' Vastf..— First Coa^— Take of water, 2 qts. ; flour, ^ 
]iint; Castile soap, 1 oz. ; malce into paste. Second Coat. — Take of 
iirst paste, h pt. ; gumtragacantli, 1 gill; water, Ipt. ; mix all together. 
This will finish 18 sides of upper. 

Curriers' Skirxing. — This is for finishing skirting and the flesh 
of harness leather, in imitation of oak tiiuuing. Take of chrome 
yellow, ^ llj. ; yellow ochre, 1 lb. ; cream of tiutar, 1 oz. ; soda, ^ 
oz. ; paste 5 qts. ; mix well. This will finish twelve sides. 

Skirting. — For the grain to imitate oak taii. Take of chrome 
yellow, h lb. ; yellow ochre, ^ lb. ; cream of tartar 1 oz. ; soda, 1 
bz. ; paste 2 qts. ; spirits of turpentine, 1 lA. ; mix well. This 
will finish twelve sides. 

Dyes for Morocco axd Sheep Leather. — (Bhie.) — Blue ir? 
given by steeping the subject a day in urine and indigo, then boiling it 
Avith alum ; or, it may be given by tempering the indigo, with red 
wine, and washing the skin therewith. — Another. — Boil elderberries or 
dwarf -elder, then smear and wash the skins therewith and wring them 
out ; then boil the elderberries as before in a solution of alum Avater, 
and wet the skms in the same manner once or twice, dry them, and 
they will be very blue. — (.Red.) — Red is given by Avashing the skin aud 
laying them 2 hours in gall, then wringing them out, dipping theui 
in a liquor made Avitli ligustrum, alum, and A^erdigris, in Avatcr, and 
lastly in the dye made of Brazilwood boiled with ley. (Purple. ) — Pur- 
ple is given by Avetting the skins Avith a solution of roclie alum in 
Avarm Avater, and Avhen dry, again rubbing them with the hand Avith a 
decoction of logwood in cold Avater. (Green.) — Green is given by 
smearing the skin AA'ith sap-green and alum boiled. (Dark Green.) — 
Dark green is given with steel-filings and sal-ammoniac, steeped in 
wine till soft, then smeared OA-er the skin, which is to be dried in the 
shade. ( Yelloxo. ) — ^Yellow is given by smearing the skin over Avith aloes 
and linseed-oil dissolved and strained, or by infusing in Aveld. {Light 
Oranr/e.) — Orange color is given by smearing it Avith fustic berries 
boiled in alum AA^ater, or for deep orange, Avith turmeric. (Sky-color. ) 
Sky-color is given with indigo steeped in boiling Avater, and the next 
morning warmed and smeared OA'er the skin. See Dyers' Department. 

To Marble Books or Paper. — Provide a wooden trough 2 inches 
deep and the length and Avidth of any desired sheet ; boil in a brass 
or copper pan any quantity of linseed and water until a thick mucil- 
age is formed ; strain it into the trough, and let cool ; then grind on a 
marble slab any of the following colors in small beer. For Bine. — 
Prussian blue or indigo. Red. — Rose-pink, vermilion, or drop lake. 
YeUoic. — King's yoUoAV, yellow ochre, &c, ir/i(7<?,— Flako Avhito. 



248 LEATHER WORKERS*, &C., RECEIPTS. 

Blacl-. — burnt ivory or lamb black. Broicn. — Umber, burnt do, ; 
terra di sienna, burnt do. Black, mixed with yellow or red, also 
makes brown. Green. — Blue and yellow mixed. Oranr/c— Red and 
yellow mixed. Purple. — Red and blue mixed. For each color you 
must have two cups, one for the color after grinding, the other to mix 
it with ox-gall, which must be used to thin the colors at discretion. 
If too much gall is used, the colors will spread ; when they keep their 
place on the surface of the trough, when moved with a quill, they aro 
fit for use. All things in readiness, the colors are successively 
sprinkled on the surface of the mucilage in the trough with a brush, 
and are waved or drawn about with a quill or a stick, according to 
taste. When the design is just formed, the book, tied tightly between 
cutting boards of the same size is lightly pressed with its edge on the 
surface of the liquid pattern, and then withdrawn and dried. The 
covers may be marbled in the same way only letting the liquid colors 
run over them. In marbling paper the sides of the paper is gently 
applied to the colors in the trough. The Aim of color in the trough 
may be as thin as possible, and if any remams after the marbling it 
may be taken off by applying paper to it before you prepare for 
marbling agam. To diversify the effects, colors are often mixed with 
a little sweet oil before sprinlding them on, by which means a light 
Lalo or circle appears around each spot. 

Bookbinders' Varxish. — Shellac, 8 parts ; gum benzoin, 3 
parts ; gum mastic, 2 parts ; bruise, and digest in alcohol, 48 parts ; 
oil of lavender, ^ part. Or, digest shellac, 4 parts ; gum mastic, 
2 parts; gum dammer and white turpentine, of each, 1 part; with 
alcohol (95 per cent.), 28 parts. 

Red Spkinkle for Booicbikders' Use. — Brazilwood (ground), 4 
parts; alum, 1 part; vinegar, 4 parts; water, 4 parts. Boil until 
reduced to 7 parts, then add a quantity of loaf sugar and gum ; bot- 
tle for use. Blue. — Strong sulphuric acid, 8 oz. ; Spanish indigo, 
powdered, 2 oz. ; mix in a bottle that will hold a quart, and place it in 
a warm bath to promote solution. For use, dilute a little to the 
required color in a tea-cup. Black. — No better black can be procured 
than that made by tlie receipt for edge blackmg, hi this work, ichich 
see. Orange color. — Groimd Brazilwood, IG parts ; annatto, 4 parts, 
alum, sugar, and gum arable, each 1 part; water, 70 parts, boil, strain, 
and bottle. Pui^jle. — Logwood chips ; 4 parts, powdered alum, 1 part ; 
soft water, 24 parts ; boil until reduced to IG parts, and bottle for use. 
Green. — French berries, 1 part; soft water, 8 parts. Boil, and add a 
little powdered alum, then bring it to the required shade of green, by 
adding liquid blue. Broivn. — Logwood chips, 1 iiart; amiatto, 1 part, 
boil in water, G parts; if too light add a piece of copperas the size 
of a pea. 

Tree-Marble. — ^A marble in the form of trees may be done by 
bcndmg the boards a little on the centre, usmg the same method as 
the common marble, having the covers previously prepared. The end 
of a candle may be rubbed on different parts of the board to form 
knots. lUce-Marhle. — Color the cover with spirits of wine and tur- 
meric, then place on rice in a regular manner, throw on a very fine 
pprinkle of copperas water till the cover is nearly black, and let it re- 
jnain till dry. The cover may be spotted witli the red liquid or 
potiish-watcr, very freely, before tlio rico is thrown off the boards. 



LEATHER -WOEKEKS', &C., KECEITTS."' 249 

Spotted Marble for BooTcs^ etc. — After the fore-cdjjo of the book is cut, 
let it remain in the press, Riid tlirow on linseeds in a regular manner, 
tprinkle tlic edge with any dark color till the paper is covered, then 
Bliake oil the seeds. Varions colors may he used ; the edge may ho 
colored Avitli yellow or red before throwing on the seeds, and sprink- 
ling witli blue. Tlie seeds will make a fine fancy edge when placed 
very thick on different parts, with a few slightly thrown on the spaces 
between. Japan Culorinr/ for Leather Book-covers, etc. — After tho 
book is covered and dry, color the cover with potash-water mixed 
Avith a little paste: give 2 good coats of Brazil wash, and glaze it; put 
the book between the hands, allowing the boards to slope a little; 
dash on copperas-water, then Avith a sponge full of red liquid press 
out on the back and on different parts large drops, which will run 
down each board and make a fine shaded red ; when the cover is dry, 
wash it over 2 or 3 times with Brazil wash to give it a brighter 
color. {See the various dyes for leather.) 

Gold SprestvLE fok Books. — Put in a marble mortar ^ oz. pure 
honey and one book of gold leaf, rub them Avell together until they 
are very fine, add ^ pint clear water, and mix well together; when the 
water clears, pour it off, and put in more till the honey is all extracted, 
and nothing remains but the gold ; mix one grain of corrosive sub- 
limate in a teaspoonf ul of spirits of wine, and when dissolved, put the 
same, together Avith a little gum water, to the gold, and bottle for use. 
The edges of the book may be sprhikled or colored very dark, Avith 
green, blue, or purple, and lastly with the gold liquid in small or 
large spots, very regular, shaking the bottle before using. Burnish 
the edges when dry, and cover tliem Avith paper to prevent the dust 
falling thereon. This sprinkle Avill have a most beautiful appearance 
on extra work. 

To Gild the Edges of Books. — Armenian bole, 4 parts; sugar can- 
dy, 1 part; Avhite of e^^;, to mix. Apply this composition to the edge 
of the leaves, previously firmly scrcAved in the cutting-press ; when 
nearly dry, smooth the surface with the burnisher; then talce a 
damp sponge and pass over it, and A\'ith a piece of cotton avooI, take 
the leaf from the cushion and apply it to the work ; Avhen quite dry, 
burnish, observing to place a piece of silver or India paper between 
the gold and the agate. 

Chtntese Edge fob Books. — Color the edge with light liquid blue 
and dry; then take a sponge charged with vermilion and dab on spots 
according to fancy ; next throAV on rice, and finish the edge with dark 
liquid blue. 

To >iake Paper c^to PARCH]^IE^T. — ^To produce this transforma- 
tion, take unsized paper and plunge it into a solution of tAvo parts of 
concentrated sulphuric acid combined with 1 part Avater; withdraAV 
it immediately, and yrdi&h. it in clean water, and the change is com- 
plete. It is now fit for wrriting; for the acid supplies the want of size, 
and it becomes so strong that a strip 2 or 3 inches Avide will bear 
from GO to 80 lbs. weight, while a like strap of parchment will bear 
only about 25 lbs. 

To Mai^ttfacture Glue. — Tliis article is usually made from tho 
parings and waste pieces of hides and skins, the refuse of tanneries, 
the tendons and other offal of slaughter houses. They ought to be 
obtained and kept iu the dry gtate, to lireveut decomposition. Fur 



2o0 LUATIIEK AVOKKEKS', »tC., KECEirXS. 

use, they arc first steeped for 14 or 15 days in milk of lime, and then 
drained and dried ; tliis constitutes tlie cl'cauiug or tlic i)reparation. 
]Jefore conversion into glue they arc usually steeped in -weak milk of 
lime, Avell worked in water, and exposed to the air for 2i hours. 
They are then placed in a copper boiler § filled with water and fur- 
nished with a perforated false bottom, to prevent them from burning, 
and as much is piled on as will fill the vessel and rest on the top of 
it. Ileat is next applied, and gentle boiling continued until the 
liquor on cooling becomes a gelatinous mass. The clear portion is 
then run off into another vessel, where it is Icepthot by a water bath, 
and all around to repose for some hours to deposit, when it is run into 
the congealing boxes and placed in a cool situation. The next morn- 
ing the cold gelatinous mass is turned out upon boards wetted with 
Avater, and are cut horizontally in thin cakes with a stretched piece of 
brass wire, and into smaller cakes with a moistened flat knife. These 
cakes are placed upon nettings to drjj-, after which they are dipped 
one by one in hot water and slightly rubbed with a brusli wetted 
Avith boiling water, to give them a gloss ; they are lastly stove dried 
for sale. During this time the undissolved skms, &c., left in the cop- 
l)er is treated with Avater and the Avhole operation is repeated again 
and again, as any gelatmous matter is extracted. The first rumiijigs 
liroduce the finest and best glue. The refuse matter from the tan- 
ners and leather dressers yields on the average, when dried, 50 i^er 
cent of its weight in glue. 

To DrE LEATHEit Yellow.— Picric acid gives a good yellow 
Avithout any mordant ; it must be used in very dilute solution, and 
not warmer than 70° Tahr., so as not to penetrate the leatho 

Gkeen Dye for Leather. — Aniline blue modifies picric acid to 
a fine green. In dyeing the leather, the temjierature of 85° Fahr., 
must ncA'er be exceeded. See Aniline Dyes in Dyers' Dcp't. 

Dyes for Ivory, IIorx, and Jios-E.— Black. — 1. Lay the articles 
for several hours in a strong solution of nitrate of silver, and exjiosc 
to the light. 2. Boil the article for some time in a strained , decoction 
of logwood, and then steep in a solution of per-sulphate or acetate of 
iron. 3. Immerse frequently in ink until of sufficient depth of color. 
Blue. —1. Immerse for some dilute solution of sulphate of indigo, partly 
saturated Avith potash, and it will be fully stained. 2. Steep in a 
strong solution of sulphate of copper. Green. — 1. Dip blue-stained 
articles -for a short time in a nitro-hj'drochlorate of tin, and then in a 
hot decoction of fustic. 2. Boil in a solution of A'crdigris in vmegar 
imtil the desired color is obtained. Red. — 1. Dip the article first in a tin 
mordant used in dyeing, and then plunge in a hot decoction of Brazil 
Avood — \ lb. to a gallon of water or — cochineal. 2. Steep in red inlc 
till sufficiently stained. Scarlet. — Use lack dye instead of the pre- 
ceding. Violet. — Dip in the tin mordant, and then immerse in a decoc- 
tion of logwood. Yelloio. — Boil the articles in a solution of alum, 1 lb. 
to i a gaUon, then immerse for half an hour in the following mixure : 
Take \ lb. of turmeric, and ^ lb. pearlash; boil in 1 gal. water: when 
talcenlrom this, the bone must be agam dipped in the alum solution. 

Mother of Pearl Work. — This delicate substance requires great 
care in its workmanship, but it may be cut with the aid of saws, files 
and drills, with the aid of muriatic or sulphuric acid, and it is polished 
by colcothar, or the brotvn red oxide of iron left after the distillation 



LEAXnER workers', &C., RECEIPTS. 251 

of the acid from sulphate of iron.. In all oniameiital "svork, -where 
pearl is said to bo used, for flat surfaces, such as iulayiug, mosaic 
Avork, &c., it is not real pearl, but mother of pearl that is used. 

To Polish Pearl. — Take finely pulverized rotten stone and make 
into a thick paste by adding olive oil ; then add sulphuric acid a 
sufficient quantity to make into a thui paste, apply on a velvet cork ; 
rub quickly and, as soon as the pearl takes the polish, wash it. 

To Polish Ivory. — Remove any scratches or file marks that may 
be present -with finely pulverized pumice-stone, moistened -svitli 
Avater. — Tlien wash the ivory and polish with prepared chalk, applied 
moist upon a piece of chamois leather, rubbing quickly. 

Etching Fluid for Ivory, — Take dilute sulphuric acid, dilute 
nmriatic acid, equal ]iarts : mix. For etching varnish take white wax, 
2 parts ; tears of mastic, 2 parts : mix. 

To gild Ivory. — Immerse it in a solution of nitro-muriate of gold, 
and then expose it to hydrogen gas while damp. Wash it afterwards 
ill clean water. 

To Silvkr Ivory. — Pound a small piece of nitrate of silver in a 
mortar, add soft water to it, mLx them well together, and keep in vial 
for use. When you wish to silver any article, immerse it in this 
solution, let it remain till it turns of a deep yellow ; then place it in 
cleiir water, and expose it to the rays of the sun. If you wish to 
depicture a figure, name, or cipher, on your ivory, dip a camel' s-hair 
pencil in the solution, and draw the subject on the ivory. After it has 
turned a deep yellow, wash it well with water, and place it in the 
sunshine, occasionally wetting it with pure water. In a short time it 
will tuni of a deep black color, wliich, if well rubbed, will change to 
a brilliant silver. 

To Soften Ivory. — ^In 3 oz. spirits of nitre and 15 oz. of spring- 
water, mixed together, put your ivory to soak ; and in three or four 
days it will obey j'our fingers. 

To AVhiten Ivory. — Slake some lime in water ; put your ivors'- in 
the Avater, after being decanted from the grounds, and boil it till it 
looks quite white. To polish it afterwards, set it in the turner's wheel ; 
and, after having worked, take rushes and pumice-stones, subtile 
]iowder, with water, rub it till it looks perfectly smooth. Next to 
that, heat it by turning it against a piece of linen or sheep-skin leather : 
and when hot, rub it over Avith a little dry whiting diluted in oil of 
olive ; then with a little dry Avhiting alone : finally with a piece of 
soft Avhite rag. When all this is performed as directed, the ivory Avill 
look very white. 

Another avay to Bleach Ia^ort. — Take 2 handfuls of lime, slake 
it by sprinkling it Avith Avater : then add 3 pts. of water, and stir the 
Avhole together ; let it settle ten minutes, and pour the water into a 
pan for your purpose. Then take your iA'ory and steep it in the lime- 
Avater for 24 hours, after Avhich, boil it in a strong alum-Avater 1 hour, 
and dry it in the air. 

Horn in Imitation of Tortoise-Shell. — First steam and then 
press the horn into proper shapes, and afterwards lay the following 
mixture on with a small brush, in imitation of the mottle of tortoise- 
shell ; Take equal parts of quick lime and litharge, and mix with 
strong soap-lees ; let this remain until it is thoroughly dry ; brush off, 
and repeat two or three times if necessary. Such parts as are required 



252 LEATUEK "SYOKKERS*, JcC, RECEirTS. 

to bo of a rcddisli brown sliould be covered vrith a mixture of wliituig 
aud the stain. 

To CUT AND POLISH IMarble. — Tlic marblo saw is a tliin plate of 
6oIt iron, coutinuall}^ supplied, during it3 sawing motion, Avith water 
and the sharpest sand. Tlie sawing of moderate pieces is performed 
by liand : tliat of large slabs is most economically done by a proj^er 
mill. The first substance used in the ijolishiug process is the shari^est 
Hand, which must be worked witli tiU the surface becomes perfectly 
ilat. Then a second aud even a third sand, of increasing fineness, is 
to be applied. The next substance is emery, of progressive decrees 
of fineness ; after which, tripoli is employed ; and the last polish is 
given with tin putty. The body with which the sand is rubbed upon 
the marble is usually a plate of iron ; but, for the subsequent process, 
a plate of lead is used, with fine sand and emery. The iiolishing- 
rubbers are coarse linen cloths, or bagging, wedged tight into an iron 
planing tool. In every step of the operation, a constant trickling 
supply of Avater is required. 

Powerful Cemext for Broken Marble. — Take gum arable, 1 
lb. ; make into a thick mucilage: add to it powdered plaster of I'aris, 
I2 lb. ; sifted quick lime, 5 oz, ; mix well ; heat the marble, and ap- 
ply the mixture. 

Seven Colors For Staining Marble. — ^It is necessary to heat 
the marble hot, but not so hot as to injure it, the proper heat being that 
at which the colors nearly boil. Blue ; alkaline indigo dye, or turn- 
sole with alkali. Red ; Dragon's blood in spirits of wine. Yelloio ; 
gamboge in spirits of whie. Gold Color ; sal-ammoniac, sulphate of 
zinc, and verdigris equal parts. Green ; sap green in spirits of pot- 
iish. Broion; tincture of logwood. Crimson; alkanet root in tur- 
pentine. IMarble may be veined according to taste. To stain marble 
icell is a difficult oi)eratio7i. 

Perpetual Ink for Tomstones, etc. — ^Pitch, 11 lbs. ; lampblack, 
1 lb. ; turpentine sufficient ; mix with heat. 

To Clean Old M^vrble. — Take a bullock's gall, 1 gill soap lees, 
half a gill of turpentiue ; make into a paste with pipeclay, apply it to 
the marble ; let it dry a day or two, and then rub it off, and it will 
appear equal to new ; if very dirty, repeat the application. 

To extract Oil from Marble or Stone.— Soft soap, 1 part ; 
fullers earth, 2 parts ; potash, 1 part ; boiling water to mix. Lay it 
on the spots of grease, and let it remain for a few hours. 

To Gild Letters on Marble. — Apply first a coating of size aud 
then several successive coats of size thickened with fiiiely ix)wdered 
whitiug imtil a good face is produced. Let each coat become dry aud 
rub it down with fine glass paper before applymg the next. Then go 
over it thinly and evenly with gold size and apply the gold leaf, burn- 
ishing with an agate ; several coats of leaf will be required to give a 
good effect 

To Clean Marble. — Take two parts of common soda, 1 part pum- 
ice-stone, and 1 part of finely powdered chalk ; sift it through a 
fine sieve, and mix it with water ; then rub it well all over the mar- 
ble, and the stains will be removed ; then wash the marble over with 
soap and water, and it will be as clean as it was at first. 

To jMAke a Chemical Baroieter. — Take a long narrow bottle, 
aud put into it 2^ drs. of camphor ; spirits of wine 11 drs. AVhcn tho 



CABINETMAKERS, TAIXTERS*, &C., llECEiriS. 2.33 

/■ 
cr.niplior is dissolved, add to it the following mixture : -water drs. , 
wxltpetre, 38 grs. ; sal-ammoniac, 38 grs. Dissolve these salts in the 
water prior to mixing with the camphorated spirit ; then shake all 
well together, cork the bottle well, wax the top, hut afterwards make 
a very small aperture in the cork with a red-hot needle. ]}y obsen*- 
ing the different appearances which the materials assume as the 
weather changes, it be^tiomes an excellent i^rogiiosticator of a com- 
ing storm or of a smmy skj', 

TiiAPPEKs' AXD Ajs'glers' Secret fok Game AND FisH. — A f ew 
drops of oil of anise, or oil rhodium, on any trapper's bait, will en- 
tice any wild animal h:to the snare trap. India cockle mixed with 
Hour dough, and sprinkled on the surface of still water, will intox- 
icate fish, rendering them insensible ; when coming up to the surface 
they can be lifted in a tub of fresh water to revive them, when they 
may be used without fear. Fish may also be caught in large numbers 
during the winter season by watchmg them through the ice and striking 
it with a mallet directly over where they happen to be. The shock 
iituns them, and tlicy will rise, belly upwards towards the surface, 
when they are easily secured by breaking a hole in the ice. 



PAINTERS, CABINET3IAKERS, GILDERS, 
BRONZERS, GLASS STAINERS, &c. 

Co:MPOinsT> Colors— "53 TrN*TS<— ^?t(e.— ^Grind Prussian blue in 
turps, other blue, very fine in linseed oil; mix with white i)aint to the 
color required. Slraw. — A mixture of chrome yellow and white lead, 
oil and turps. Steel. — j\Iix ceruse, Prussian blue, fine lac, and 
vermilion, with oil and turps. Purple. — ^AVhite lead, Prussian blue 
and vermilion, with oil and turps. French Gray. — White lead and 
Prussian blue tinged with vermilion, and for the last coat substitute 
carmine or lake for vermilion. Drab. — White lead Avith a little 
Prussian blue and French yellow, Imseed oil and turi:»s. Another 
Drab. — White lead with a little Prussian blue and lampblack, linseed 
oil and turps. Dark Red, for common pii rposes. — Mix English Venetian 
red, in boiled oil, with a little red lead and litharge, to give a drying 
quality. Lirjhter lied. — Mix together equal parts of Venetian red and 
red lead in boiled oil and turj^s. Imitation of Vermilion. — Grind togetl-:- 
er, in oil, red lead and rose pink. Deep Red. — Mix in oil, vermilion with 
a dust of Venetian red, or red lead. Unfading Orange — This is a mix- 
ture of orange lead (orpiment) and French or stone yellow, oil and 
turps. Briqht Yellow, for floors. — White lead and linseed oil, mixed 
with some French yellow, and a little chrome yellow to heighten it, 
some red lead, burnt white vitriol and litharge, added to give it a dry- 
ing quality. This color mixed with equal parts of boiled oil and 
turpentine, and iised very thin. Dark Yellow. — Mix French yellow in 
boiled oil, adding to it a little red lead or litharge to give the paint a 
drying quality. Light Yellow. — This is a mixture of French yellow 
and white lead, with oil and turpentine. Another. — French yellow, 



254 CABINETMAKERS, TAIXTERS', vtC, RECEIPTS. 

•white lead and red lead. Another. — This is a mixture of Prussian Line, 
French yellow, a small i^oition of Turkc}' umber, and a litttle burut 
vitriol. Ground the sjuiie Avay. Another, in oil. — Mix Prussian blue 
and chrome yellow. Ground the same. Another Shade. — A mixture 
of Prussian blue and French yellow, with a small quantity of white 
lead and Turkey umber; add burnt vitriol, ground the same. An- 
other, lif/ht. — AViiite mixed with verdigris. i?variety of shades may 
be obtained by using blue and yellow with white lead. Another. 
Olive. — Black and blue mixed with yellow, in such quantities as to 
obtain the colors or shades required. For distemper, use indigo and 
yellow pink mixed with whiting or white lead ijowder. Freestone 
color. — A mixture of red lead, Venetian red, French yellow and lani])- 
black, (varying the shade according to taste,) with linseed oil and 
turiDentiue. Olive Green. — Grind separately, Prussiam blue and 
French yellow, in boiled oil, then mix to the tints required with a little 
burnt white vitriol to act as a dryer. A cheap and handsome color for 
outside work, such as doors, carts, wagons, railings, &c. Light 
Gray is made bj' mixing white lead with lampblack, using more or 
less of each material, as j'ou Avish to obtain a lighter or a darker shade. 
Jjiiff is made from yelloAv ochre and white lead. Silver or Pearl 
Gray. — ]Mix wliite lead, Prussian blue, and a very slight portion of 
black, regulating the quantities you wish to obtain. Flaxen Gray is 
obtahicd'by a mixture of white lead and Prussian blue, with a small 
quajitity of lake. Brick Color. — Yellow ochre and red lead, with a 
little Avliite. OaTc Wood Color. — ^ Avhite lead and ^ j)art umber and 
yellow ochre, proportions of the last two ingredients being determiued 
by tLe desired tuits. Walnut-tree Color. — § white lead, and ^ red 
ochre, yellow ochre, and limber, mixed according to the shade sought. 
If veinmg is required, use different shades of the same mixture, and 
for the deepest places, black. Jonquil. — ^Yellow, pinlc, and white 
lead. This color is onlj^ proper for distemper. Lemon Yelloio. — 
Kcalgar and orpiment. The same color can be obtamed by mixuig 
yellow pink with Naples yelloAv; but it is then only fit for distemper. 
Oranr/e Color. — ^Red lead and yelloAV ochre. Violet Color. — ^Vermilion, 
or red lead, mixed with black or blue, and a small portion of white. 
Vermilion is preferable to red lead in mixing this color. Purple. — 
Dark red mixed with violet color. Carnation. — Lake and Avhite. 
Gold color. — Massicot, or Naples yellow, with a small quantity of 
realgar, and a very little Spanish white. Olive Color maybe obtained 
by black and a little blue, mixed with yellow. Yellow-pink, Avith a 
little A'erdigris and lampblack; also ochre and a small quantity of 
Avhite Avill produce an olive color. For distemper, indigo and yellow- 
pmk, mixed with white lead or Spanish white, must be used. If 
veined, it must be done Avith umber. Lead Color. — Prussian blue and 
white. Chestnut Color. — Red ochre and black, for a dark chestnut. 
To make it lighter, employ a mixture of yellow ochre. Light timber 
Color. — Spruce ochre, A\'hite, and a little umber. Flesh Color. — Lake, 
Avhite lead, and a little vermilion. JJr/ht Willoio Green. — "White, 
mixed with verdigris. Grass Green. — ^Yellow-piuk mixed with vir- 
digris. Stone Color. — ^White, with a little spruce ochre. Dark Lead- 
Color. — Black and white, with a little Prussian blue. Faivn Color. — 
"White lead, stone ocnre, with a little vermilion. Chocolate Color. — 
Lampblack and Spanish brovm. On account of the fatness of lamp- 



CABINETMAKERS, PAINTERS', vtC, RECEIFTS. 25c 

black, mix some litharge and red lead. Portland Stone Color.- 
Umber, yellow ochre, alid white lead. Hose Color. — White lead and 
carmine or lake. JSahnon Color. — White load and blue, yellow, and 
red. Pearl Color. — Wliite lead, Prussian blue, and red. Slate Color. 
— AVliite lead, black, red, and blue. Pea G/'cen.— White lead and 
Chrome, or Paris green. Cream Color. — White lead, yellow and red. 
Straio Color. — White lead and yelloAV. Peach Blossom Color. — White 
lead and vermilion. Prown. — Venetian red and lampblack. Dark 
Green. — Lampblack and chrome green. Olive Color. — Red, green, or 
black, yellow and red. Snuff Color. — Yellow, sienna, and red. 

PiiEsco Paixtixg. — Steep good glue over night in water to soften, 
then melt in a suitiible iwt or kettle, applying the heat cautiously, so 
as not to boil, as boiling will render it unlit for use. Then take as 
much Paris whiting as you think you will use for j-our first coat, beat 
it up thick with water to a perfect pulp to get rid of lumps, &c. Now 
put in a pail as much of this whithig mixture as will be required for 
your work and proceed to mix m the colors required to produce the 
desired shade. The colors, previously ground in water, should be 
cautiously mixed with the hand, and the shade tested by drying a 
little on a shingle or Avhite paper; if too dark, add more whitmg, if 
too light, more color. Now add enough of your melted glue to bind 
or fix the color very hard so as not to rise or wasli up Avith your 
second coat, and test this on paper or wood also,*otherwise you may 
ruin your Avork. For Yellow, chrome yelloAV of different tints may 
be used. Buff' or Brah can be got by a mixture of yellow ochre, red, 
blue, or black, and sometimes nmber is intermixed Avith good effect. 
Luff or drab colors may be produced by yellow ochre, chrome 
yellow, or raw sienna, intermixed Avith Turkey umber. Tor Green, 
mineral or I'aris greens are first class. Any good chrome green will 
suit very avcU. For Blue, use cobalt ultramarine blue, Prussian blue 
Jind vcrditer. For Gray, nse composition of Avhite, blue, red, and 
black. For PeO, use A'ermilion, Indian red, Venetian red, lake, and 
carmine. For Pink or Pose tints, use a mixture of red Avith Avhite, 
if not wanted bright, use Indian red, if a strong rich color is desired, 
use carmine, lake, Venetian red, or vermilion. For Black, use blue 
black and the Frankfort, or pure ivory black. For Broivns for 
shading, &c., use burnt sienna, bunit ochre, xjurple brown, colcother, 
burnt umber, Vandyke brown. For other tints, see Coaipound 
CoLOKS. French Size for Gilding Ornaments, Ceilings, &c. IMix 
thick glue to the proper consistence, Avith a little pure honey, this 
imparts a beautiful color to the gold, and gives a splendid effect to 
the Avork. Previous to using the distemper colors, give the walls and 
ceilings, if new and clean, a good coat of paint, Avhich should be 
mixed about § turpentine and ^ linseed oil, usmg as much Japan 
dryer as Avill dry it hard; be careful of adding too much oil, as it Avill 
spoil the subsequent Avork. 

In preparing A-estibules, halls, Szc.,to stand washing, go over the 
Avails Avith oil paint for the first coat, but for the last coat no oil 
should be used, only spirits of turpentme. A harder surface AviJl be 
given to the Avail by adding 1 tablespoonful of good pale copal 
varnish to each 25 lbs. of paint used for the last coat. I'revious to 
the Avail receiving the last two coats, let the design or panelling be all 
correetly laid out. 



256 CAlilXETMAKEKS, ^AI^•TErvS', AC, KECEirXS. 

To ptepare old walls or ceilings ; if there are any stains or cracks 
in the plaster, repair with size putty, if small, or use plaster of Paris 
and a little putty lime if the cracks are lar<;e, damping the places 
Avith a brush and water, then appljong the plaster Avith a small 
trowel, afterwards smoothing off neatly. AVlien all is dry and hard 
prepare the walls or ceilings with a coat of paint jjrepared as before 
directed, or with a preparation coat in size made of Avhiting with an 
extra quantity of melted glue containuig a small quantity of alum. 
Give the Avails a good coat of this, let it harden well, then apply 
another ; this ought to be sufficient if good flowing coats are applied. 

Now mix the colors to the proper tints (in oil), lay in the panels 
first ; then the stiles, and Avhen dry, put on the fiat or last coat (spirit 
color). When the Avork is dry for panelling, use the followmg for 
mixing the finishing colors: Turpentine, a little mastic varnish, a 
little white wax, and a little pale damar. Varnish, use but little 
varnish, else too much gloss will be produced, the only use being to 
cause the color to set quickly to j)ermit rapid Avork. 

The fresco painter Avill find continued use for a book of designs to 
illustrate the diif erent orders .of architecture, pillars, columns, scrolls, 
borders, &c. and should make a particular study in the line of sketch- 
ing any thing and every tlimg calculated to assist him in the busijiess. 

lIousE Paixtixg. — Piimlnff, apply as thick as the paint Avill 
spread easily, rubbiaig out avcU with the brush. Use litharge as a 
dryer. After sandpapermg and dusting, putty up all the nail heads 
and cracks with a j^utt^-knife. Outside second Coat. Mix your 
paint with raw oil, u.smg it as thick as possible consistent with ciisy 
spreading. After it is applied, cross-smooth the work imtil it is level 
and even, then finish lengthAvise Avith long light SAveeps of the brush. 
Outside third Coat. Make a little thinner than the last, rub out well, 
cross-smooth and finish very lightly with the tip of the brush. 
Inside second Coat. Mix your paint as thick as you can work it, 
using equal parts of raw oil and turpentuie, rub this out well and 
carefully Avith the brxish, cross-smooth and finish even and nice. 
Inside third Coat. Mix with 3 i^arts turpentine and 1 part of 
raw oil, rub out avcU and smooth off Avitli great care. Fourth Coat, 
Flaitinf/. Mix with turpentine alone thin enough to admit of siDread- 
ing before it sets. Apply quickly Avithout cross-smoothing, and 
i'mish lengtliAvise with light touches of the tip of the brush, losing no 
time, as it sets rapidly. Drcaon Flatting. Ground Avhite lead is 
mixed with turpentine almost as thin as the last-named mixture. 
The lead will soon settle and the oil and turpentine rise to the top, 
pour it off, and repeat the mixture until what rises to the top is clear 
turpentine. The oil being aU withdrawn by this process, the lead is 
mixed with turpentine, and applied thickly and evenly with great 
care. This is used as a fourth coat, and the room must be kept shut 
and free from draught, as the color sets as fast as it is put on. See 
PoRCELAix FiisnsH FOR Paklors. Plastered Walls. Give them a 
coat of glue size before painting in oil. Killinr/ Smol:?/ Walls or 
Ceilinr/s. Wash over the smolcy or greasy AvaUs Avitli nitre, soda, or 
thin lime whitewash, the last is the best. 

UsEFUii IIixTs TO Painters. — Painters' Colic. To 2^ gals, 
spruce or table beer add 1 dram of sulphuric acid, mix well and let it 
stand 3 hours. A tumbler full 2 or 3 times per day is said to bo very 



CABINETMAKERS, PAIXTEKS , &C., liECEIPTS. 257 

beneficial in c.ases of lead colic. Sweet oil and nilk arc also good, 
but acid, fruits, spirituous litj^uors, and vinegar should be avoided in 
every illness caused by paint. Avoid inhaling the dust Avheu haudle- 
ing dry colors, or drinlcing -water which lias stood long in a painted 
room or jiaint shop. Never eat or sleep without -wasliing the hands 
.".nd face, and rinsing the mouth, cleaning well out ujider the nails. 
Lathe the Avhole body every few days, avoid spattering your clothes, 
,and either wear overalls or change your garments every week, well 
airmg those you x)ut off. Keep your paint shop clean, weir ventilated, 
and avoid sleeping in it at any time. To Remove Paint from Cloth- 
inf/. Saturate the spots Avith equal parts turpentine and spirits of 
ammonia until they become soft, then wash out with soapsuds. 2o 
dissolve Faint Ski)is, Cleanimjs of Pots, Brus/ics, £c. Save them 
carefully, and dissolve them by boiling them in oil. To Clean 
P rushes. Use turpentme first, then wash in warm soaixsuds. To 
Clean Paint Pails, &c. Use strong ley, hot. Sandinr/. The per- 
forated sprinkler of a watering pot attached to the nozzle of a i)air 
of bellows, is a first-rate contrivance for applying sand to pamtcd 
work. Apply on the fourth or fifth coat, with another coat on the 
sand. To remove old putty, apply nitric or muriatic acid. 

PiiussiAN Blue. — Take nitric acid, any quantity, and as mucli 
iron shavings from the lathe as the acid will dissolve; heat the iron 
as hot as can be handled with the hand ; then add it to the acid in 
small quantities as long as the acid wiU dissolve it; then slowly add 
double tlie quantity of soft water that there was of acid, and put 
in iron again as long as the acid will dissolve it. 2d. Take prus- 
siate of potash, dissolve it in the hot water to make a.strong solution, 
and make sufficient of it Avith the first to give the depth of tint do- 
sired, and the blue is made. Another Method. — A very passable 
Prussian blue is made by tjikhig sulprate of iron (copperas) and 
prussiate of potash, equal parts of each ; and dissolving each separately 
in water, then mixing the two waters. 

Celrome Yellow. — 1st. Take sugar of lead and Paris white, of. 
each 5 lbs.; dissolve them in hot water. 2d. Take bichromate of 
potiish, G| oz.: and dissolve it in hot water also; each article to be 
dissolved separately; then mix all together, putting in the bichro- 
mate last. Let stand twenty-four hours. 

Chrome Greex. — Take Paris white, G^ lbs. ; sugar of lead, and 
blue vitriol, of each Sj lbs. ; alum, 10^ oz. ; best soft Prussian blue, :uid 
chrome yellow, of eacli 3^ lbs. Mix thoroughly while in fine jDOAvder, 
and add Avater, 1 gal., stirring well, and let stand three or four hours. 
Another Green, durable and clieap. — ^I'ake spruce yellow, and color it 
A\ith a solution of chrome yelloAV and Prussian blue, until you give it 
the shade you wish. Another Method. — Blue vitriol, 5 lbs. ; sugar of 
lead, Q)\ lbs.; arsenic, 2.V lbs. ; bichromate of jiotash, 1^ oz.; mix them 
thoroughly in fine i)0Avder, and add water 3 x^arts, mixing well again 
and let stand three or four hours. 

Pea Erowx. — 1st. Take sulphate of copper any quantity, and 
dissolve it in hot water. 2d> Take prussiate of xwtasli, dissolve it iu 
hot Avater to make a strong solution; mix of the two solutions, as iu 
the blue, and the color is made. 

Rose Pink. — Brazil wood 1 lb., and boil it for two hours, having 1 
gal. of water at the end; then strain it, and boil alum, 1 lb., in the 

17 



258 CABIXETMAKERS, TAINTERS', &C., KECEITTS. 

water until dissolved; when suiSciently cool to admit tliehand, add 
muriate of tin, f oz. Now have Paris Avhite, 12^ lb. ; moisten up to a 
salvy consistence, and when the first is cool, stir them thoroughly- 
together. Let stand twenty-four hours. 

Patent Yellow. — Common salt, 100 lbs., and litharge, 400 lbs., 
are ground together with water, and for sonic time in a gentle heat, 
water being added to supply the loss by evaporation; the carbonate 
of soda is then washed out with more water, and the white residuum 
heated till it acquires a fine yellow color. 

Naples Yellow. — No 1. Metallic antimony, 12 lbs. ; red lead, 8 
lbs. ; oxide of zinc, 4 lbs. Mix, calcine, triturate well together, and 
fuse in a crucible : the fused mass must be ground and elutriated to 
a fine powder. 

Cheap Yellow Paixt. — ^Whiting, 3 cwt. ; ochre, 2 cwt. ; ground 
white lead, 25 lbs. Factitious linseed oil to grind. 

Stoke Color Paint. — ^Road-dust sifted, 2 cwt.; ground white 
lead, ^cwt. ; whiting, 1 cwt.; ground umber, 14 lbs.; lime water, G 
gals. Factitious Imseed oil to grind. 

Glazier's Putty.— Whiting, 70 lbs.; boiled oil, 20 lbs. Mix; if 
too thm, add more whiting ; if too thick, add more oil. 

To Ijhtate Brown 1"reestone. — First make a pretty thick oil 
l)aiut of the same color as the stone to be imitated, Avhich may be 
done in different ways, the basis is white lead or zinc white, colored 
with umber and mars red, or any other pigments which suit you; put 
it on as usual, and while yet sticlcy throw common wliite sand against 
it ; this will not affect the color and will make a rough, sandy coat 
imitating the surface of the stone. 

German CARivnNE. — Coclmical, 1 lb. ; water, 7 gals. ; boil for 5 
minutes, then add alum, 1 oz. Boil for 5 minutes more, filter and set 
aside the decoction in glass or porcelam vessels for 3 days, then decant 
the liquor and dry the carmine in the shade. The remaining liquor 
will still deposit of an inferior quality, by standing. 

Stain for Floors. — To strong ley of wood-ashes add enough 
copperas for the required oak shade. Put this on with a mop and 
and varnish afterwards. 

Lead Color for Iron. — Take litharge and place it over a fire in a 
ladle ; sprinkle over it flour of brimstone to turn it dark ; grind it in 
oil. It dries quick and stands well in any weather. 

A Good Imitation op Gold, — Mix white lead, chrome yellow and 
burnt siemia until the proper shade is obtauied. 

Beautiful White Paint. — ^For inside work, which ceases to 
smell, and dries in a few hours. Add 1 lb. of frankincense to 2 qt.s. 
turpentine ; dissolve it over a clear fire, strain it, and bottle it for use ; 
tlicn add 1 pt. of this mixture to 4 pts. bleached linseed oil, shalvo 
them well together, grind white lead in spirits of turpentine, and 
strain it ; then add sufficient of the lead to make it i:)roper for paiiit- 
ing ; if too thick m using, thin Avith turpentine, it being suitable for 
the best internal work on account of its superiority and expense. 

For a Pure White Paint. — Nut-oil is the best : if linseed oil is 
used, add one-third of turpentine. 

To LIix Co]\EMON AVhite Paint. — Mix or grind white lead in lin- 
seed oil to tlie consistency of paste ; add turpentine in the ijroportion 
of one quart to the gallon,of oil ; but these ^proportions must be va- 



CABIXETMAKEKS, PAINTERS', &C., KECEirXS. 259 

ricd according to circumstances. Remember to strain your color for 
the better sorts of work. If the work is exposed to the sun, use more 
turpentine for the ground-color, to prevent its blistering. 

Invisible Green for Outside Work. — Mix lampblack and 
French yellow with burnt white vitriol. These colors mix in boiled 
oil. Burnt vitriol is the best drier for greens, as it is powerful and 
colorless, and, conseqiiently, will not injure the color. 

Bright Varnish Green, for Inside blinds, Fentders, &c. — The 
work must fftst. be pamted over with a light lead color, and, when 
dry, grind some white lead in spirits of turpentine ; afterwards tako 
about ^ in bulk of verdigris, wliich has been ground stiff in linseed 
oil ; then mix them both'together, and put into a little resui varnish, 
sufficient only to bind the color. When this is hard, which will be tho 
case in 15 minutes, pour into the color some resin to give it a good 
gloss. Then go over the work a second time and, if required, a third 
time. Thus you will have a cheaj) and beautiful green, with a high 
polish. It possesses a very drying quality, as the work may be com- 
pleted in a few hours. The tint may be varied according to taste, by 
substituting mineral green for verdigris ; and if a bright grass-green 
is required, add a little Dutch pink to the mixture. N.B. — This color 
must bo used when quite warm, to give the varnish a uniform ex- 
tension. 

CoMrouNT> Greens. — This is a mixture of whiting, mdigo and 
Dutch pink, the intensity of which may be increased or diminished by 
the addition of blue or yellow. These mixtures will not admit of any 
fixed rules in regard to the quantities of the matters used in their 
composition. They must depend on the taste of the artist and tho 
tone he is desirous of giving to the color. 

Pea Green. — Take one pound of genuine mineral green, one pound 
of the precipitate of copper, one pound and a half of blue verditer, 
three pounds of white lead, three ounces of sugar of lead, and three 
ounces of burnt white vitriol. Mix the whole of these ingredients in 
linseed oil, and grind them quite fine. It will produce a bright mineral 
pea-green paint, preserve a blue tint and keep any length of time in 
any climate, without injury, by putting water over it. To use this 
color for house or ship painting, take one pound of the green paint 
with some pale boiled oil, mix them well together, and this will pro- 
duce a strong pea-green paint. The tint may be altered at pleasure, 
by adding a proportionate quantity of white lead to the green, which 
may be ground in linseed oil, and thmned with spirits of turpentine 
for use. It may also be used for painting Venetian window blinds, by 
bidding white lead and mLxing the color with boiled oil. For all the 
aforesaid preparations it will retain a blue tint, which is very desir- 
able. 

For Knotting. — One pint of vegetable naphtha, 1 tablespoonful of 
red lead, ^ pint of japamiers' gold size, 7 ozs. of orauge shellac, mix 
all together, set in a warm i)lace to dissolve, and frequently shake. 
Another. — Mix white lead, or red lead powder, in strong glue size, 
and apply it warm. 

White Lead. — ^Tho most usual method of manufacturing white 
lead is that known as the Dutch method. It consists in exix)sing lead, 
cast in thin gratings, to the combined action of acetic acid, moist air 
aiid carbonic acid gas. Tho gratings are supported a little above tho 



2G0 CABIXETMAKEIiS, ^AI^'TEKS', &C., RECEIPTS. 

bottom of earthen pots, similar to floTver pots, in each of which a small 
(luantity of weak acetic acid is placed. The pots are built up in al- 
ternate layers with spent tanners' bark, until a stack is formed, each 
layer of pots being covered with a board. Fermentation soon takes 
place in the tan, and serves the double place of generating heat and 
supplying carbonic acid. After tlie lapse of six or eight weeks, the 
metallic lead is fomid converted into white masses of carbonic mixed 
with hydrated oxide. It is then levigated, washed, dried, and ground 
with oil. . • 

To Cuke Daimp Walls. — Boil 2 ozs. of grease with 3 quarts of 
tar, for nearly twenty minutes, in an iron vessel, and have ready 
pounded glass, 1 lb. ; slaked lime, 2 lbs. ; well dried in an iron ]iot 
and sifted through a flour sieve ; add some of the lime to the tar and 
glass, to make it the thickness of thin paste, sufficient to cover a 
square foot at a time, as it hardens so quick. Ai)i)ly it about an 
eighth of an inch thick. 

To PiiOTECT Wood axd Brick work from Da^ip WEATnri:. 
—Take 3 pecks of lime, slaked in the air, 2 pecks of wood-ashes, 
and 1 peck of Avliite sand. Sift them line, and add Imseed oil sulli- 
cicnt to nse with a paint brush : thin the first coat ; use it as thick as 
it will work for the second coat, grind it fine, or beat it in a ti-ougli, 
and it is a good composition. 

Putty for Repairing Broken Walls. — The best putty for walJs 
is composed of equal parts of whiting and plaster of Paris, as it quicic- 
ly hardens. The walls may he immediately colored upon it. Some 
l>ainters nse whiting with size ; hut this is not good, as it rises above 
the^surface of the walls, and shows the patches when the work is 
finished. Lime must not be nsed as putty to repair walls, as it will 
destroy almost every color it comes in contact with. 

Instructions for Sign AVriting, with the Colors to be 
USED FOR THE GROUND AND LETTERS. — Oil an oak grouud, orna- 
mental letters, in ultramarine blue, filled in with gold and silver leaf, 
blocked up and shaded with burnt sienna. Another. — Gold letters 
on a white marble ground, blocked up and shaded with a transparent 
hrowii or burnt siemia. On glass. — Gold letters, shaded with burnt 
sienna. Another. — Gold letters, shaded with black, on a scarlet or 
chocolate ground. On a rich blue ground, gold letters, double shaded, 
black and white. Wliite letters on a blue ground, shaded with black, 
look very well. On a imrple ground, pink letters shaded with white. 
Mix ultramarine and vermilion for a groimd color, white letters 
shaded with a light grey. Vermilion ground, chrome yellow, stained 
with vermilion and lake, for the letters, shaded black, A substitute 
for the above colors: Kose pink and red lead; and for the letters, 
ibtone yellow, white lead and Venetian red, A good substitute for 
gold is obtained by grinding Avhite lead, chrome yellow, and a dust of 
A crmilion together. Mix your colors for writing in boiled oil, and 
use for drier gold size. Other good grounds for gold letters are: 
blues, vermilion, lake, and Saxon. When your sign is ready for 
uilding, follow the directions given imder the head of " I'o Gild 
Lcitci^on Wood." 

To Give Lustre to a Light Blue Ground. — After the letters 
are written and drj'^, paint thegromid over again, between the letters, 
witli the same color, and wliilc wet take imlvcrizcd Prussian blue and 



CAIilXETMAKilKS, PAIXTERS', &C., RECEirTS. 2G1 

rift over tliG surface; glass, frost, or smalts may be used instead of or 
^vitll the blue. AVhen dry, brush off the loose particles. 

Gilders' Gold Size. — Drjuug or boiled linseed oil, thickened 
Avith yellow ochre, or calcined red ochre, and carefully reduced to tho 
r.tuiost smoothness by grinding. Thin Avith oil of turpentine. 

To Gild Letters on AVood, &c. — ^AVhen your sign is prepared as 
smooth as possible, go over it with a sizmg made by Avhite of an cgsf 
dissolved in about four times its weight of cold water; adding a small 
quantity of fuller's eartli, this to prevent the gold sticking to any 
part biit the letters. AVhen dry, set out the letters and commence 
A\Titing, laying on the size as thinly as possible, Avith a sable pencil. 
Let it stand until you can barely feel a slight stickiness, then go to 
Work with your gold leaf, knife, and cushion, and gild tlie letters. 
Take a leaf up on the point of your knife, after giving it a slight puff 
into the back part of your cushion, and spread it on the front part of 
the cushion as straight as possible, giving it another slight puff witli 
your mouth to flatten it out. Now cut it into the proper size, cutting 
witli the heel of your knife forwards. Now rub the tip lightly on 
your hair; take up the gold on the point, and place it neatly on tho 
letters; when they are all covered get some very fine cottonwool, 
and gently rub the gold until it is smooth and bright. Then wash 
the sign with clean water to take off the cgs size. ^S'ee Gilding on 
Wood. 

To Use S:malts. — For a gold lettered sign, lay out on a lead color 
or Avhite surface the line of letters, and roughiy size the shape of 
each letter with ^ot^ oil size. This must be allowed at least 12 hours 
to get tacky and ready for gilding. After the gold leaf is laid and 
perfectly dry, mix up (for blue smalts) Prussian blue and keg lead 
with oil, adding a little dryer. Outline carefully around the letters, 
and fill up all the outside with blue paint; tlien with a small sieve 
sift on the smalts, allowing the sign to lay horizontally. Cover every 
part with plenty of smalts, and allow it to remain unmolested until 
llic paint is dry. Then carefully shako off the surplus smalts, and 
the work is done. 

SurERFixE Size for Gilding.— Good drying oil, 1 lb. ; pure gum 
animi, powdered, 4 ozs. ; bring the oil almost to the boiling ])oint in a 
covered metal pot, add your gum gradually and cautiously to the oil, 
stirring all the time to dissolve completely. Boil to a tarry con- 
sistency and strain while Avarm through silk into a warm bottle with 
a wide mouth ; keep it well corked ; use as required, thinning with 
turi)entine. This is the celebrated Birmingham " secret size," and is 
imequalled for tenacity and durability. Size to fix the Pearl on Glass 
Sif/ns. 1. Copal vaniish 1 part, Canada balsam 2 parts. 2. Pure 
mastic vaniish. 3. Pale, quick drying copal varnish. 

To Paint Banners, &c., on Cloth or Silk. — Stretch the fabric 
upon a frame, and fijiish j'our design and lettering. Use a size made 
of bleached shellac dissolved in alcohol, thinned to the proper 
consistence, go over such parts as are to be gilded or painted, over- 
aunning the outlines slightly, to prevent the color from spreading. 
For inside work the white of an egg makes a good size; lay the gold 
while the size is still wet, when dry, dust off the surjilus gold, and 
])rocecd with the shading, painting, &c. A little honey, combined 
with thick glue, is another good size. 



s. 



262 CABIXETMAKERS, PAINTERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 

J.VTANNED Tin Sigks. — Draw your letters on paper to suit 3"our 
piece of tin, having first cleaned it with diluted alcohol and a jiiece of 
cotton. This will remove any grease or other matter that might hold 
the gold. Then take some whiting and rub it over the back of tho 
paper upon which your design is made and lay it upon the Japamied 
tin. Next place a weight upon the four comers of the paper, or 
otherwise fiic it securely to the thi ; then, with a fuie pointed piece of 
hard wood, trace the design carefully, bearing upon the paper with 
the point just hard enough to cause the whiting on the under side of 
the paper to adhere to the tin, and after gohig carefully over the 
whole, you will have transferred the entire design in fine white out- 
line to the tin you are to finish it upon. Now size with oil size, and 
when dry enough for gilding, lay on the gold leaf and dab it down 
thoroughly, afterwards brushing o££ the loose gold with your flat 
camel-iiair brush or cotton. 

Changeable Signs. — Make a wooden sign in the usual maimer, 
and have a projecting moulding around it. Now cut thin grooves 
into the moulding, an inch apart, allowing each cut to reach to the 
surface of the sign. In each of these grooves insert strips of tin one 
inch wide ; and long enough to reach quite across the sign board. 
When all are fitted, take out the tin strips, and placing them edge to 
edge on a level table, paint any desired words on their imited 
surface ; when dvj, reverse them and paint other words on tho 
opposite side. Now fuiish your lettering as usual on the wooden 
sign board, and when dry, insert the painted tin strips in correct 
order in the grooves. This will present the curious novelty of three 
signs in one, as viewed from different positions. 

Teansparent Cloth. — Dissolve together white rosin, pulverized, 
8 ozs., bleached linseed oil G ozs., white beeswax 1^ ozs., add the 
turpentine while hot. Apply to both sides of the "cloth while it 
is stretched tight. A good vehicle for mixing colors for painting on 
cloth or paper is gum shellac dissolved in alcohol. 

Tinselled Lettek Glass Signs. — Pamt the groimd-work of your 
sign, on glass, any desired color, but be careful to leave the lettering 
or design naked, after it is dry, take any of the fancy colored copper 
or tin foils, crumple them in your hand and apply them over the 
black lettering, &c., after partially straightening them out. 

To Incrust Window Glass with Jewels. — Dissolve dextrine 
in a concentrated solution of sulphate of magnesia, sulphate of zinc, 
Ruli)hate of copper or other metallic salts, strain the liquid and 
brush a thin coat of it over the glass and dry slowly at the ordinary 
temperature, keeping the glass level. For protection it may bo 
varnished. The effect produced is that of an incrustation of dia- 
monds, sapphires, &c., according to the color of the salt used. 

To Paint in Imitation of Ground Glass. — Grind and mix 
white lead in three-fourths of boiled oil and one-fourth spirits of tur- 
])entine, and to give the mixture a very drying quality, add sufficient 
quantities of burnt white vitriol and sugar of lead. The color must 
be exceedingly thin, and put on the panes of glass with a large sized 
j)aint brush in as even a manner as possible. When a number of the 
panes are thus painted, take a dry duster quite new, dab the ends of 
the bristles on the glass in quick succession, till you give it a uniform 
appearance. Repeat this operation till the work appears very soft 



CABINETMAKERS, PAINTERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 263 

and it will then appear like ground glass. When the glass requires 
fresh painting, get the old coat off first by using strong pearl-ash 
water. Another J/e^'iod.— Spirits of salts, 2 ozs. ; oil of vitriol, 2ozs. ; 
sulphate of copper, 1 oz. ; gum arable, 1 oz. ; mix all well together, 
and dab on the glass with a brush. Another. — Dab your squares 
regularly over with putty; when dry, go over them again; the imita- 
tion will be complete. 

Painting on Glass. — Take clear rosin, 1 oz., melt in an iron ves- 
sel. When all is melted, let it cool a little, but not harden ; then add 
oil of turpentine suflicient to keep it in a liquid state. When cold, 
use it witli colors ground in oil. 

Habd Drying Paint. — Grind Venetian red, or any other color 
you wish, in boiled oil ; then thin it with black japan. It will dry 
very hard for counter tops, &c. 

Paste for Paper Hangings, Books, Paper Boxes, &c. — Good 
wheat flour, sifted, 4 lbs., make it into a stiff batter Avith cold water 
in a ijail, beat it well to break the lumps, then add pulverized aluin, 
2 ozs. Into this i)our boiling water, hissing hot from the fire, stirring 
the batter thoroughly all the time. As it cooks it swells and loses its 
white color, and when cold, wiU make about | of a pail of thick paste. 
Thin with cold water to adapt it for easy use with the brush. For 
pamted or varnished walls, add \ oz., pulverized rosin to each 2 qts. 
paste, and reduce the mass with thin gum arable or glue water. A 
little pulverized corrosive sublimate will enhance the keeping qualities 
of paste, but alum used as above will do very well. 

To Remove Old Paint. — Sal soda, 2 lbs. ; lime, ^ lb." ; hot water, 
1 gal. ; rummage all together and apply to the old paint while warm. 
It will soon loosen the paint so that you can easily remove it. Ano- 
ther simple method is to sponge over your old xjaint with benzine, set 
it on the fire, and you can then flake off the paint as quick as you like. 
Do not attempt to go over too much surface at a time, otherwise you 
might get more to do than you can attend to. 

Refuse Paint ant) Paint Skins. — Dissolve sal soda, ^ lb., in 
rain water, 1 gal. ; cover the refuse paint for 2 days, then heat it, 
adding oU to reduce it to a proper consistence for painting and strain- 
ing. 

Spirit Graining for Oak.— Two pounds of whiting, quarter of 
«a pound of gold size, thinned down with spirits of turpentine ; then 
tin^e your whiting witii Vandyke broA^m and raw sienna, ground fine. 
Strike out your lights with a fitch dipped in turpentine, tinged with a 
little color to show the lights. If your lights do not appear clear, adil 
a little more turpentine. Turpentine varnish is a good substitute for 
the above mentioned. This kind of graining must be bruslied over 
with beer, with a clean brush, before varnishing. Strong beer must 
be used for glazing up top-graining and shading. 
.■ Oil for Graining Oak. — Grind Vandyke brown in tui-pentine, 
add as much gold size as will set, and as much soft soap as will make 
it stand the comb. Should it set too quickly, add a little boiled oil. 
Put a teaspoonful of gold size to half a pint of turpentine, and as 
much soap as will lie on a twenty-five cent piece, then take a little 
soda mixed with water and take out the veins. 

To Prepare the Ground for Oak Rollers. — Stain your white 
lead with raw sicima and red lead, or with chrome yellow and Vene- 



261 CABINETMAKERS, TAINTERS , ifcC, RECEIPTS. 

tianrcd; tliin it "with oil and turps, and strain for use. When tlio 
groimd Avork is dry, grind in beer, Yandj'icc brown, whiting and a 
little burnt sienna, for the graining color; or you may use raw sienna 
with a little whiting, umbers, &c. 

To Imitate Old Oak. — To make an exceedingly rich color for the 
imitation of old oak, the ground is a com]wsition of stone ochre or 
orange chrome and burnt sienna; the grauiing color is burnt umber 
or Vandyke brown, to darken it a little. Observe that the above 
colors inust be used whether the imitiition is in oil or distemper. 
"vV'hen dry, varnish. 

To Lmitate Old Oak, in Oil. — Grind Yandj-ke and whiting in 
turpentine, add a bit of common soap to make it stand the comb, and 
thin it with boiled oil. 

To Imitate Pollakd Oak. — The ground color is prepared with a 
mixture of chrome yellow, vermilion, and white lead, to a rich light 
buff. The graining colors are Vandyke brown and small portions of 
raw and burnt sienna and lake ground in ale or beer. Fill a large 
tool with color, spread over the surface to be grained, and soften with 
the badger hair brush. Take a moistened sponge between the thumb 
and finger, and dapple round and round in kind of laiobs, then soften 
very lightly; then draw a softener from one set of laiobs to the other 
while wet, to form a multipUcity of grains, and finish the knots with 
a hair pencil, in some places in thicker clusters than others. When 
dry put the top grain on in a variety of directions, and varnish witli 
turps and gold size; then glaze up with Vandyke and strong ale. To 
finish, varnish with copal. 

To I^iiTATB LIottled MAnooAxv. — The groimd is prepared witli 
the best English Venetian red, red lead, and a small portion of white 
lead. The graining colors are burnt sienna, ground in ale, with a 
small portion of Vandyke brown, sufficient to take away the fiery ap- 
jiearance of the sienna. Cover tlie surface to be grained, soften with 
the badger hair brush, and while wet take a mottling-roUer and go 
over the lights a second time, in order to give a variety of shade, then 
blend the whole of the work with the badger softener. Put the top 
grain ou with the same color. AVhen drj^, varnish. 

To Imitate Rosewood. — Mix vermilion and a small quantity of 
white lead for the ground. Take rose pink, tinged with a little 
lampblack, or Vandyke brown, and grind very fine in oil, then take 
a fiat graining brush, with the hairs cut away at unequal distances, 
and cut dovni the grain as if wending round a knot. When nearly 
dr}^, take a graining comb that is used for oak, and draw down the 
grain. This will'give it the appearance of nature. When dry, 
vaniish. Another. — The ground color is prepared with vermilion 
and small quantities of white lead and crimson lake. When the 
ground is dry and made very smooth, take Vandyke brown, ground 
in oil, and with a small tool spread tlie color over the surface in dif- 
ferent directions forming Icind of knots. Before the work is dry, take 
a piece of leather, and with great freedom strike out the light veins; 
liaving previously i^repared the darkest tint of Vandyke brown, or 
gum asphaltum, immediately taice the flat graining brush with few 
hairs in it, draw the grain over the work and soften. When varnished, 
the imitation will be excellent. 

ANOTnEK Rosewood Imitation in Size.— Mix Venetian red, 



CABINETMAKERS, PAIXTEKS', JcC, RECEIPTS. 265 

Avliite lead poTrder, vermilion find common size, tlic consistency of 
Y/liich, wlien cold, must be tliat of a weak trembling jellj'. With 
this composition paint tlic work twice over. "Wlien tlic ground is dry, 
take some lampblack, finely ground in beer, and beat the white of an 
egg into it; take the Hat graining brusli, dipped in tlie black, and put 
on the giain. "Wlicn dry, stain the first coat of varnish with rose 
pink, fiiiely ground in turpentine, and finish the work by giving it a 
coat of clear varnish 

To Imitate Bird's-eye Mx^J*LE. — The ground is a light buff, pre- 
rarcd with white lead, chrome yellow, and a little vermilion or Eng- 
lisli Venetian red, to take off the rawness of the j'ellow. The grain- 
ing color is equal x>arts of raw umber and siemia ground in oil to tho 
proper consistency. Spread the surface of tlie Avork with this color, 
jind, having some of the same prepared a little thicker, immediately 
take a sasli tool or sponge, and put on the dark shades, and soften 
Avitli tlie badger's-hair brush before the color is dry put on the eyes 
by dabbing tlie dotting machine on the work. When dry, put on the 
grain with tlie camel's-hair pencil on the prominent parts, to imitate 
the small hearts of the wood. "When dry, varnish. 

To Imitatr CuiiLED IMaple. — Prepare a light yellow for tho 
ground, by mixing chrome yellow and white lead, tinged with Vene- 
tian red. The graining color is a mixture of equal portions of raw 
sienna and Vandj-ke, ground in ale; spread the surface to be gramed 
in an even manner; then Avith a piece of cork rub across the Avork to 
and fro, to form the grains which run across tho wood. When drj', 
varnish. 

Curled Maple in Oii for Outside "Work. — Prepare a rich 
ground by mixing chrome yelloAv, white lead and burnt sienna. For 
the graming color, grind equal parts of raw sienna and limber with a 
little bunit copperas in turpentine, and mix with a small quantity of 
grain er's cream. Thin the color Avith boUed oil ; then fill a tool and 
spread the surface even, and rub out tho lights Avith the sharp edge 
of a piece of buff leather, Avhich must now and then be Aviped to keep 
it clean; soften the edges of the work very lightly, and when dry, 
put on the top grain with burnt umber and raAv sienna, ground in ale, 
Avith the white of an egg beat into it. When dry, varnish. 

SATi>Pt\'OOD. — This ground is prepared with white lead, stone ochre, 
and small quantities of chrome yellov\' and burnt sienna. The grain- 
ing color is one-third of raw sienna and whiting, ground in pale ale, 
Acry thin ; then spread the color over the surface to be grained. 
"While wet, soften, and have ready a wet roller or mottling brush, in 
order to take out tho lights; blend the whole Avith the badger's-hair 
brush. "When the Avork is dry, take the flat brush, and Avith the same 
color, put on the top agam. When dry, A"arnish. 

To I^nTATE Yeav Tree. — The ground is a reddish buff. For tho 
grainuif? color gruid in ale equal portions of Vandyke brown and 
burnt sienna, Avith a small quantity of raw sienna. When the ground 
is dry, spread the surface even Avitli the color, and soften ; then Avith 
a piece of cork with a sharp edge, rub the Avork cross and cross in 
order to form the fine grain. When dry, dip tho tip of your fingers 
in tho graining color to form the eyes or knots, and put in the small 
touches with a camel's-hair pencil. When dry, put on tl;.o top grain, 
r.nd when this is dry, varnish. 



266 CABINETMAKERS, TAINTERS', AC, RECEIPTS. 

To IjnTATE Black and Gold Marble. — This description of 
marble is now iu great demand. The gromid is a deep jet black, or a 
dead color, iu gold size, drop black and turps : second coat, black 
japan. Commence veining; mix white and yellow ochre with a small 
quantity of vermilion to give a gold tinge; dij) the pencil in this color, 
and dab on the ground with great freedom some large patches, from 
•which small threads must be dra-wn in various directions. In tho 
deepest parts of the black, a white vein is sometimes seen running 
with a great number of small veins attached to it; but care must bo 
taken tliat these threads are connected with, and run in some degree 
iu the same direction with the thicker veins. If durability is not an 
object and the work is required iu .a short time, it may be executed 
very quick iu distemx^er colors, and Avhen varnished, it will look 
well. 

Red Marble. — ^For the ground, put on a white tinged with lake or 
veriuiliou ; then apply deep rich reds in patches, filling up the inter- 
mediate spaces with brown and white mixed in oil; then blend them 
together; if in quick drying colors, use about half turps and gold 
size. AVhcu dry, varnish ; and while the varnish is wet, j^ut in a 
multitude of the fine white tlireads, crossing the whole Avork iu all 
directions, as the wet vaniish brings the pencil to a fine point. 

Jaspek Marble. — Put ou a Avliite ground lightly tinged with blue; 
then put on patches of rich reds or rose iiink, leaving spaces of tho 
white grounds; then i^artly cover those spaces with various browns 
to form fossils, iu places running vems; theuiwtiu a few spots of 
white iu the centre of some of the red patches, and leaving in places 
masses nearly all Avhite. When dry, use the clearest varnish. 

Blue and Gold Marble. — For the ground put ou a light blue; 
then lake blue, with a small i^iece of white lead and some dark com- 
mon blue, and dab on the ground on patches, leaving i^ortions of tlio 
ground to shine between; then blend the edges together with duster 
or softener; afterwards draw on some white veins in every direction, 
leaving large open spaces to be filled up with a pale yellow or gold- 
liaiut; finish with some fine white runuuig threads, aud a coat of 
varnish at last. 

To Imitate Granite. — For the ground color, stain your white 
lead to a light lead color, with lam])black and a little rose pink. 
Throw on black spots, with a graniting machine, a pale red, and fill up 
with white before the ground is dry. 

Another. — A black ground, when half dry, tlirow in vennilion, a 
deep yellow and white spots. 

To Imitate Hair Wood. — For the ground color, take white lead 
and thin it with turpentine, and slightly stain it Avith equal quantities 
of Prussian blue and lampblack. For the graining color, grind iu alo 
a mixture of Prussian blue and raw sienna ; when the ground is dry, 
Fpread a transparent coat of the graining color on the surface of the 
Avork, aud soften ; then with the cork, mottle by rubbmg it to and 
fro across the Avork, to form the fine long grain or mottle. When 
this is done, soften and top grain in yraxj but perpendicular direc- 
tions ; varnish when dry. 

Substitute for White Lead. — Sulphate of barytes ground in oil 
and applied like paint. It can also bo used to reduce white lead to 
any desired extent. 



CABIXETMAKERS, TAIXTERS', AC, RECEIPTS. 267 

Paixt for Black Boaeds in Schools. — Common glue, 4 oz. ; 
flour of emery, 3 oz.; and just lampblack enough to give an inky 
color to the preparation. Dissolve the glue in j qt. of Avarm water, 
put in the lampblack and emery, stir till there are no lumps, then 
apply to the board with a woollen rag smoothly rolled. Three coats 
are amply sufficient. 

CoaIPOU^^) Iron Paint. — Finely pulreriz'ed iron filings, 1 part; 
brick dust, 1 part; and ashes, 1 part. Pour over them glue-water or 
size, set the whole near the fire, and, when warm, stir them well 
together. With this pamt cover all the wood work which may be in 
danger ; when dry, give a second coat, and the wood will be rendered 
incombustible. 

Filling Cosipositions — 12 kint)S. — 1. "Work finished in oil should 
receive a substantial filling consisting of equal i^arts by weight of 
whiting, plaster of Paris, pumice-stone, and litharge, to which may 
be added a little French yellow, asphaltum, Vandyke brown, and 
ien'a di sienna. Mix with 1 ijart japan, 2 of boiled oil, and 4 of tur- 
pentine. Grind fine in a mill. Lay the filling on with a brush, rub 
it hi well, let it set 20 minutes, then rub off clean. Let it harden for 
some time, rub smooth, and if required, repeat the process. AVhen 
the filling is all right, finish with linseed oil, applying with a brusli, 
wipe off, and rub to a polish with fine cotton, and finish with au}'^ fine 
fabric. Some fill with rye flour, wheat flour, corn starch, Paris 
white, &c, , ground fine in oil and turpentine, but when work is to bo 
varnished, such fiUing should previously receive one or two good 
coats of shellac. 2. Boiled linseed oil, 1 qt. ; turpentine : 3 qts. ; corn 
starch, 5 lbs. ; japan, 1 qt. ; calcined magnesia, 2 oz. Mix thoroughly. 
3. AVhiting, G ozs. ; Japan, ^ pt. ; boiled linseed oil, £ pt. ; turpen- 
tme, ^ pt. ; corn starch, 1 oz. : mix well together and apply to the 
wood. On walnut wood add a little burnt umber; on cherry a little 
Venetian red, to the above mixture. 4. On furniture apply a coat of 
boiled linseed oil, then immediately sprinkle dry whiting upon it, and 
run it in well with your hand or a stiff brush, all over the surface; 
the whiting absorbs the oU, and fills the pores of the wood completely. 
For black walnut, add a little burned umber to theAvhiting; for 
cherry, a little Venetian red, «&c., according to the color of the Avood. 
Turned work can have it applied while in motion in the lathe. Furni- 
ture can afterwards be finished with only one coat of varnish, 5. Ter- 
ra alba is a very good and very cheap filling. Many painters have 
been most shamefully imposed on by parties selling the stuff at a high 
price. 6. Furniture Pastes. — Beeswax, spts. tuipentine and linseed 
oil, equal parts; melt and cool. 7. Beeswax, 4 ozs.; turpentine, 10 
ozs.; alkanetroot to color; melt and strain, 8. Beeswax, 1 lb.; lin- 
seed oil, 5 ozs.; alkanet root, ^ oz., melt and add 5 ozs. turpentine, 
strain and cool. 9. Beeswax, 4 ozs. ; rosin, 1 oz. ; oil of turpentine, 

2 ozs. ; digest until sufficiently colored, then add beeswax till dissolved, 
then add beeswax scraped small, 4 ozs. ; j)ut the vessel into hot water, 
and stir till dissolved. If wanted pale the alkanet root should be 
omitted. 10. (White. ) White wax, 1 lb. ; liquor of pofcissa, ^ gal. ; 
boil to a proper consistency. 11. Beeswax, 1 lb. ; soap, ^ lb. ; pearlash, 

3 ozs., dissolved in water, ^ gal. ; strain and boil as the last. 12. Yel-t 
low wax, 18 parts; rosin, 1 part; alkanet root, 1 part; turpentine, Q 
j)arts; Unseed oU Q jiarts, First steep the alkanet in oil with heat, 



268 CABINETMAKERS, TAIXTEllS', JcC, RECEIPTS. 

find, ulicn well colored, pour off the clear on the other ingredients, 
.mid again heat till all arc dissolved, lo. Farnit arc Cream. — Bees- 
wax, 1 lb.; soap, 4ozs. ; peurlash, 2 ozs. ; soft water, Igal., boil to- 
gether until mixed. 

To Repaiii the Silvering op IMirkors. — Pour upon a sheet of 
tin foil 3 drs. of quicksilver to the square foot of foil. liub smartly 
with a piece of bucksWn until the foil becomes brilliant. Lay the 
glass upon a flat table, face doNATiwards, place the foil upon the 
damaged portion of tlie glass, lay a sheet of paper over the foil, and 
place Upon it a block of wood or a piece of marble with a perfectly 
liat surface; put upon it sufficient weight to press it down tight; let it 
remain in this position a few houi"s. The foil will adhere to t'lc 
glass. 

Pencils for Writing on Glass. — Stearic acid, 4 pts. ; mutton- 
euet, 3 pts. ; wax 2 pts ; melt together and add G parts of red lead, and 
1 pt. purified carbonate of jDotassa, previously triturated together ; sot 
aside for an hour in a warm situation, stirrmg frequently; then pour 
into glass tubes or hollow recdg, 

Polishes — 15 kinds. — 1. Carvers' Polish. — AYliite resin, 2 oz. ; 
geedhic, 2 oz. ; spirits of wine, 1 pt. Dissolve, It should be laid on 
warm. Avoid moisture and dampness when used, 2. French Polish. 
— Gum shellac, 1 oz. ; gum arable, ^ oz. ; gum copal, ^ oz. Powder, 
and sift through a piece of muslin ; put them in a closely corked bot- 
tle with 1 \)t. spirits of wine, in a very warm situation, sliaking every 
day till the gums are dissolved ; then strain through muslin, and cork 
for use, 3. Polish for Dark-colored Woods. — Seedlac, 1 oz, ; gum 
guaiacum, 2 drs. ; dragon's blood, 2 drs. ; gum mastic, 2 drs. ; put in 
a bottle with 1 pt. spirits of wine, cork close, expose to a moderate 
lieat till the gums are dissolved; strain into a bottle for use, with|: 
gill of linseed oil; sliake together. 4. Waterproof Polish. — Gum 
benjamin, 2 ozs. ; gum sandarac, | oz. ; gum anima, ^ oz. ; spirits of 
wine, 1 i>t. ; mix in a closely stopped bottle, and place either in a sand 
bath or in hot water till the gums are dissolved, then strain off the 
mixture, shake it up with ^ gill of the best clear poppy oil, and put it 
by for use, 5. Finishinr/ Polish. — Gum shellac, 2 drs. ; gum benja- 
min, 2 drs. ; put into ^ pt, best rectified spirits of wine in a bottle 
closely corked; keep ui warm jihica, shaking frequently till the gums 
are dissolved. When cold, shake up with it two teaspoonf uls of the best 
clear poppy oil, G, Polish for Removing Stains, Spots, and Mildeio 
from Furniture.-^Tiike of 98 ]Der cent, alcohol, | jiint; pulverized 
resin and gum shellac, of eacfi, :|/)z. Let these cut in the alcohol; 
then add linseed oil, f i^t, ; slmke well, and apply Avith a sponge, 
brush, or cotton flannel, or an old newspaper, rubbing it Avell after 
the application, which gives a iiiqe polish. 7. Polish for Reviving 
Old Furnitw-e.-^TAke alcohol, 1^ oz. ; spirits of salts (muriatic acid), 
I oz, ; linseed oil, 8 oz, ; best vinegar, ^ pt. ; and butter of antimony, 
1.^ oz. ; mix, putting in the vinegar last. 8, Jet or Polish for Wood 
or Leather, Black, Red, or UZue— Alcohol (98 per cent.), 1 pt. ; sealhig 
wax, the color desired, 3 sticks; dissolve by heat, and have it warm 
when applied. A sponge is the best to appljr it with, 9. Polish for 
Turners' Work. — Dissolve sandarac, 1 oz., in spirit of wine, ^ pt; 
jiext shave beeswax, 1 oz. ; and dissolve it in a sufficient quantity of 
fijpirits of turpentine to make it into a paste, add the former mixture 



CAIilXETMAKEKS, ^'AINTEKS', AC, UECEIPTS. 269 

by degrees to it, then ■with a ■woolen cloth applj' it to the -work ■while it 
is in motion in the lathe, and ■n'ith a solt linen ra:^ polish it. It Mil 
appear as if highly varnished. 10. Furniture Folish. — Beeswax, \ 
lb., and ^ of an "oz. of alkanet root; melt together in a pipkin nntil 
tlie former is Avell colored. Then add linseed oil and spirits of tur- 
pentine, of each iialf a gill; strain through a piece of coarse muslin. 
11. French Polishes. — 1. Shellac, 3 lbs. ; ■wood naphtha, 3 i»ts. ; dis- 
solve. 2. Shellac, 2 lbs. ; powdered mastic and sandarac, of each 1 
oz. ; copal varnish, ^pint; spirits of wine, 1 gal. Digest in the cold 
till dissolved. 12. JJlack Walnut Polish. — Take pulverized asphal- 
tum ; put it in ajar or bottle, i)0ur over it about twice its bulk of tur- 
pentine or benzole, put in a ■warm i^lace, and shako oocasioually ; 
Avhcn dissolved, strain, and apply it to the ■wood -with a cloth or stiff 
brush; should it prove too dark, dilute ■with turpentine or benzole. 
If desired to bring ont the grain still more, apply a mixture of boiled 
oil and turpentine; this is better than oil alone AVhenthe oil is dry, 
the -wood can be polished with the follo"wing: shellac vaniish, 2 parts, 
boiled oil, 1 part ; shake it -well before nsing Apply with a cloth, rub- 
bing brisld3^ 13. 2o Polish Wood. — Take apicceofpnmice-stoneand 
■water, and pass repeatedly over the work mitil the rising of the grain 
is cut down. Then take powdered tripoli and boiled linseed oil, and 
polish the work to a bright surface 14. Cloch Case and Picture 
Frame Finish. — Copal varnish, 2 lbs. ; linseed oil varnish, ^ oz. ; mix 
■well, shake often, and place in a warm spot The wood to be var- 
nished is i3repared with a thin coat of glue- water, and rubbed &ova\ 
Avith line pumice-stone or something equivalent In light-colored 
wood, a light pigment, such as cliaUc, is added to the glue-water; 
in dark wood, a dark pigment is added When readj^, the articles are 
varnished with the above mixture, and, after drying, rubbed ■with a 
solution of wax m ether, thereby receiving a high iiolish 15 IVJiite 
Polish for 'WHiite Woods. — ^AVhite bleached shellac, 3 ozs. ; white 
gum benzoin, 1 oz. ; gum sandarac, ^ oz. ; spirits of wine or naphtha, 
1 pt. Dissolve. 

Oil Finishes. — 1. Lmseed oil, IG ozs. ; black resin, 4 ozs. ; vuiegar, 
4 ozs. ; rectified spirits, 3 ozs. ; butter of antimonj'-, 10 ozs. ; spirit of 
salts, 2 ozs. ; melt the resin, add the oil, take it of£ the fire, and stir in 
the vmegar; let it boil for a few minutes, stirring it; when cool, jiut 
it into a bottle, add the other ingredients, shaldng all together. 2. 
Linseed oil, 1 pt. ; oil of turpentuie, ^ pt. ; rectified spirits, 4 ozs. ; poAv- 
dered resin, l| oz. ; rose pink, ^ oz. ; mix. 3. Acetic acid, 2 drs. ; oil 
of lavender, hdr. ; rectified spirits, 1 dr. ; linseed oil, 4 ozs. 4. Linseed 
oil, 1 pt, ; allcanet root, 2 ozs. ; heat, strain, and add lac varnish, 1 oz. 
5. Linseed oil, 1 pt. ; rectified spirits, 2 ozs. ; butter of antimony, 4 ozs. 
G. Linseed oil, 1 gal. ; alkanet root, 3 ozs. ; rose pink, 1 oz. Boil them 
together ten minutes, and strain so that the oil be quite clear, 

Faxcy Figures on Wood, — Slake some lime in stale urine. Dip 
a brush in it, and form on the wood figures to suit your fancy. When 
dry, rub it well with a rind of pork. 

Stains fob Wood, — 1, Cheap Black Walmit Stain. — Burnt um- 
ber, 2 parts; rose pink, 1 part; glue, 1 part; water sufficient; heat all 
together and dissolve completely, apply to the work first with a 
sponge, then go over it with a brush, and varnish over with shellac. 
2. Ebony Stain. — Drop black, 2 parts ; rose piuk, 1 part ; turpentuie, a 



270 CABINETMAKERS, PAINTERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 

sufficient quantity. 3. Brirjht Yellow Stain. — 1. Brush over -witli the 
tincture of turmeric. 4. Warm the work, and brush it over with wealc 
aquafortis ; vaniish or oil as usual. 5. A very small bit of aloes put 
into the varnish will give a rich yellow color to the wood. G. Extra 
Black Stain for Wood. — ^Pour 2 quarts boihng water over 1 oz, of 
powdered extract of logwood, and, when the solution is affected, 1 dr. 
of yellow chromate of potash is added, and the whole well stirred. 
It is then ready for use as a wood-stam, or for writing ink. When 
rubbed on wood, it produces a pure black. Repeat with 2, 3, or 4 
applications, till a deep black is i)roduced. 7. Imitation ofMahorjany. 
Let the first coat of painting be white lead, the second orange, aiid 
the last burnt umber or sienna : imitating the veins according to your 
taste and practice. 8. To Imitate Wainscot. — Let the first coat be 
white; the second, haK white and yellow ochre; and the third, yellow 
ochre only; shadow with umber or sienna. 9. To Imitate Satin 
Wood. — Take white for your first coating, light blue for the second, 
and dark blue or dark green for the third. 10, Roseioood Stain, very 
bright sJmde — Used Cold. — ^Take alcohol, 1 gal.; camwood, 2 oz. ; 
set them in a warm place 24 hours ; then add extract of logwood, 3 
oz. ; aquafortis, 1 oz. ; and when dissolved, it is ready for use; it 
makes a very bright ground like the most beautiful rosewood; 
1, 2, or more coats as you desire. 11. Cherry Stain. — ^Raiu water, 3 
qts. ; -amiatto, 4 oz. ; boil in a copper kettle till the amiatto is dis- 
solved, then put in a piece of potash the size of a walnut; keep it on 
the fire about half an hour longer, and it is ready to boltie for use. 
12. Rosewood Stain, verij bright shade. — ^Equal parts of logwood and 
redwood chips, boil well m Avater sufficient to make a strong stain ; 
apply it to the furniture while hot; 2 or 3 coats according to the depth 
of color desired. 13. Rose Pink Stain and Varnish. — Put 1 oz. of 
potash in 1 qt. water, with red sanders, 1^ ozs. ; extract the color from 
the wood and strain : then add gum shellac, Jib., dissolve it by a 
brisk fire. Used upon logwood stain for rosewood imitation. 14. 
Blue Stain for Wood. 1. Dissolve copper fiUngs in aquafortis, brush 
the wood with it, and then go over the work with a hot solution of 
pearlash (2 oz. to 1 pt. of water) till it assumes a perfectly blue color. 
15. Boil 2 ozs. of indigo, 2 lbs. wood, and 1 oz. alum, in 1 gal. water, 
brush well over until thoroughly stained. 16. Imitation of Botany- 
Bay Wood. — BoU J lb. French berries (the unripe berries of the 
Rhamnus infectoriiis) in 2 qts. water tiU of a deep yellow, and while 
boiUng hot, give 2 or 3 coats to the work. If a deeper color is desired, 
give a coat of logwood decoction over the yellow. AVhen nearly drj^ 
form the grain with No. 8, black stain, used hot, and, when dry, rust 
and varnish. 17. Mahogany Color — Dark. — 1. Boil § lb. of madder 
and 2 ozs. logwood chips in a gallon of water, and brush well over 
while hot; when dry go over the whole with pearlash solution, 2 
drs. to the quart. 2. Put 2 ozs. dragon's blood, bruised, into a quart 
of oil of turpentine ; let the bottle stand in a warm place, shake fre- 
quently, and, when dissolved, steep the work in the mixture. 18. 
Box-wood Brown Stain. — Hold your work to the fire, that it may re- 
ceive a gentle warmth ; then take aquafortis, and, with a feather, 
pass it over the work till you find it change to a fine brown (always 
keejiing it near the fire), you may then varnish or poUsh it. 11). 
Light Red llro-j:n. Boil h lb. madder and ^ lb. fustic in 1 gal. water; 



CABIXETMAKERS, PAINTERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 271 

lirush over the work, -wlicn boiling hot, until properly stained. 20. 
The surface of the work bemg quite smooth, brush over with a weak 
solution of aquafortis, ^ oz. to tlie pint ; then finish with the follow- 
ing : — Put 42 ozs. dragon's blood and 1 oz. soda, both Avell bruised, to 

3 pts spirits of wine, let it stand in a warm place, shake frequently, 
strain and lay on with a soft brush, repeatmg until of a proper color; 
polish with linseed oil or varnish. 21. rurple. — Brusrii the work 
Beveral times with the logwood decoction used for No. G Black ; and, 
when dry, give a coat of 2:)earlash solution, 1 dr. to a quart; lay itoji 
evenly. 22. lied. — 1. Boil 1 lb. Brazil wood and 1 oz. pearlasli in a 
gal. of water; and, while hot, brush over the work imtil of a proper 
color. Dissolve 2 ozs. alum inlqt. water, and brush the solution 
over the work before it dries. 23. Take a gallon of the above stain, 
add 2 ozs. more pearlasli ; use hot, and brush over with the alum 
solution. 24. Use a cold solution of archil, and brush over with the 
pearlasli solution for No. 1, Dark mahogamj. 25. Mahccjany Stain on 
Wood. — Take nitric acid, dilute with 10 parts of water, and wash the 
wood with it. To produce roseicood finish, glaze the same with car- 
mine of JNIunich lake. Asphaltum, thinned with turpentine, forms an 
excellent mahoganj'- color on new work. 26. Ilahogany Stain on 
Maple. — Dragon's blood, -^ oz. ; alkanet, |oz. ; aloes, 1 dr.; spirits of 
wine, 10 ozs. ; apx:)ly it Avith a sponge or brush. 27. Crimson Stain 
for Musical Instruments. — Ground Brazil wood, lib.; water, 3 qts. ; 
cochineal, ^ ounce ; boil the Brazil with the water Ibr an hour, strain, 
add the cochmeal ; boil gently for half an hour, when it will be fit for 
use. If you wish a scarlet tint, boil an ounce of saffron in a quart of 
Avatcr, and pass over the work before you stain it. 28. Purple Stain. 
— Chipped logwood, 1 lb. ; water, 3 qts. ; pcarlash, 4 ounces; powdered 
indigo, 2 oimces. Boil the logwood in the water half an hour, add 
the pearlasli and indigo, and when dissolved, you will have a beauti- 
ful purple. 29. Green Stain. — Strong vinegar, 3 pts. ; best verdigris, 

4 ounces, ground fine ; sap green, ^ ounce ; mix together. 

Black Stains for Wood. — 1 "Drop a little sulphuric acid into a 
small quantity of water ; brush over the wood and hold it to the fire ; 
it will be a fine black and receive a good i)olish. 2. For a beautiful 
black, on wood, nothing can exceed the black Japan mentioned under 
Tinsmiths' Dei:)artment. Apply two coats ; after which, varnish and 
polish it. 3. To 1 gal vinegar, add a quarter of a pound of iron rust ; 
let it stand for a week ; then add a pound of diy lampblack, and 
three-quarters of a pound copperas ; stir it up for a couple of days. 
Lay on five or six coats Avith a sponge, allowing it to dry between 
each ; polish with linseed-oil and a soft woollen rag, and it will look 
lilce ebony. Incomparable for iron work, ships' guns, shot, &c. 4. 
^'inegar, |gal ; dry lampblack, ^Ib. ; iron-rust sifted, 31bs. : mix and 
let stand for a week. Lay three coats of this on hot, and then rub 
with linseed oil, and you will have a fine deep black. 5. Add to the 
above stain, nut-galls, 1 oz. ; logwood-chips, ^ lb. ; copperas, ^ lb. ; 
lay on three coats ; oil well, and you will have a black stain that will 
stand any kmd of weather, and is well adapted for ships' combings, 
&c. G. LogAvood-chips, ^ lb. ; Brazil-Avood, J lb. ; boil for 1| hours in 
1 gal. water. Brush the Avood Avith this decoction while hot ; make a 
decoction of nut-galh*, by gentle simmering, for three or four days, a 
quarter of a pound of the galls in 3 qts. Avatcr ; give the wood three 



272 CABINETilAKEKS, PAINTEKS', &C., RECEIPTS. 

coats, and, wliile vret, lay on a solution of sulphate of iron (2 ozs, to a 
quart), and, when dry, oil or varnish. 7. Give three coats with a 
solution of copper filmgs in aquafortis, and repeatedly brush over 
with the log^vood decoction until the greenness of the copper la 
destroyed. 8. Boil ^ lb. logwood-chips in 2 quarts water ; add .an 
ounce of pearlash, and apjily hot with a brush. Then talce 2 qts. of 
the logwoo^ decoction, and h oz. of verdigris, and tlie same of cop- 
peras ; strain, and throw in ^ lb. of iron rust. 13rush the worli well 
witli this, and oil. 

Black AValis'UT Statn. — Spirits of turpentine, Igal.; pulverized 
asplialtum, 2 lbs. ; dissolve in an iron kettle on a stove, stirring con- 
stantly. Can be used over a red stam to imitate rosewood. To make 
a i)erf ect black add a little lampblack. The addition of a little varnish 
witli the turi:)entine improves it. 

CiiYSTAii Vakxish, fob INlArs, &c. — Canada balsam, 1 oz. ; spirits 
of turpentine, 2 oz. ; mix togetlier. Before applying this vaniish to 
a drawing or colored print, the paper .should be placed on a stretcher, 
and sized Avith a thin solution of isinglass in water, and dried. Apx)ly 
with a soft camel' s-hair brush. 

To EBO^^zE ^Vood. — Jlix up a strong stain of copperas and log- 
wood, to which add powdered nut-gall. Stain your wood with this 
solution, dry, rub down well, oil, then use French polish made toler- 
ably dark with indigo or finely powdered stone blue. 

]\[isCKL"LANE0us "Stains. — Yelloiu is produced by diluted nitric 
acid. Bed is produced by a solution of dragon's blood in spirits of 
wine. Black is produced by a stroug solution of nitric acid. Green is 
liroduccd by a solution of verdigris in nitric acid ; then, dipped in a 
hot solution pearlash produces a JBlue stain. Fuvple is produced by 
a solution of sal-ammoniac in nitric acid. 

Beautiful Varnish for Violixs, &c. — Rectified spirits of wine, 
-V gal. ; add G oz. gum sandarac, 3 oz. gum mastic, and \ pt. turpen- 
tine varnish ; put the above in a tin can by the stove, frequently 
shaking till well dissolved : strain and keei? for use. If you find it 
harder than j^ou wish, thin with more turpentine varnish. 

Another. — Heat together at a low temperature 2 qts. of alcohol, \ 
Yit. turpentine varnish, and 1 lb. clean gum mastic ; when the latter is 
thoroughly dissolved, strain througli a cloth. 

Varxish for Fra:\ies, etc. — l.ay the frames over with tin or 
silver foil by means of plaster of Paris, glue or cement of some kiud, 
that the foil may be perfectly adlierent to the wood ; then apply your 
gold lacquer varnish, which is made as follows : Ground turmeric, 1 
lb. ; powdered gamboge, 1^ ounces ; powdered sandarac, 3^ lbs. ; 
powdered shellac, gibs. ; spirits of Aviue, 2 gals. ; dissolve and strain ; 
then add turpentine varnish, 1 pt. ; and it is ready for use. 

Dyes for Veneers. — A. fine Black. — Put 6 lbs. of logwood chips 
into your copj^er, with as many veneers as it will hold without press- 
ing too tight, fill it with water, let it boil slowly for about 3 hours, 
then add \ lb, of powdered verdif/ris, ^ lb. copperas, bruised gall-nuts 
4 ozs. ; fill the copper up with vinegar as the water envaporates ; let 
it boil gently 2 hours each day till the wood is dyed through. A fine, 
Blue. — Put oil of vitriol, 1 lb., and 4 ozs. of the best powdered indigo 
in a glass bottle. Set it in a glazed earthen pan, as it will ferment. 
Now i)ut your veneers into a copper or stone trough ; fill it rather 



CADIXET^IAKEKS, TAINTEES , &C., KECEIPTS. 273 

more than oiie-thii;d Tvith water, and add as much of the vitriol and 
indigo (stirring it about) as Tvill make fine blue, testing it Avith a 
|)ioce of white paper or wood. Let the veneers remain till the dye 
lias struck through. Keep the solution of indigo a few weeks before 
using it; this improves the color. Fine Ydloio. — ^Reduce 4 lbs. of the 
root of barberry to dust by sawing, which put in a coj^per or brass 
trough ; add turmeric, 4 ozs. ; water, 4 gals. ; then put in as many 
Avhite holly veneers as the liquor will covq;'. Boil them together 3 
liours, often turning them. When cool, add aquafortis, 2 oz., and 
the dye will strike tlirough much sooner. Brifjht Green. — Proceed as 
in the previous receipt to produce a yellow ; but, instead of aqua- 
fortis, add as much of the vitriolated indigo (see above, under blue 
dye) as Avill produce the desired color. Bright Red. — Brazil dust, 2 
lbs. ; add water, 4 gals. Put m as many veneers as the liquid will 
cover ; boil them for 3 hours, then add alum, 2 oz . aquafortis, 2 oz. ; 
and keep it luke-warm until it has struck through. Purple. — To 2 
lbs. of chip logwood and h lb. Brazil dust, add 4 gals, of water ; and 
after putting in your veneers, boil for 3 hours ; then add pearlash, 9 
ozs., and alum 2 oz. ; let tliem boil for 2 or 3 hours every day till tlie 
color has struck tlirough. Orange. — Take the veneers out of tlie 
above j'cllow dye, Avhile still wet and saturated, transfer them to the 
bright red dye till the color penetrates throughout. 

'io i:mpiiove the Color of Staiks. — Nitric acid, 1 oz. ; murintio 
acid, I teaspoon! ul ; gi'ahi tin, \ oz. ; rain water, 2 oz. Mix it at lea;:t 
2 days before using, and keep your bottle weU corked. 

SxnoxG Glue roii I^■LAyi^-a or VE:N^EERDfG. — Select the best 
light brown glue, free from clouds and streaks. Dissolve this in wa- 
ter, and to every pint add half a gill of the best vinegar and ^ oz. of 
isinglass. For other glues see Engineers' Department. 

Inlaid Mother of Pearl Work, on sewing machines and other 
fancy work, is jicrformcd by selectmg the thin scales of the shell 
and cementing them to the surface of the material ; the rest of the 
surface is covered with successive coats of Jaijan vanush, generally 
black, being subjected to a hairing process after each application. 
When the varnish is as thick as the shell, it is polished, the gildinjj 
and painting added, and a flowing coat of varnish put over the whole. 

Another Method. — I'rcparethe job with a heavy coat of black Japan, 
tlien, before it is dry, procure flalces of pearl and lay them on the 
black surface, pressing them into the Japan mitil they are level with 
tlie surface; then with colors fonn vines and flowers, allowing the 
X)earl to form the body of the flower leaf, and shade up all nicely. 

Transpai^ext PxVintixg on WrxDow Shades. — The muslin ia 
spread on a frame and secured tightly with tacks, then sized with a 
mixture of fine flour paste, white glue, and white bar soap; the soap 
renders the musUn pliable and soft. A thin coat is applied, which is 
]iearly invisible Avhen dry. A coat of pure linseed oil, diluted with 
spirits of turpentine, is then applied, to the whole, or part, as desired; 
]ny it on quickly and smoothly, to uisure an even transparent surface. 
The colors used are, ivory black, ultramarine, Paris green, sienna, 
umber, verdigris, asphaltum, or other suitable colors. An outline of 
the design is drawn with a small pencil with black or umber, after 
Avhich the colors may be applied, more or less diluted, as more or less 
transparency is desired. In general, the brightcit colors should be 

15 



274 CABINETMAKERS, PAINTERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 

applied first, and tlie darlrcr shades over tliem. These colors must ho 
laid evculy and smoothly a\ itli soi't brashes, and should any part he 
made too dark, the best -way is to scrape off witli a sticlc before the 
color gets too dry. The best designs for shades consists of landscape 
views, and should alwaj's be desig'ned to accommodate the form and 
position of tlie ground on which they are draAvn. Stencils will be 
found useful on this work, in making comers or stripes for borders. 

To Paint Magic Lantern Sides. — Transparent colors only aro 
used for this work, sucli as lakes, sap-^reen, ultramarine, verdigris, 
gamboge, asphaltum, &c., mixed in oil, and tempered witli Ught 
colored vamlsh (white Demar). Draw on the paper the design de- 
sired, and stick it to the glass with water or gum; then with a fine 
pencil put the outlines on the opposite side of the glass with the prop- 
er colors; then shade or fiU up with black or Vandyke broA\-n, as you 
find best. 

JM^^jiiNE Pain-t fou ]Metals in Salt TTater. — ^Red lead 55 parts ; 
(|uicksilver, 30 parts; thick turpentine, 7 parts. Mbc with boiled 
linseed oil to the proper consistency. The quicksilver must be 
thoroughly amalgamated witli the thick turpentine by grinding or 
rubbing, and this mixture must be ground Avith red lead and more 
boiled oil. As little oil as is necessary to make the j)aint lay well must 
1)0 used. To make the i^aint adhere more firmly, a previous coat of ox- 
ide of iron i)aint may be used. 

To Imitate Tortoise Shell. — ^Paint a ground of salmon color; 
then when dry and smoothed off, coat it over with rose pink, mixed in 
varnish and turpentine ; then with a flat piece of glass, press on the 
surface, and remove the glass quickly, being careful not to push it 
over the j)aint so as to disturb the curious figures Avhich the pressure 
win form thereon. Varnish when dry, an 1 you will find you have a 
beautiful imitation of tortoise shell. 

I5ANNER Painting, — ^Lay out the letters very accurately witli 
charcoal or craj'on, then saturate the cloth with Avater to render the 
painting easy. On large work a stencil will be found useful. Take 
apiece of tin, lay the straight edge to the mark, brush over with a 
r^ash tool, and by this means you will make a very clean-edged 
letter. Use stiff bristle pencils in painting on canvas. 

Oil Cloth Painting. — To pamt canvas for floors, the canvas 
should first be saturated with glue-Avater or flour paste, and allowed 
to dry first. Then paint it Avith any color desired. To put in the 
figures, cut out designs in tin plates or stiff paper, and stencil them 
on in A^arious colors. 

To Imitate Marble. — For ivhiie marble, get up a pure white 
ground, then hold a lighted candle near the surface, and allow the 
smoke to form the shades and various tints desired. This will 
make a very handsome imitation. Black marble imitation is made 
by streaking a black surface with colors, using a feather and pencil. 
Another plan is to get up a smooth black surface ; then take the colors, 
green, yelloAv, red, Avhite, &c., ground thick in gold size, and streak 
the surface with a stick or pencil. Allow it to dry, and apply a heaA-y 
coat of lampblack and yellow ochre, mixed Avith rough stuff. AVheu 
all is hard, rub doAA'ii to a level surface Avith lump pumice-stone, 
vaniish, and a beautiful varigated marble will be the result. 

IItciiing on Glass,— Druggists' bottles, bar-tumblers, signs, and 



CABINETMAKERS, PAINTERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 275 

glassware of every description, can be lettered in a beautiful style of 
art, by simply giving the article to be engraved, or etched, a thin coat 
of the engraver's varnish (see next receipt), and the application of 
fluoric acid. Before doing so, the glass must be thoroughly cleaned 
and heated, so that it can Jiardly be held. The varnish is then to be 
applied lightly over, and made smooth by dabbing it with a small 
baU of silk, filled with cotton. When dry and even, the lines may bo 
traced on it by a sharp steel, cuttmg clear through the varnish to tlio 
glass. The varnish must be removed clean from each letter, other- 
wise it will be an imperfect job. When all is ready, pour on or appl;/ 
the fluoric acid with a feather, filling each letter. Let it remain until 
it etches to the required depth, then wash off with water, and remove 
the varnish. 

Etching Varnish. — Take of virgin wax and asphaltum, each 2 
oz. ; of black pitch and Burgim.dy pitch, each ^ oz. ; melt the wax and 
pitch in a new earthenware glazed pot, and add to them, by degrees, 
the asphaltum, finely powdered. Let the whole boil, simmering 
gradually, till such time as, taking a droj) upon a plate, it will brcalc 
when it is cold, or bending it double two or throe times betwixt tlio 
fingers. The varnish, being then boiled enough, must be taken off 
the fire, and, after it cools a little, must be poured into warm water 
that it may work the more easily with the hands, so as to be formed 
into balls, which must be kneaded, and put into a piece of taffety for 
use. The sand blast is now in extensive use for ornamenting on glass. 

Fluokio Acid to ]\Iake for Etching Purposes. — ^You can 
make your own fluoric (sometimes ealled hydro-fluoric) acid, by 
getting the fluor or Derbyshire spar, pulverizing it, and putting all of 
it into sulphuric acid which the acid will cut or dissolve. Inasmuch 
as fluoric acid is destructive to glass, it cannot be kept in common 
bottles, but must be kept in lead or gutta percha bottles. 

Glass-Grinding for Signs, Shades, &c. — After you havo 
etched a name or other design upon uncolored glass, and wish to have 
it show off to better advantage by permitting the light to pass only 
through the letters, you can do so by taking a piece of flat brass suffi- 
ciently large not to dip into the letters, but pass over them when gild- 
ing upon the surface of the glass; then, with flour of emery, and 
keeping it wet, you can grind the whole surf ace, very quickly, to look 
like the ground-glass globes often seen upon lamps, except the letter, 
which is eaten below the general surface. 

To Drill and Ornament Glass. — Glass can be easily drilled 
by a steel drill, hardened but not drawn, and driven at a high velo- 
city. Holes of any size, from the 16th of an inch upwards, can be 
drilled, by using spirits of turpentine as a drip ; and, easier stUl, by 
usmg camphor Avith the turpenthie. Do not press the glass very 
hard against the drill. If you require to ornament glass by turning 
in a lathe, use a good mill file and the turpentine and camphor drip, 
and you will find it an easy matter to produce any shape you choose. 

Gilding Glass Signs, &c.— Cut a piece of thin paper to the size 
of your glass, draw out your design correctly in blaclc lead-pencil on 
the paper, then prick through the outline of the letters with a fine 
needle; tie up a little dry white lead in a piece of rag; this is a 
pounce-bag. Place your design upon the glass, right side up, dust it 
with the pounce-bag; and, after taking the paper off, the dcsigu wiil 



276 CADIXETMAKEKS, TAINTEKS', &C., KECEirTS. 

appear in ■wliite dots upon the glass; these "will guide you in layin;^ 
on the gold on the opposite side, which must he loell cleaned preparu 
toiy to lading on the gold. Preparinrj the size. — Boil perfectly clea. 
water in an enamelled saucepan, and Avhile boiling, add 2 or 3 shreds 
of best selected isinglass, after a few minutes strain it through a 
clean linen rag; when cool, it is ready for use. Clean the r/lass per- 
fectly. — When this is done, nse a fiat camel' s-hair brush for laying 
on the size ; and let it drain off when yon put the gold on. When the 
gold is laid on and perfectly dry, take a ball of the finest cotton wool 
and gently rub or polish the gold ; you can then lay on another coat 
of gold if desirable, it is now ready for writing. In doing this, mix a 
little of the best yegebible black with black japan ; thin with turpen- 
tine to proper working consistency; apply this when thoroughly dry; 
wash off tlie superfluous gold, and shade as in sign-writmg. 

Glass Gilding, Axotiier Method. — Clean and dry the glass 
thoroughly, then lay out tiie lines for letters with a piece of hard 
scented soap, tlicn paint the letters on the rir/ht side of the glass 
with lampblack mixed with oil, in order to form a r/iddefor the work, 
then on the inside lay on a coat of the size mentioned iti the preced- 
ing receipt, using a camel' s-hair brush, covering the whole of the let- 
ters ; next lay on the gold leaf with a tip, until every part of the let- 
ters is covered well. Let the leaf remain nntil the size is dry, when 
you will find that the letters on the front side can be easily seen and 
traced. This is done with quick drjong black, mixed with a little 
varnish. Paint over the whole directly over the gold ; allow it to dry ; 
then wipe off with soap and 'water the lampblack letters from the 
front side ; with j)ure cold water and a clean sponge, wash the su- 
perfluous gold leaf and size from the back, and you will have a splen- 
did gold letter on the glass ; next, shade your letter to suit the taste, 
always remembermg to shade to the edge of the gold, for then you 
have only one edge to make straight. The other edge may be left 
rough, and when dry may be straightened by scraping with a knife. 

Ornamental Designs on Glass.— Li making scrolls, eagles &c., 
on glass, gome painters put on the outlines and shades first, and then 
lay the gold leaf over all ; another good way is to scratch the shades 
on to the gold leaf after it is dry, and put the colors on the back of the 
gold. SUver leaf may be used in the game manner as gold, but it 
will not Avear as well. A very pretty letter may bo made by incor- 
porating silver with gold ; take paper and cut any fancy design to 
fit the parts of the letter ; stick it on the size before laymg the leaf, 
allowing it to dry and wash off as before ; then with a penknife raise 
the paper figure, and the exact shape or form of the figure will 
be found cut out of the gold letter ; clean off nicely, apply more size, 
and lay silver leaf to cover the vacant spots ; wash off Avhen drj% and 
a very handsome letter will be the result. Colors may be used in- 
stead of silver, if desired, or a silver letter edged or " cut up" with 
gold, will look well, 

Glass and Porcelain Gilding. — ^Dissolve in linseed oil an equal 
wciglit either of copal or amber ; add as much oil of turpentine as 
will enable you to apply the compound or size thus formed, as thin 
as possible, to the parts of the glass intended to be gDt. The glass 
is to be placed in a stove till it wiU almost bum the fingers when han- 
dled ; at this temperature the size becomes adhesive, and a piece of 



CABIXETMAKERS, PAINTERS', AC, KECEirTS. 277 

gold leaf, applied in the usual way, will immediately stick. Sweep 
ol'f the supertluous portions of tlie leaf, and Avhcn quite cold it may bo 
burnished ; talcing care to interpose a jnece of India paper between 
the gold and tlie burnisher. 

DitiLLiNG Chixa, Glass, &c. — ^To drill china use a copper drill 
and emery, moistened with spirits of turpentine. To drill glass, use 
a steel drill tempered as hard as possible and camphor and water as 
a lubricant. 

Gold Lustke for Stoneware, Chixa, &c.— Gold, G parts; aqa- 
regia, 3G parts. Dissolve, then add thi, 1 part ; next add balsam of 
siilphur, 3 parts ; oil of turpentme, 1 part. W\x gradually mto a 
mortar, and rub it mitil the mixture becomes hard ; then add oil of 
turpentme, 4 jDaits. It is then to be applied to a groimd jprepared for 
the purpose. 

GiLDiNG China axb Glass. — Powdered gold is mixed with borax 
and gum-water, and the solution applied witJi a camel' s-hair jiencil. 
Heat is then applied by a stove until the borax fuses, when the gold 
is fixed and afterwards burnished. 

Useful Hints fob Caiikiage Painters. — It is usual to apply 
three coats of oil pamt as a priming to commence Avith, and it is sale 
to use, say § drymg oil and J turpentine, Avith a little fine litharge 
ground in, about 2 ozs. to every 20 lbs. of paint. This hardens the 
priming better than patent dryer, and works better under the sand- 
IDaper, When the first coatmg is hard and dry, rub down with your 
sand-paper and be sure to make perfectly level work among the 
irregularities, deficiencies and ridges on the surface of your work. 

Next dust your work carefully, and with your putty knife go over 
the whole surface and putty up every crevice, split, crack or knot- 
hole with the hard drying putty hereafter mentioned. Be very care- 
ful not to overlook the slightest flaw, but bring every spot to a true 
and perfect level. Now dust off the work again, preparatory to 
second coatmg. Thin your color with turpentine, if too stout or 
thick, but do not use thin colors, for it neither covers well, nor rubs 
down well. For dark colors, use a dark lead color for the oil coats, 
but, for preparing for such a color as light green, let the color be 
light lead color, if for a yellow, begin with white, or slightly tinted 
with chrome yellow. 

Be careful with your second coat, to lay it fair, regular, and equal, 
over each and every part of the work, and when it is thoroughly dry, 
rub down with a finer quality of sand-paper than the last, being 
careful to make the surface perfectly smooth and even. Now com- 
mence to give the third coat (after dusting off), putting on the paint, 
not lavishly, but rub it out well. 

The next step, when the last is hard and dry, is to apply the fiUing 
up coats. For a good composition see receipt for " Eovf/h Stuff" for 
carriage work. Another good filling consists of diy French yellow, 
a small quantity of white lead, the same amount of whiting, a little 
red lead, about one-sixteenth of litharge, and of drying Japan enough 
to nearly mix it, put in a very little drying oil, and turpentine to thin 
to a suitable thiclcness to make it spread like a stiff coat of pamt. 
Thin so that it can be applied easily, and flow on full and free. 
Apply this composition, giving the body, shafts, wheels, springs, &c., a 
good coat levelling off any hollows, &c, , existing iu the parts, and when 



278 CADIXETMAKERS, PAINTERS*, &C., RECEIPTS. 

this coat becomes perfectly liard give it another. The next step, after 
this last coat dries hard, is to rub it down Avith lump pumice-stone, 
first rubbing the pumice flat upon a stone before commencing to use 
it. In rubbing down with lumi) pumice use plenty of water, freely 
supplied from the sponge in your left hand ; be very cautious to 
avoid cutting through, and feel the parts frequently as the work 
progresses, to ascertam when all is sufficiently smooth and hard, then 
with your sponge wash off the work nicely, and with your wash 
leather wrung out, dry it off clean and smooth. 

The next step is to paint the carriage. See to it that your colors 
are freshly ground, your paint mill, pots, tins, brushes, &c., per- 
fectly clean. Apply your color the proper thicloiess, expeditiously 
and neatly, so that the work will present a good clean appearance. 
The following directions will be found useful in mixing the desig- 
nated colors. Dark Green, Olive Shade. Take deep chrome yelloAV 
and powdered drop black, mix in a jDOt with the drying Japan, and a 
little turpentine, grind all together, test to be sure that the color is 
right, if wished lighter, add more chrome yellow, if darker, more 
droj) black, grade the color to the proper thicloiess and apply at 
once. Two coats will be required. Ultramarine blue. For your 
ground color, grind good Prussian bine in oil, and add to <vhite lead 
as much of the blue as will make it sufficiently dark to form a 
ground for the idtramarine blue, two coats of this will be required. 
AVhen hard and dry, grind some of the best ultramarine blue on the 
stone with a quantity of varnish, add enough of this to your body 
flowing varnish to impart the right color. Two good coats of this 
beautiful color will be necessary; use sugar of lead as a dryer. 
Before giving the second coat rub down with ground pumice and 
water, using a cloth ; the next coat will flow all the better for this 
treatment. After a few days rub down again with ground pumice 
and water, wash, and dry with your chamois skin, when the worlc 
will be all ready for picking out and striping. Claret or Lake. 
Vermilion and rose pink, in oil, same as the last, for first coat. 
When hardened dry, give another light coat, previously rubbing 
down with ground pumice and water, as directed for blue. For a 
rich light claret bo sparing of your rose pink in the ground color; for 
dark claret, use more rose i)ink. For darker shades use more rose 
pink in the gromid color, then use the best crimson lake, same way 
as for the light claret tAvo good coats will do. For a purple shade of 
claret use vermilion, rose i)ink a spice of ultramarine blue, for a 
ground color. Then add the proper quantity of ground purple lako 
to body flowing varnish and apply two coats. Japan Broicn, 
Grind drop black in Japan using enough vermilion to be visible. 
Chrome Greens. Grind your greens in Japan, or use greens com- 
posed of chrome yellow and Prussian blue. Carmine Color on Fire 
Fnr/ines, &c. Cheap method. For a ground, use the best English 
vermilion, then add pure carmine, ground in a little drymg oil, to 
your body flowing varnish, and apply two coats carefiilly. This 
method extends the precious color so that an ounce will suffice for a 
carriage or machine. Oxford Brown. Use a little chrome yellow, 
India red, best ochre, white lead, burned umber, just white enough 
to be seen ; yellow is the leading color ; red to warm it, and umber 
to impart tho brown shade, Itich Purple. Vermilion and Prussian 



CABINETMAKERS, PAIXTEKS', &C., RECEIPTS. 279 

bine, Tvith a littlo -white, a very cheap, nice color. Faxon Color. Us« 
yellow, red, a little black, a little tierra de Kiemia, or burned umber 
may be added to obtain the right shade. Drab Color. White and 
law umber form a cool drab which may be varied with chrome, or 
red, as may be desired. Plum Broicn. Drop black and vermilion 
makes a very good color at a cheap rate. 

Striping ok "Picking Out," for Carriage Work.— Great 
care is required in this part of the work to carry a steady hand so 
that the lines may be drawn equidistant, clean and neat. For fine 
lines, grind the color in drying oil, as it makes the best worlc. Japan 
color will do for broad or coarse lines, on blue ground. If a largo 
carriage, with heavy Avheels, draw lines with Frankfort-black, Japan 
mixed color from three quarter inch to one inch broad, on all parts of 
the carriage, wheels, sjmngs, spokes, hubs, &c., then draw fine lines 
of light orange or light primrose color about three-eighths or a quarter 
inch from the broad black line, Avith one fine line around the edges of 
the black nuts and bolt heads. On superior work, pure Avhite, gold, 
or deep orange lines may be drawn down the middle of the black 
lines, producing a very line effect; on greens, pick out with black, if a 
light green, black lines will be sufficient, if desired better, run up the 
centre of the black lines with white, not too fine. On darlc green, 
pick out with black, running very fine lines on each side of the blaclc 
three-eighths of an inch off the black. This also sets off a xcrj bright 
green to good advantage. On Clarets, pick out Avith black, Avitli vei-- 
milion or rich orange fine side lines, or light orange side lines with 
vermilion line run up the centre of the black ; or light gold line up 
the centre of one large black line. On Oxford Brovm, piclc out with 
black, fine line with vermilion or medium tint of chrome j^ellow with 
slight tint of red in it ; or part the black line with Avhite doAvn the 
centre. On Fawn Colors, pick out with broad black, fine line Avitli 
white on each edge, or broAvn drab shade. On Japan or Phnn 
Browns, vermilion line has the best appearance. On Olives or Qua- 
kers' Greens, pick out witli black, Avitli white for fine lines, or orange 
or light green. On Drabs, pick out Avith black, fine Ihie with vermii- 
ion, or high colored orange, or Avhite centre line for extra finish. On 
Purple, pick out Avith black, fine line with a bright tint of orange or 
Acrmilion. 

Varnishing of Coaches and Carriages. — In this, as well as in 
the painting department, absolute cleanliness is indispensable, as 
regards brushes, pots, freedom from dust, &c. When your Avork 
is ready, if it is the under carriage, apply a good full coat of carriage 
varnish, and when through with this part of the process, go over'it 
rgain, this time using body vaniish. After it is hard and dry proceed 
to " Hat ' ' the worlc by lightly removing the gloss with ground pumice, 
Avater, and a woollen cloth, being careful not to cut into the lines or 
f;round ; then clean away all the pumice, and dry off nicely with the 
chamois leather slightly wet. If you have cut through in any part, 
repair Avith Japan color previous to second coating. Let your second 
coat be very full and well laid on, but be careful that it does not run. 
A very superior gloss will be obtained on the wheels, if after tho 
application of a good coat you spin them until the varnish is nearly 
ret. 

If the second coat is not satisfactory, repeat tho flattening process 



280 CABINETMAKEKS, PAINTERS', &C., KECEIPTS. 

■with your pumice, cloth and water, clean off as before and varnish 
again. 

In more costly polished work, commence with the very finest 
gromid pumice or Tripoli, rub until you bring the work to a very 
smooth state, then Avash off very clean and nice, drj'^ and dust weU, 
Use every precaution against dust, by sweeping and sprinkling your 
lioor in every stage of polishing and varnishing. The next step in 
polishing is to use a fine cloth for a rubber, rotten-stone, sifted fine 
through muslm and mixed with olive oil ; rub with this luitil the 
gloss is restored, occasionally examining the progress of the work. 
This step being finished, wipe off Avith a perfectly clean cotton cloth, 
with a i)iece of the finest flax full of fine wheat flour or putty powder 
go over the work, rubbing well to polish it stiU farther, and remove 
every particle of the oil and rotten-stone previously used. Finish off 
by rubbing the work briskly with an old silk handlverchief, which 
will induce a beautiful fine gloss. In every instance Avhen a polish 
and varnish finish is required, do not omit to lay on an extra coat of 
varnish, as it will greatly enhance the appearance of the work. 

GiLDi^s'G AND OiiXAMEKTiNG Carklages. — English gold size is the 
best for this purpose. If you cannot get it ready prepared, make a 
substitute by using English varnish and Japan in equal parts. If 
the gilding is for striping, you should mix a little chrome yellOAv 
with it, to be able to see the lines the better, but for lettering no 
coloring is required. Eub your job down smoothly, take a piece of 
muslin and tie up in it a little whitening to form a "pounce bag ;" 
with this dust over every part of the work where the gold leaf is to 
be put, to prevent the leaf sticking to the surface not covered by 
the size, or Avash the job OA-er Avitli starch water, or rub it over Avith 
the raw surface of a potato cut in halves ; the juice of tlie potato 
soon dries, and leaves a thin film to which the gold will not adhere. 
Either of the above methods Avill do, and tlie coating will wash off 
when the gilding is dry. The surface prepared, take the size and 
put on the stripes, figures, or ornaments, and alloAv it to dry just 
enough to enable you to pass j^our finger over it without sticking, 
but if it is "tacky" when you place your finger upon it, it Is 
read J'' for the gold leaf, aaIucIi is to be applied in the way directed 
for gilding letters on Avood. The gold letters may be shaded with 
ultramarine, carmine, asphaltum, lake, Paris green, verdigris, &c,, to 
suit the taste, 

Bronzikg. — Gold bronze is used on carriage parts for striping and 
ornamenting, using the same size as that used for gold leaf. For 
taking up and applying the bronze, take a piece of plush or velvet 
and make a " pounce bag," by tying up a wad of cotton, rubbing the 
bronze gently over the size. To vary the appearance, a mixture of 
cop]3er, gold, and silver bronze may be applied. For fancy work in 
bronze, cut out any desired pattern on thin sheet brass, pasteboard, 
or paper, and apply it to any nearly dry varnished surface ; rub the 
bronze on through the apertures in the pattern. 

Good Colors for Business Wagons. — N^o, 1, Body. — Chrome 
pTeen ; frame or ribs black striped with white or cream color, 
Jinnninfi gear. — Cream color stri])ed Avith red, bine or dark green, or 
black, and red fine hue. Xo. 2. Body. — Yellow; frame black, stiiped 
with b^iie or Avhitc. llunninrj ^ca?-,— Light vermilion, striped Avith 



CABIXETilAKEItS, TAINTEIIS*, S:C., RECEirTS, 281 

black and wliite. Xo. 3. Bodtj. — Carmine .daze over Indian red, 
liunninfj fjear. — Vermilion. No. 4. Bodij.—Dcci^ weimillou. ^ Eun- 
ninr/ fjear. — Liglit vermilion. 

]\iixTUKE TO KEMOVE OLD Paixt. — Dissolve 1 lb. potasli in 3 pts. 
Avatcr over the fire, then add yellow ochre or some common dry i)aiut 
until it is as thick as rough stuff ; spread this over your old paint, 
and after a little it will come off quite casil}', then wash the wood 
f.itli soap and water to remove aU the potash, dry off and sand-paper, 
then give a coat of clean raw oil. Another method is to heat a heavy 
piece of iron and apply to the paint, which will cause it to become 
loose and soft, so that it may be scraped off with a knife. Still another 
method is to direct the flame of a spirit lamp (which may be con- 
structed for the purpose) on the old paint, scraping it off as it softens. 

To Bleach Oil. — Pour as muck linseed oil into a shallow earthen 
vessel as will stand one inch deep, then pour in G inches of water, 
cover with a fine cloth, and let the whole stand in the sun for a few 
weeks until the liquid becomes tliick, Avheu it should be jwured into 
a phial and submitted to a gentle heat ; after wldc-h the clear is to be 
poured off and strained through a flamiel cloth, v 

To Copr AX OiiXAMEXT. — Place the paper or other article contain- 
ing the ornament against a pane of glass ; then laying a sheet of thin 
paper over it, you can copy it exactly with a lead pencil. 

0KXA3IEXTS, in the shape of decalcomine or other gilded pictures 
may be easily transferred to carriages or coaches by following the 
directions given in transferring x)ictures. See farther on. 

Vekmilion. — To i^revent vermilion from fading, add to tno dry 
color, before mixing, ^ part of flour of sidphnr. Light English ver- 
milion is used for stripmg, ornamenting or lettering; the deep vermil- 
ion having less body, w"!!! not cover good. Englisli vermilion gives 
the best color on carriage work when mixed ^nth rubbhig varnish 
and oil. American vermilion should not be groiuid, as the process 
woidd change it to an orange color ; while green, Indian red, chrome 
yellow, and all heavy body colors are aU the better for being ground 
as fine as possible. liaw oil is preferable to boiled, as it is more 
volatile, and penetrates and fills the pores of the wood better, 

PunnxG FOB Carriage "Work. — First coat of lead. Mix wliite 
lead with raw oil, 2 parts, Japan, 1 part, to make it proper for a thick 
coat, adding a very Little tur^Dentine to make it work easily. For 
carriage parts add a little Indian black, but not for bodies. — Second 
coat of lead. Mix white lead with 1 part raw oil and 2 parts Japan, 
and a little turpentine, as before, adding lampblack for carriage paits, 
but none for the body. — 'iliird and fourth coat. Mix white lead into a 
thick paste with turpentine, add a little oil, Jaiian and rubbing varnish 
to bind the paint well ; add, for the carriage parts, a little lampblack 
and a little red lead. 

, Hard dryixg Putty. — For carriage xoorTc. MLx dry white lead 
with Japan and rubbing varnish equal parts, to the in-opcr consistency, 
beating it with a small mallet to bruise the lumps. Keep it, when 
not in use, in water, to prevent it drying. 

Rough Stuff. — For carriage loork. Take 3 parts of English filling 
(gromid state), 2 parts dry white lead, 1 part white lead in oil. MLk 
■with Japan, 2 parts, rubbing varnish, 1 part Mix and crush thor- 
oughly by running all through the mill together. 



282 CABINETMAKERS, TAINTERS', &C., KECEirTS. 

FACiNa Lead for C.vjiriage Work. — Mix dry wliite lead a\ ith 2 
parts Japan, 1 part rubbing varuisli, and tliin with spirits of turpen- 
tine, adding a little lampblack to make a clean lead color, and run all 
through the mill. 

Coach Painting. — The panels of such -work are generally painted 
in color, while the pillars, top strip, quarters, deck, &c. , are alwaj's 
black ; umber colors, lakes, greens, and blues are some of the best 
colors used on this work. To prepare the body for any of these 
colors, a ground color is used in the place of lampblack on black 
■work. The following are a few approved c/rounds. Lake. — Indian 
red and vermilion mixed to a dark brown, but some prefer a black 
ground for lake. Ultramarine. — Mix a medium blue witli white lead 
and Prussian blue. Vermilion. — A light pink color is generally used 
as a ground for vermilion. Green. — Green and all heavy-bodied 
colors will cover weU on the lead colors without any ground color. 
Victoria lake and black Japan makes a fine color for carriages. 

Prepared Oil for Carriages, &c. — To 1 gal. linseed oil add 2 
lbs. gum shellac ; litharge, J lb. ; red lead, ^ lb. ; nmber, 1 oz. Boil 
slowly as usual until the gums are dissolved; grind your paints in this 
(any color), and reduce with turpentine. 

Porcelain Finish, very fine for Parlors. — To prepare tlie 
wood for the finish, if it be pine, give one or two coats of transparenJ. 
varnish, which i^revents the pitch from oosing out, causing the finisli 
to turn yellow ; next, give the room at least four coats of pure zinc, 
which may be ground in only sufficient oil to enable it to grind prop- 
erly ; then mix to a proper consistence with turpentme or naphtha. 
Give each time to dry. When it is dry and hard, sand-paper it to a 
perfectly smooth surface, when it is ready to receive the finish, which 
consists of two coats of French zmc ground in, and thinned with 
Demar vaniish, until it works properly mider the brush. 

Japan Drier Best QuALiTY.^Take linseed oil, 1 gal. ; put into 
it gum shellac, f lb. ; litharge and burned Turkey umber, eacli ^ lb. ; 
red lead, ^ lb. ; su^^ar of lead, 9 oz. Boil in the oil till all are dissolv- 
ed, which will require about 4 hours; remove from the fire, and stir in 
spirits of turpentine, 1 gal., and it is done. 2. Linseed oil, 5 gals.; 
add red lead and litharge, each 3i lbs. ; raw umber, IJ lbs. ; sugar of 
lead and sulphate of zinc, each, \ lb. ; pulverize all the articles to- 
gether, and boil in the oil till dissolved ; when a little cool, thin with 
turpentine, G gals. 3. Linseed oil, 4 gals, red lead and umber, of each 
8 ozs. ; sulphate of zinc, 4 ozs. ; sugar of lead, 4 ozs. Boil until it wiU 
scorch a feather, when it is ready for use. 4. Nut or linseed oil, 1 
gal., ; litharge, 12 oz. ; sugar of lead and white vitriol, of each 1 oz. ; 
simmer and skim until a pellicle forms ; cool, and, when settled, de- 
cant the clear, 5. Oil 1 gal. ; litharge, 12 to 16 oz. ; as last. 6. Old 
nut or linseed oil, Ipint; litharge, 3 oz. Mix; agitate occasionally for 
10 days ; then decant the clear. 7. Nut oil and water, of each 2 lbs. : 
white vitriol, 2 oz. ; boil to dryness. 8. Mix oil with powdered snow 
or ice, and keep it for 2 months without thawing. 

To Reduce Oil Paint with Water — Take 8 lbs. of pure un- 
slaked lime, add 12 qts. water, stir it and let it settle, tuni it off gently 
and bottle it; keep it corked till used. This will mix with oil, and in 
proportion of half will render paint more durable. 

Oil Paint.— To reduce with Water.— Gum shellac, 1 lb. ; sal- 



CABINETMAKERS, PAIXTERs', AC, RECEIPTS. 283 

Foda, ^ lb. ; water, 3 i-)aits ; boil all to;jcthcr in a kettle, stirring till 
dissolved. If it does not all dissolve, add a little more sal-soda ; avIicu 
cool, bottle for use; mix iip 2 quarts of oil paint as usual, any color 
desired, usiug no turiDcntiue ; put 1 pint of the gum shellac mixture 
with til's oil paint when if becomes thick • it can then be reduced with 
water to .a proper thickness to lay on witli a brush. 

A>'OTiTEii Method. — Soft water, 1 gal. ; dissolve it in pcarlash, 3 
oz, ; bring to a boil, and slowly add shellac, 1 lb. ; when cold, it ia 
ready to be added to oil paint in equal proportions. 

Fi!exidle Taint fok Ca>"\'as. — ^I'ellow soap, 2^ lbs.; boiling 
water, 1 2 gals. ; dissolve; grind the solution while hot with rjood oil 
paint, li'cwt. 

Painteks' CKEA:\r. — Pale nut oil, G oz. ; mastic, 1 oz. ; dissolve; 
add of su^ar of lead, ^ oz., previously ground in the least possible 
quantity oi oil; then add of water q. s. graduallj*, until it acquires the 
consistency of cream, working it well all the time. Used to cover the 
unlinislicd work of painters. It will wash off with water. 

S."MALT. — Roast cobalt ore to drive off the arsenic ; make the resi- 
duum into a paste Avith oil of vitriol, and heat it to redness for an 
hour ; powder, dissolve in water, and precipitate the oxide of iron by 
carbonate of potash, gradually added mitil a rosc-colorcd ])owder 
begins to fall ; then decant the clear, and precipitate by a solution of 
silicate of 'potash, prepared by fusing together for 5 hours a mixture 
of 10 parts of potiish, 15 parts of finely-ground flints, and 1 part char- 
coal. The precipitate, when dry, may be fused and powdered very 
fine. It is much the cheapest way to buy smalts ready made. 

Factitious Linseed Oil. — Fish or vegetable oil, 100 gallons ; 
acetate of lead, 7 lbs. ; litharge, 7 lbs. ; dissolved in vinegar, 2 galls. 
"Well mixed with heat, then add boiled oil, 7 gallons ; turpentine, 1 
gallon. Again well mix. 

Vaknisiies. — Common Oil Varnish. — Kesm, 4 lbs. ; beeswajc, 
h lb. ; boiled oil, 1 gallon ; mix with heat ; then add spirits of turpca- 
tine, 2 quarts. Chinese Vaimish. — Mastic, 2 oz. ; sandarac, 2 oz. ; 
1 ectified spirits, 1 pt. ; close the matrass with bladder, with a pin- 
hole for the escape of vapor ; heat to boiling in a sand or water Isath, 
.'^nd when dissolved, strain through linen. Metallic Varnish For 
Coach Bodies. — Asphaltun, 5G lbs. ; melt, then add litharge, 9 li)S., 
1 cd lead, 7 lbs. Boil, then add boiled oil, 12 gals. ; yellow resin, 12 lbs. 
A:;ain boil imtU, in cooling, the mixture may be roiled mto pills ; then 
."dd spts. of turpentine, 30 gals. ; lampblack, 7 lbs. Mix well. 
Mastic Varnish. — Mastic, 1 lb. ; white wax, 1 oz. ; spirits turjjen- 
thie, 1 gallon ; reduce the gums small ; then digest it with heat in a 
close vessel till dissolved. Turpentine Varnish. — Resin, lib. ; boiled 
oil, 1 lb. ; melt ; then add turpentine, 2 lbs. Mix well. 2'ale Var^ 
nish. — Pale African copal, 1 part ; fuse. Then add hot ])ale oil, 2 
ixuts. Boil the mixture till it is stringy ; then cool a little, and add 
spirits of turpentine, 3 parts. Lacquer Varnish. — A good lacquer is 
made by coloring lac varnish with turmeric and annatto. Add as 
much of these two coloring substances to the varnish as will give the 
]ivoper color; then squeeze the vaniish, through a cotton cloth when it 
forms lacquer. Gold VarnisJi. — Digest shellac, sixteen parts, gum 
f-andarac, mastic, of each three parts ; crocus, one part ; gum gam- 
boge, two parts ; all bruised, v. ith alcohol, one hundred and forty- 



284 CABlNETilAKEIiS, PAIXTERS', ctC, RECEirTS. 

four parts. Or, digest seedlac, sandarac, mastic, of each cijlit 
parts ; gamboge, two parts ; dragon's Wood, one part ; Avhite turpen- 
tine, six parts ; turmeric, four parts ; bruised "witli alcohol, one 
hundred and twenty parts. Deep Gold-Colored Lacquer. — Seed lac, 
o oz. ; turmeric, 1 oz. ; dragon's blood, one-fourth ounce ; alcohol, 1 
pt. ; digest for a week, frequently shaking : decant, and filter. Ln^-.- 
quers are used upon polished metals and wood to impart the appear- 
ance of gold, if yellow is required, use turmeric, aloes, saffron or 
gamboge ; for red, use annatto, or dragon's blood, to color. Turmeric, 
gamboge, and dragon's blood generally afford a sufficient range of 
colors. Gold Lacquer. — Put into a clean 4 gal. tin 1 lb. of ground 
turmeric, Ih, oz. of gamboge, 3^ lbs. powdered gum sandarac, j 
poiuid of shellac, and 2 gals, of spirits of wine. Wlien shaken, di.s- 
solved, and strained, add 1 pint of turpentine varnish, well mixed. 
Varnish For Tools. — Take tallow, 2 oz. ; resin, 1 oz . ; and melt to- 
gether. Strain while hot, to get rid of specks which are in the reshi ; 
apply a slight coat on your tools "with a brush, and it Avill keep off 
rust for aiij'- length of time. Gold Varnish. — Turmeric, 1 dram ; 
gamboge, 1 dram ; turpentine, 2 pints ; shellac, 5 oz. ; dragon's blood, 
8 drams ; thin mastic varnish, 8 oz. ; digest with occasional agitation 
for li days ; then set aside to fine, and pour off the clear. Beautiful 
Pale Amber Varnish. — Amber, pale and transparent, G lbs. ; fuse ; 
add hot clarified linseed oil, 2 gals. ; boil till it strmgs strongly, cool a 
little, and add oil of turpentine, 4 gals. This soon becomes very hard 
and is the most durable of oil- varnishes. When wanted to dry 
quicker, drying oil may be substituted for Imseed, or " driers" maybe 
added during the cooling. Black Coach Varnish. — Amber, 1 lb. ; 
fuse ; add hot dnjing oil, \ pt. ; powdered black resin and l^aplcs 
asphaltum, of each 3 oz. When prox^erly incorporated and consid- 
erably cooled, add oil of turpentine, 1 pt. Body Varnish. — Finest 
African copal, 8 lbs. ; fuse carefully ; add clarified oil, 2 gals. ; boil 
gently for 4.3 liours, or until quite striugy ; cool a little, and thm with 
oil of turjientine, o^ gals. Dries slowly. Carriage Varnish. — San- 
darac, 19 oz. ; xmle "shellac, 9J oz. ; very pale transparent resin, 12^ 
oz. ; turi^entine, 18 oz. ; 85 per cent, alcohol, 5 pts. : dissolve. Used 
for the internal parts of carriage, &c. Dries in ten minutes. Cabinet- 
makers' Varnish. — Very pale shellac, 5 lbs. ; mastic, 7 oz. ; alcohol, 
90 per cent. 5 or G pts. ; dissolve in the cold with frequent stirring. 
Used for French polishing, &c. Japanners' Copal Varnish. — ^l*alo 
African copal, 7 lbs. ; fuse ; add clarified linseed oil, ^ gal. ; boil five 
minu es, remove it into the open air, add boiling oil of turpentine, 2 
gals, ; mix well, strain it into the cistern, and cover it up immediately. 
Used to varnish furniture, and by japamiers, coach -makers, &c. Coi)al 
Varnish. — Pale hard copal, 8 lbs. ; add hot and pale drying oil, 2 gals. ; 
boil till it strings strongly, cool a little, and thin with hot rectified oil 
of turpentme, 3 gals. ; and strain immediately into the store can. 
Very fine. Gold Vainiish of Watin, for Gilded Articles. — Gum lac iij 
grains, gamboge, dragon's blood, and annatto, of each 12^ oz. ; saffron, 
b^ oz. Each resin must be dissolved separately in 5 pts. of 90 per 
cent, alcohol, and 2 separate tinctures must be made with the dragon's 
blood and annatto in a like quantity of spirits ; and a proper proi^or- 
tion of each mixed together to produce the required shade. Trans- 
parent Varnish for rloufjhs, &c. — Best alcohol, 1 gal. ; gum san- 



CABINETMAKERS, PAINTERS*, &C., RECEIPTS. 285 

darac, 2 lbs. ; c;iam mastic, h lb. ; place all in a tin can -wliich admits 
of being corlvcd ; cork tight, shake it frequently, occasionally ijlaciiig 
the can in hot "svater. "When dissolved, it is ready for use. Fine 
Black Varnish for Coaches. — Melt in an iron ])ot, amber, 32 oz. ; 
resin, 6 oz. ; asphaltum,6 oz, ; drying linseed oil, 1 pt. ; -when partly 
cooled, add oL of turpentine, -warmed, 1 pint. Mordant Varnish. — 
dissolve 1 oz. mastic, 1 oz. sandarac, ^ oz. gum gjynboge, and ^ oz, 
turpentine in G oz. spirits turpentine. One of the simplest mordants is 
that procured by dissolving a little honey in thick glue. It has the 
elTect of greatly heightening the color of the gold, and the leaf sticks 
extremely well, Chanr/inrj Varnish. — To imitate Gold or Silver, &c. 
Put 4 oz, best gum gamboge into 32 oz. spirits of turpentine ; 4 oz. 
dragon's blood into 32 oz. spirits of turpentine ; and 1 oz, of annatto 
into 8 oz. spirits of turpentine. Make the 3 mixtures in different 
vessels. Keep them in a warni place, ex|iosed to the sun as much as 
possible, for about 2 Aveeks, Avhen they -will be fit for use. Add to- 
gether such quantities of each liquor as the nature of the color you arc 
desirous of obtaining Avill point out. Transparent Varnish, for 
Wood. — Best alcohol, 1 gal. ; nice gum shellac, 2^ lbs. Place the jug 
or bottle in a situation to keep it just a little warm, and it will dis- 
solve quicker than if hot, or left cold. Patent Varnish for Wood or 
Canvas^ — ^Take spirits of turpentine, 1 gal ; asphaltum, 2| lbs. ; put 
them into an iron kettle which will fit upon a stove, and dissolve the 
gum by heat. When dissolved and a little cool add copal varnish, 1 
]it. ; and boiled linseed oil, 1 pt ; when cold, it is ready for use. 
Perhaps a little lampblack would make it a more perfect black. 

Mosaic Gold Powder for Broxzing, &c. — Melt 1 lb. tin in a 
crucible, add ^ lb. of purified quicksilver to it: when this is cold, it 
is reduced to powder, and ground, with ^ lb. sal-ammoniac and 7 oz. 
flour of sulphur, till the whole is thoroughly mixed. They are then 
calcined in a matrass ; and the sublimation of the other ingredients 
leaves the tin converted into the mosaic gold powder which is found 
at the bottom of the glass. Remove any black or discolored particles. 
The sal-ammoniac must be very white and clear, and the mercury of 
the utmost purit.y. When a deeper red is required, grind a very small 
quantity of red lead with the above materials. True Gold Powder. — 
Put some gold leaf, with a little honey, or thick gum water made 
with gum arable, into an earthen mortar, and pomid the mixture till 
the gold is reduced to very small particles; then wash out the honey 
or gum repeatedly with warm water, and the gold in Y)Owder will bo 
left behind. ^Vlien dry, it is fit for use. Dutch Gold Powder is 
made from Dutch gold leaf, which is sold in books at a yery low 
price. Treat in the manner described above for true gold powder. 
When this inferior powder is used, cover the gilding with a coat of 
clear varnish, otherwise it will soon lose its bright apjiearance. Cop- 
per Powder is prepared by dissolving filings or slips of copper with 
iiitrous acid in a receiver. When the acid is saturated, the slips are to 
be removed ; or, if filings be employed, the solution is to be poured 
off from what remains undissolved. Small bars are then put in, which 
will i^recipitate the cojipcr powder from the saturated acid; and, 
the liquid being poured from the powder, this is to bo washed clean 
off the crystals by repeated waters. 

Bronze Powder of apaZc gold color is produced from an alloy of 



236 CABINETMAKERS, PAINTERS, &C., RECEIPTS. 

i3| parts of copper and 2| parts zinc, of a crimson metallic lustre from 
copper, of a. paler color, copper, and a \ery little zinc, gi-een bronze 




ing, and these are levigated into impalpable powders, along with a 
tilm of tine oil, to .prevent oxidizement, and to favor the levigatiou 

General Directions for Bronzing. —The choice of the above 
poAvders is of course determined by the degree of brilliancy you wish 
to obtain. The powder is mixed with strong gum water or isinglass, 
and laid on with a brush or pencil ; and, not go dry as to have still 
certain clamminess; a piece of soft leather wrapped round the finger 
is dipped into the powder, and rubbed over the work. When the work 
has been all covered with the bronze, it must be left to dry, and and 
loose powder then cleared away by a hair-pencil. 

Bronzing Iron. — The subject should be heated to a greater de- 
gree than the hand can bear, and German gold, mixed with a small 
quantity of spirit of wine varnish, spread over it with a pencil; should 
the iron be already polished, you must heat it weU, and moisten it 
with a linen rag dipped in vinegar. 

Gil,der's Parchment Size. — The best is made from cuttings of 
fine parchment. Wash them clean, cover them with water, and al- 
low them to simmer for about 2 hours over a slow fire : when brought 
to the proper strength or tenacity, which may be tested by the trial of 
a portion between the thumb and finger; if it proves adhesive pour 
it into a clean vessel for use. When solidified, it resembles a jellj^; 
if very stiff, it will require dilution with water. Some gilders use a 
lactometer and a deep glass to determine the proper strength of size. 
When the float indicates a little higher than 1, for burnish size, and 
near 2, for matt gold size, excellent work will result. In the United 
States, some gilders substitute a lohite f/lue for parchment cuttings 
in the making of size. For Oil Gold Size, consult that item. 

Matt Gold Size is usually purchased from dealers ready made ; 
it is prepared for use by intermixture, (in a clean vessel) over a slow 
fire, Avith parchment size, to the density of a thickish cream, and used 
Avhile warm. 

Burnish Gold Size is often bought ready made from the deal- 
er. Good results may be obtained by using red chalk, black lead, 
and deer suet, of each 2 ozs., finely ground to a stiff paste, with 2 lbs. 
of ]iipe clay, and for use prepared like matt size. 

Thick White for application to the parts intended to be burnish- 
ed, i)rcA-ious to putting on the burnish size, is a composition of parch- 
ment size and whitening, about the density of cream. 

Gilder's Ormolu. — Red Sanders "wood 2 drs., turmeric 1 dr., 
garnet shellac 1 oz., spirits of Avine ^ pt. : mix all together thoroughly 
and strain. This is added to medium strength parchment size in or- 
der to impart a more beautiful appearance to the matt and oil gilding. 

Clay for Gilder's Use is usually purchased from the dealers 
and is prepared similar to burnish size. 

The Stopping Composition used for fillmg holes and deficiencies 
in the Avork is a compound of size and Avhitening, brought to the 
density of putty. 

To Whiten Mouldings.— On gilded work to be exposed to the 
weather, paint is used as a foundation, and the gilding is done in oil 



CABINETMAKERS, PAINTERS, &C., RECEIPTS. 287 

as hiirnished c/ildinr/ is unfit to withstand exposure. This last named 
description of Avork must have a good base of whitening applied to the 
moulding previous to gilding. First apply a very hot thin priming 
coat of fine whitening and parchment size ; after this is dry, fill the 
holes, blemishes, aud irregularities with the stopping composition; 
then apply a good coat of thick white, dry, and apply another. After 
applying several coats of the thick white, which should be in all about 
l-16th of an inch in thickness, pumice-stone should be applied to 
smooth off all irregularities and the surplus whiting. Make thorough 
work to ensure a fine smooth surface on the moulding, paying great 
attention to the different hollows, beads, &c. 

CoMPOSiTio^r FOR Ornaments. — Best glue, 9 lbs. 6 ozs. ; water 
5 pts. ; rosin (white) 4 lbs. ; raw linseed oil 4 pts. Boil the glue in the 
water until dissolved; dissolve the rosin in the oil, add the whole to 
the glue mixture. Boil the whole slowly for 25 minutes longer, aud 
pour the mixture into a large vessel among finely sifted whiting, aud 
mix up to the consistency of thin putty. Set away in a dani]) place, 
aud cover with a wet cloth ready for use. The ornaments are made 
by selecting a portion of the mixture, steaming it to a soft plastic con- 
dition (for the mixture becomes very hard when cold), and pressing 
with the hands into a boxwood mould, previously well lubricated or 
smeared with oil and turpentine. The composition being fitted into 
the mould, a board thoroughly wet, is place i against the mixture out- 
side the mould, and the whole is submitted to pressure in an iron 
screw press, which drives the mixture into the minutest parts of the 
mould. This done, the pressure is relaxed, and the mould taken from 
the press and the ornament withdrawn from it. The ornaments may be 
attached to the frame with glue or white lead ; and when they com- 
pose the corners on frames, require to have the vacant space between 
hacked or filled up with composition softened in boiling water. 

Gilding in Oil — The ornaments being properly adjusted and al- 
lowed full time to harden on the frame, "the first "step taken by the 
gilder is to wash and cleanse them, together with the frame, from the 
adherent oil and dust. This done, when dry, apply a uniform coat of 
thin white to the frame, and, after drying, fill all the holes and defect- 
ive parts with the stopping described above. When this becomes 
hard, go . over every part of the work and bring it to the utmost 
smoothness with fine glass paper. Tliis part of the work must not be 
slighted if a good job is wanted, for it cannot be dispensed with. Now 
dust off the work and apply the clay i^repared as described above; al- 
low it to dry and rub smooth with fine glass paper once more. A coat 
of clear cole is now applied, consisting of parchment size diluted to a 
thinnish consistency with w^ater. It is usual to apply 2 coats of this 
size in a warm condition. It effectually prevents the absorption of 
the succeeding coat of oil size. The gilder prepares the oil size (boiled 
linseed oil and ochre well ground together) by bringing it to a creamy 
consistency, and purifies it by straining through a clean rag held un- 
der pressure, squeezing out the size. This preparation is spread very 
evenly over the prepared surface, and allowed to stand until it be- 
comes slightly sticky or tacky, when the knife, cushion and gold leaf 
are brought into requisition, and the leaf applied with the tip to the 
entire surface covered with the size. This process requires careful 
management ; the gilder blows the gold leaf out on the cushion with 
his breath, divides and subdivides it with his knife to cover the differ- 



233 CADINETMAKEKS, PAINTERS, &C., RECEIPTS. 

eiit wauts of various parts of the work. The leaf is dabbed down 
with a dabber of cotton wool or other soft material, and finished wiih 
a badger. See Gildlmj Letters on Wood. The frame being now con - 
ered with the leaf, is brushed off to clear it from tlie small gold pai ti- 
des still adliering, and is finally finished b}' applying the finish, size 
evenlj^ Avith a liog's-hair brush over the work. The finish consists of 
a somewhat weak, clear size, which may be tempered with a little or- 
molu if it is desired to'im]xirt a finer color to the gold. 

Water and Oil Gilding on Large, Bhoad Fraimes, &c. — Re- 
move all dust and dirt from the frame and ornaments, by thorough 
washing and brushing with plenty of clear water, being careful notlo 
damage the ornaments while doing so, dry, and applv a coat of tliin 
white, fill all holes and defects by stopping, and treat the parts in- 
tended to be burnished with three or four coats of tliick ichite, smooth- 
ing down the last coat when nearly dry, by passing the fingers over it. 
When dry, go over it with glass paper, making a complete smooth job; 
next apply a coat of day, and smooth down with tlass paper once 
more. Next, apply an even coat of size, and when dry, apply another. 
The frame is next " put in oil " as above described, and subsequently, 
the parts intended to be burnished, which have received the coats of 
(hick white, must be thoroughly cleaned from oil bv careful rubbing 
with a wet piece of cotton applied by the finger, turning the rag at 
short intervals so as to present a clean surface to the work. Guard 
against touching any other parts of the frame with the wet cloth, as 
the mistake will have to be corrected with the oil brush. To make 
sure that no trouble will result from grease, it is necessary before lay- 
ing the gold, to apply clay to all parts intended to be burnished, in 
order to prevent any of the gold leaf from sticking, as it would have 
to be removed with glass paper previous to applying other prepaia- 
tions. The frame is then gilded as previously described, the leaf 
pressed into the cavities of the ornaments, &c., the defects corrected, 
the work brushed off, and size finished as above. The parts to be 
burnished or iimter c/ilded, previously noted as being coated with clay, 
must now be treated to three or four coats of 7nat gold size, laid on 
evenly with a camel' s-hair brush. When dry, polish with fine glass 
paper, brush down, and pass over it afterwards with a damp sponge. 
Now apply 2 even coats of burnish gold size, and apply the leaf as 
soon as the lavst coat becomes dry. This is applied in a manner en- 
tirely different from that previously described. The frame being ele- 
vat3d at a proper angle to allow the surplus water to drain off, and 
the gold leaf, cushion, knife, tip, camel' s-hair pencils, glass of clean 
water, &c., being ready, proceed to gild the bead which passes around 
the frame between those parts which have previously been oil-gilt, by 
dipping a proper sized camel's-hair pencil into the glass of water, wipe 
it on the edge, commence at the left hand extremity of the bead. Avet- 
ting it for a space of 4 or 5 inches or more down, saturating it 
thoroughly Avith the water, and apply the gold leaf (previousl}" cut to 
the proper size and held in readiness on the tip) a ery neatlj^ and 
quickly to the spot Avhile it is covered with water. Go over the bead, 
ornaments, and all parts intended to be burnished in this waj^, being 
extremely careful to allow no water to come in contact with the gilded 
part of the frame. When done, examine closely for faults, and repair 
all defects discoA^ered, dry, and proceed to burnish hj applying the 
curved part of the burnisher to the work, passing it hither and 



CABINETMAKERS, PAINTERS, &C., RECEIPTS. 289 

thitlier over the gold with the right hand, assisting the pressure and 
steadjiug tlie movement by the thumb of the left. This results in 
bringing out a splendid burnish. Go over tlie work Avitli particular 
care, bring out the full lustre of the gold, cover deficiences,/inw/i, size 
the frame once more, carefully avoiding the burnished parts ; finally, 
tinge the edge of tlie frame with oclii'c. In burnisli gilding, on 
large frames, the conspicious parts of the frame, sucli as the beads, 
ornaments, &c., should be selected for operation. ' 

Brush Polish. — Shellac 4 ozs., white rosin 4 ozs., dissolve in 2 
pts. spirits of wine and apply while Avarm, Avith a brush. 

Cabinet Maker's Varnish. — Gum shellac 3 ozs., gum mastic 

1 oz., gum sandarac, 3 ozs., spirits of wine, 40 ozs. Dissolve the last 

2 in the spirits, then dissolve the shellac and pour off the clear for 
use. 

French Polish Reviver. — Linseed oil 1 pint, vinegar 4 ozs., 
spts. camphor 2 ozs., spts. hartshorn g oz., butter of antimony, 1 oz. 
Another. — Dissolve 8 ozs. shellac and ^ an oz. of oxalic acid iii 2 lbs. 
naphtha, then add 3 ozs. linseed oil. 

Ebonized Black for Ebonizing Moulding Frames, fee- 
Strong vinegar, 1 gal., ext. of logwood, 2 lbs., green copperas, ^ lb., 
China blue, ^ lb., nut-gall, 2 ozs. Simmer over a slow fire until all is 
dissolved ; set off and cool. Add to the above ^ pt. iron rust obtained 
b}^ steeping iron filings in strong vinegar. An unequalled jet black. 

Satin wood Stain for the Inside of Drawers. — Alcohol 2 
pts., powdered gamboge, 3 ozs., ground turmeric, 6 ozs. Steep to 
obtain full strength, and strain through muslin. Apply 2 coats with 
a fine sponge, sandpaper when dry and varnish or French polish. 

Walnut Stain on Pine or Whitewood. — Take 2 gals, of very 
thin sized shellac; add burnt sienna, 2 lbs., burnt umber, 2 lbs., lamp- 
black, ^ lb. ; shake all together and mix Avell in a stone jug. Apply 
1 coat Avith a brush, dry; sandpaper smooth, and apply a coat of com- 
mon varnish or shellac. A fine imitation of Avalnut. 

Cheap Black Stain on Pine or Whitewood. — Water, 2gals., 
black copperas, 1 lb., logwood chips, 1 lb., ext. logwood, 1 lb., indigo 
blue, 1 lb., lamp-black, 2 ozs. ; simmer over a slow fire, cool off, 
strain, and add 1 oz. nut-gall. A splendid black stain for cheap 
Avork. 

To Gild a Wooden Flower Stand.— Rub the wood smooth, 
]->rime with glue size, then put on 2 coats of oil paint and one of fiat- 
ting. Smooth over, AAdien dry, Avith Avash-leatlier. Put on gold size, 
and Avhen it is sticky to the touch, it is ready for the leaf, Avhich put 
on carefully and dab doAvn Avith cotton-Avool. A transparent glazing 
can be used to deaden the gold in places. 

Old Oak Imitation on White Deal.— Burnt umber, 1 part, 
brown ochre, 1 part, mix thoroughly Avith a very thin glue size and 
apply. A good oak stain is made by adding 1 lb. each of potash and 
pearlash to 1 gal. water, adding mo7-e water if a lighter stam is re- 
quired. 

Rosewood Imitation on White Deal. — Apply Venetian red 
and a little lamp-black in solution, with thin glue size. A good ma- 
hogany stain is Venetian red, 1 lb., yellow lead, 2 lbs. ; mix with 
thin glue size. W''lnut stain on deal. — Burnt umber and yelloAv 
ochre in thin size. The above may be applied while warm with a 

19 



290 CABINETMAKERS, PAINTERS, AC, RECEIPTS. 

soft rag or by dipping the wood into a vat containing the solution, as 
is done with chairs, etc., in many manufactories. 

Mahogany Imitation on Beech. — Pulverized dragon's blood, 2 
ozs., rectified spts. of wine, 1 qt. 

Filling for French Polished Work. — A creamy paste com- 
posed of water and plaster orf Paris, applied with a coarse rag to the 
grain of the -^ood forms a good filling. Apply vigorously to the Avood 
to fill the pores thoroughly, and wipe off the surplus. Finely sifted 
whitening, mixed with painter's drying oil, is another good filling 
composition. 

Splendid Crimson Spirit Stain. — Brazil-wood, loz,, cochi- 
neal, 1 oz., dragon's-blood, 1 oz., saffron, 2 ozs. ; steep to obtain full 
strength, in 2 qts. alcohol and strain. 

Best Mounting Material. — Good Bermuda arrow root, 1 1 ozs; 
sheet gelatine, 80 grains : mix the arrow root to a creamy consistence 
with a spoon, in 1 oz. of water; then add 14 ozs. of water and the 
gelatine broken into fragments. Boil for 4 or 5 minutes, set it aside 
until partially cool, then add 1 oz. of methylated spirit, and 6 drops 
of carbolic acid, the former quite slowly. This article has no superi- 
or and will keep for years. 

To Clean Engravings. — Place the engraving on a smooth board 
with a sheet of clean paper between, damp the picture on both sides 
with a sponge and clean water; then soak it well with the following 
solution applied with a clean sponge : Water, 1 pt, chloride of lime, 
4 ozs. ; oxalic acid, 1 oz. This imparts a fine white ajipearance to dis- 
colored ijrints, but it must not be applied to water colors in any case, 
as it will certainly destroy them. 

To Revive the Colors of Old Paintings. — Mix linseed oil, 2 
ozs., with methylated chloroform, 1 oz. ; and apply a little over the 
painting, previously washi::;g it with clean water applied with a little 
cottonwool; wipe off the composition with a soft silk handkerchief 
during the next day. The mixture possesses the valuable property of 
restoring the faded colors of paintmgs. The Aapor of alcohol has a 
like effect. 

To Preserve a Scaling or Cracked Painting. — Clean the 
painting very carefully with pure soft Avater, and pour over, or gently 
apply, a mixture of equal parts of methylated chloroform and linseed 
oil. Allow it to remain a day or two ; carefully wipe off tlie excess of 
oil, and apply more of the fresh mixture, Aviping it off as before. Re- 
peat the process until the colors become fixed, and the painting be- 
comes flexible, when it may be cleaned and A-arnished. 

Varnish for Paintings. — No better varnish for paintings can be 
had than that made from good, ripe, clean, gum mastic and rectified 
turpentine, fullj'^ matured by an exposure of several months in a Avide 
mouthed glass bottle. Cover the bottle so as to admit air, but no 
dust, and set it in the light, but out of the sun. 

To Preserve Paintings Indefinitely. — Varnish the painting 
on both sides, and hermetically seal Avith well fitting sheets of polished 
glass on the front, and apply a good coat of air proof material to tlie 
back. According to Wagner, the real cause of the ultimate destruc- 
tion of pictures as Avell as of paint, is the gradual, but continuous, 
yet slow, oxidation of the linoxine, resulting in the crumbling to 
powder of pulverulent matters — pigments used as -^olors. It may not 



CABINETMAKERS, PAINTERS, &C., RECEIPTS. 291 

be out of place to state that oue of the best solvents of liuoxiue (diied 
paiat) is a mixture of alcohol and chloroform, which may be ad- 
vantageously used to remove stains of paint, and also of Avagon and 
carria'o'e grease from silks and woollen tissues. 

To Remove Old Black Varxish fro3I Paintings.— Various 
articles as soda, naptha, spirits of wine, oil of tartar, &c., will effect 
this if caref ullv handled bv an experienced person, or the followmg 
mixture may be applied to the painting with a dabber of cotton wool : 
Wood spirits, 4 ozs. : linseed oU ^ pt. spirits of salts, 2 ozs. Go over 
the paintiu^,' imparting a spiral movement to the rubbmg wad, keep- 
iu'T the pict°ure level and the rubber clean. Watch the progress of the 
work, taking care not to go too far, and tinish by wipmg with a clean 
rag wet with spirits of turpentine. 

To Whitex Plaster Casts, &c.— If the imcalcined plaster is im- 
mersed for 15 minutes in water containing 8 or 10 per cent of sul- 
phuric acid previous to burning it, it wiU after being calcmed, set 
more slowlv, and make splendid casts, which a\-iU be perfectly white. 
Semi-transparent casts of fancv articles can be made of imbaked 
gvpsum, 2 parts, bleached bees- wax, 1 part; paraffiue, 1 part. It is 
verv tough and becomes plastic at 120^. Plaster casts will bear a nail 
driven in them without fracture if they are immersed in a hot solution 
of glue long enough to become saturated. To mend Plaster Models, 
use sandarac varnish, saturatmg the broken surfaces well, then pres- 
sing them together, tlien drying. As an application to the iiiside 
Pkister Moulds use glycerine, or a mixture of lard and oil. 

To Polish Pianos, Furniture, French Polish, &c. — The fol- 
lowing method of polishing pianos is in use in all first class factories. 
The same process will answer for any other piece of. furniture, by 
merely substituting for the scraping, where scraping is not practica- 
ble, a filling, properly colored : First, give the work three coats of 
scraping or Xo. 2 furniture varnish, allowing each coat to become per- 
fectly hard before applying the next ; then scrape off the varnish with 
a steel scraper, properly sharpened on an oilstone, and in scraping be 
careful not to cut into the wood, but merely remove the varnish from 
the surface, leaving the pores filled. Smooth with Xo. 1 sandpaper, 
and the work will be ready for the polishing varnish, four coats of 
which must be put on, allowing each coat to "harden. To determine 
the proper time required for the hardening. I would say that one coat 
will not be ready for the next until it is so hard that you cannot make 
an impression on it with your thumb nail. The four coats having been 
put on, and the work havuig stood a few days— and the longer the bet- 
ter — rub down with fine-ground pumice-stone and water, applied with 
a woolen rag. The work must be rubbed until all lumps and marks 
of the brush are removed ; wash off with a sponge and dry with a 
chamois-skin : let the work stand out in the open air for a day or two, 
taking it into the shop at night. The work should now receive two 
coats more of x)olishing varnish and a second rubbing, after which it 
is ready for polishing. 

Furniture may be polished after the first rubbing, and in that case 
the polishing is performed with lump rotten-stone and water applied 
with a woollen rag. Put plenty of rotten-stone on your work, with 
water enough to make it work easy. Rub until all marks and 
scratches are removed. Rub the rotten-stone off with your bare hand 
ke3 nii5 the work wet. What cannot be removed with the hand should 



2D2 CABINETMAKERS, PAINTERS', &C.," RECEIPTS. 

be washed off with a spono:e. After drying with a chamois-skin, hrins: 
up the polish with the palm of your liand, moving it lightly and 
quickly witli a circular motion, over the work. Clean up the work 
with a piece of soft cotton, dipped into sweet oil, and lightly touch all 
the white spots and marks of the rotten-stone. Remove the oil Avith 
wlieat flour, applied with soft cotton, and finally dust off with a soft 
rag or silk handkerchief. 

The following method is known as the Shellac or French Polish. 
In preparing for this process, add to one pint of Shellac varnish two 
tablespoonf uls of boiled oil; the two to be thoroughly mixed. If you 
want the work dark, add a little burnt umber ; or you can give the 
work anv desired shade by mixing with the shellac the proper pig- 
ment in the dry state. Apply the shellac thus prepared with a small 
bunch of rags held between your fingers. In applyhig it be particular 
in getting it on smooth and even, leaving no thick places or blotches. 
Repeat the process continually until the grain is filled and the Avork 
has received sufficient body. Let it stand a few hours to harden, and 
tlien rub A^our Avork hghtly with pumice-stone and oil, applied Avith a 
rag. A very little rubbing is required, and this is to be followed by 
the cleaning of the work with rags as dry as possible. With a piece 
of muslin Avet Avith alcohol, go over the work two or three times, for 
the purpose of killing the oil." Have re:idy ^ lb. of pare gum shellac 
dissolved in one pint of 95 per ce.nt. alcohol. With this saturate a pad 
made of soft cotton, covered Avith Avhite muslin, and Avith the pad thus 
formed go over your work two or three times. To become proficient 
in this Avork, practice and close attention are required. 

Walnut Stain for Wood. — Water, 1 gal. ; Vandyke brown, 10 
ozs. ; bichromate of potash, 1 oz. ; AA^ashing soda, 6 ozs. ; boil 10 
minutes, immerse the article, or apply Avith a brush as desired. 

Gold Bronze for Furniture. — Mix copal A^arnish Avitli gold- 
colored bronze powder. This is made from bisulphate of tin. 

To Ebonize Wood. — ^Nlix lampblack Avith good French polish and 
apply in the usual way. The lampblack maybe collected on a tin held 
over a kerosene oil lamp, or lighted candle. 

Reviver for Gilt Frames. — AVhite of eggs, 2 ozs. ; chloride of pot- 
ash or soda, 1 oz. ; mix well; bloAv off the dust from the frames; then 
go over them Avith a soft brush dipped in the mixture, and they will 
be equal to ncAV. 

Bad Smell from Animal Size. — To remoA-e bad smell pass it 
through poAvdered charcoal. To preserve it, dissolve one ounce of 
sulphate of zinc, generally known as white copperas, in hot AA'ater, and 
add to everv 5 cwt. It will keep any length of time. Melt your size, 
and thoroughly mix it. 

Polishing Brass and Stone. — Plate-glass may be polished by 
rubbing with emery and AA'ater, the emery being of a greater degree of 
fineness as the AA^ork progresses, until at last by employing an impal- 
l)able A^ariety prepared by suspending emery in water for an hour or 
more. Of course no scratches must exist in the Avork when the polish- 
ing operation begins ; such must have been removed by means of a 
coarser emery flour. Stones, such as Brighton pebbles, &c., are often 
cut and polished on a rapidly revolving leaden disc, the surface of 
Avhich is loaded Avith diamond dust, emery, or tripoli, according to the 
stone under operation. 

Soluble Glass.— I. Silica, 1 part, carbonate of soda, 2 parts; fuse 
together. 2. Carbonate of soda (dry) 54 parts; dry carbonate of 



CABINETMAKERS, TAINTEKS', &C., KECEirTS. 293 

i»-/tassa, 70 parts ; silica, 192 parts ; soluljlc in boiling -u-atcr, yielding 
a fine, transjparent semi-elastic varnish. 3. Carbonate of potassa 
(dry), 10 parts ; powdered quartz (or sand free from iron or alumina), 
15 parts ; charcoal, 1 part ; all fused together. Soluble in 5 or (? 
limes its -weight of boiling water. The filtered solution evaporated to 
dryness, yields a transparent glass, permanent in the air. 

(jLASs Staiis'IjS'G. — The following colors after having been prepared, 
and rubbed upon a plate of groifiid-glass, with the spirits of turjDcn- 
tuie or lavender thickened in the air, are applied with a hair-pencil. 
Before using them, however, it is necessary to try them on small 
pieces of glass, and exi^ose them to the fire, to ascertain if the desired 
tone of color is produced. The artist must be guided by these proof- 
pieces in usmg his colors. The glass proper for receiving these pig- 
ments must be colorless, uniform, and difficult of fusion. A design 
must be drawn on paper, and placed beneath the plate of glass. The 
upper side of the glass, being sponged over with gam-water, affords, 
when dry, a surface proi^er for receiving the colors "uithout the risk 
of rtuming irregularly, as they would othei-wise do on the slippery 
glass. The artist draws on the plate (usually in black), Avitli a fine 
])encil, all the traces which mark the great outlines or shades of the 
figures. Afterwards, when it is dry, the vitrifying colors are laid on 
by means of larger hair-pencils ; their selection being regulated by 
the bunit specimen-tints above mentioned. The followuig are ail 
fast colors, which do not run, except the yellow, which must therefore 
be laid on the opposite side of the glass. The preparations being all 
laid on, the glass is ready for being fired in a mufHe, in order to fix 
and bring out the x)ropcr colors. The muffle must be made of very 
refractory fire-clay, flat at its bottom, and only five or six inches high, 
with a strong arched roof , and close on all sides, to exclude smoke 
and flame. On the bottom, a smooth bed of sifted lime, freed from 
water, about half an inch thick, must be prepared for receiving the 
glass. Sometimes, several plates of glass are laid over each other, 
with a layer of lime powder between each. The fire is now lighted, 
and very gradually raised, lest the glass should be broken ; then keep 
it at a full heat for three or four hours, more or less, accordmg to the 
indications of the trial slips ; the yellow coloring being principally 
watched, it furnishing the best criterion of the state of the others. 
When all is right, let the fire die out, so as to anneal the glass. 

Stai>T!:d- Glass Pigments. — No. 1. Flesh-color. — ^Red lead, 1 oz. ; 
red enamel (Venetian glass enamel, from alum and copperas calcined 
together) : grind them to a fine powder, and work this up with al^ 
cohol upon a hard stone. When slightly baked, this produces a fine 
flesh-color. No. 2. Black color. — Take 14^ oz. of smithy scales of 
iron ; mix them with 2 oz. of white glass : antimony, 1 oz. manganese, 
h oz, ; pound and grind these ingretlients together with strong vinegar. 
Ko. 3. Brown color. — ^White glass or enamel, 1 oz. ; good manganese. 
^ oz. ; grind together. No. 4. Bed, Boss and Broion colors are 
made from peroxide of iron, prepared by nitric acid. The flux con- 
sists of borax, sand, and minium, in small quantities. Bed color may 
likewise be obtained from 1 oz. of red chalk, pounded, mixed with 2 
oz. white, hard enamel, and a little peroxide of copper. A red may 
also be composed of rust of iron, glass of antimony, yellow gla^^s of 
lead, Eucli as is used by potters, or litharge, each in equal quantities, 



294 CABINETMAKERS, TAIXTERs', AC, RECEIPTS. 

to -wliicli a little sulpliuret of silver is added. Tliis composition, well 
ground, produces a very fine red color on glass. No. 5. Green. — 2 oz. 
of brass, calcined into an oxide ; 2 oz. of minium, and 8 oz. of -white 
sand ; reduce them to a fine powder, which is to he enclosed in a 
well-luted crucible, and heated strong!}' in an air furnace for an hour. 
"When the mixture is cold, grind it in a brass moitar. Green may, 
liowever, be advantageously produced, by a yellow on one side and a 
blue on the other. Oxide of chrome has also been emploj-ed ; to 
stain glass green. No. 6. A fine yelloxo stain. — Take fine silver, lam- 
inated thin, dissolve in nitric acid, dilute with abundance of water, 
and precipitate with solution of sea-salt ; mix this chloride of silver 
in a dry powder, with three times its weight of pipe-clay well burnt 
and pounded. The back of the glass jiane is to be painted with 
this powder ; for, when painted on the face, it is apt to run into 
the other colors. A pale yclloio can be made by mixing sulphuret of 
silver witli glass of antimony and yellow ochre, previously calcined 
to a red bro^Mi tint. Work all these powders togetlier, and paint on 
the back of the glass. Or silver laminoe, melted witli sulphur and 
glass of antimonj'^, thrown into cold water and afterwards ground to 
powder, affords a yellow. A pale yelloxo may be made with the 
powder resulting from brass, sulphur, and glass of antimony, calcined 
together in a crucible till they cease to smoke, and then mixed with 
a little burnt ochre. The^ne yellow of M. Meraud is prepared from 
chloride of silver, oxide of zinc, and rust of iron. This mixture, 
simply ground, is applied on the glass. Orange color. — Take 1 part 
of silver powder, as precipitated from the nitrate of that metal, by 
plates of copper, and washed ; mLx with 1 part of red ochre, and 1 of 
yellow, by careful trituration ; grmd into a thin pap, with oil of tur- 
I)entuie or lavender : apply this with a brush, and burn in. 

To Silver Lookii>g Glasses. — A sheet of tm-foil correspondmg to 
the size of the plate of glass is evenly spread on a perfectly smooth 
an.d solid marble table, and every wrinkle on its surface is carefully 
rubbed down with a brush : a portion of mercurj'- is then poured on, 
jmd rubbed over the foil with a clean piece of soft woollen stuff, after 
which, two rules are applied to the edges, and mercury poured on to 
the depth of a crown piece ; when any oxide on the surface is care- 
fully removed, and the sheet of glass, perfectly clean and dry, is slid 
along over the surface of the liquid metal, so that no air, dirt, or 
oxide can possibly either remam or get between them. A^Tien the 
glass has arrived at its proper position, gentle jiressnre is applied, 
and the table sloped a little to carry off the waste mercury ; after 
Avhich it is covered with llannel, and loaded with heavy weights ; in 
twenty-four hours it is removed to another table, and f urtlier slanted, 
and this position is progressively increased during a month, till it 
becomes perpendicular. 

Porcelain Colors. — The following are some of the colors used 
in the celebrated porcelain manufactory of Sevres, and the propor- 
tions in which they are compounded. Though intended for porcelain 
painting, nearly all are applicable to painting on glass. Flux No. 1 
minum or red lead, 3 parts ; Avhitesand, washed, Ipart. This mixture 
is melted, by which it is converted into a greenish-colored glass. 
ITux No. 2. Gray flux. — Of No. 1, 8 parts ; fused borax in powder, I 
part. This mixture is melted. Flux No. 3. For carinincs and green. 



CABINETMAKERS. PAINTERS*. &C., RECEirTS. 295 

— ^Melt together fused borax, 5 parts , calcined flints, 3 parts ; pure 
minum, 1 part. No. 1. Indif/o blue. — Oxide of cobalt, 1 part ; llux 
No. 3, 2 parts. Deep azure blue. — Oxide of cobalt, Ipart; oxide of 
zinc, 2 parts ; flux No. 3, 5 parts. No. 2. Emerald Green. — Oxide of 
copper, 1 part ; antimonic acid, 10 parts ; flux No, 1, 30 parts. Pul- 
verize together, and melt. No. 3. Grass green. — Green oxide of 
chromium, 1 part ; flux No. 3, 3 parts. Triturate and melt. No. 4. 
Yellow. — Antimonic acid, Ipart ; subsulpliate of the peroxide of iron, 
8 parts ; oxide of zinc, 4 parts ; flux No. 1, 3G parts. Kub up together 
and melt. If this color is too deep the salt of iron is diminished. No. 
5. Fixed yelloio for touches. — No. 4, 1 part ; Avhite enamel of com- 
merce, 2 parts. Melt and pour out ; if not sufficiently fixed, a little 
sand may be added. No. G. Dee}) Nankin yelloio. — Subsulpliate of 
iron, 1 part ; oxide of zinc, 2 parts ; flux No. 2, 8 parts. Triturate 
Avithout melting. No. 7. Deejy red. — Subsulpliate of iron, calcuied in 
51 muffle imtil it becomes of a beautiful capucine red, 1 part ; flux No. 
2, 3 parts. Mix without melting. No. 8. Liver broion. — Oxide of 
iron made of a red brown, and mixed with three times its weight of 
flux No. 2. A tenth of sienna earth is added to it, if it is not deep 
enough. No. 9. White. — The white enamel of commerce, in cakes. 
No. 10. Deep black. — Oxide of cobalt, 2 parts ; copper, 2 parts ; oxide 
of manganese, 1 part ; flux No. 1, G parts ; fused borax, \ part. Melt, 
and add oxide of manganese, 1 part ; oxide of copper, 2 parts. Trit- 
ui-ate without melting. The Application. — Follow the general direc- 
tions given in another part of this work, in relation to staining glass. 

IIOAV TO Weite on Glass in the Sun. — Dissolve chalk in aqua- 
fortis to the consistency of milk, and add to that a strong dissolution 
of silver. Keep this in a glass decanter well stopped. Then cut out 
from a paper the letters you will have appear, and paste the paper on 
the decanter or jar, which you are to place in the sun in such a man- 
ner that its rays may pass through the spaces cut out of the paper, and 
fall on the surface of the liquor. The part of the glass through Avhicli 
the rays pass will turn blaclc, whilst that under the paper Avill remain 
white. Do not shake the bottle during the operation. Used in let- 
tering jars. 

To Stain or Color Glass. — For amethyst, oxide of manganese 
is used ; blue, oxide of cobalt ; for brown, oxide of iron ; for r/reen, 
black oxide of copper ; for purple, oxide of gold ; for rubij red, sub- 
oxide of copper ; for white, oxide of tin ; for yelloio, oxide of silver, 
&c. These substances pnre and well powdered, are either added to 
the melted contents of the glass-pot, or are applied to the surface as 
in glass staining. Fine Blue. To 10 lbs. of flint glass, previously 
melted and cast into water, add zaffer, G drs. ; calcined copper, \ oz. ; 
prepared by putting sheet copper into a crucible, and exposuig it to 
the action of a fire not strong enough to melt the copper, and you will 
have the copper in scales, which you pound. — Bright Purple. Use 10 
lbs. flint glass as before ; zaffer 5 drs. ; precipitate of calcium. 1 dr. 
Gold Yellow. Flint glass 28 lbs., of the tartar which is found in 
urine, | lb., purify by putting in a crucible on the fixe until it ceases 
to smoke, and add manganese, 2 ozs. 

Bottle Glass.— No. 1. Dark Green. — Fused glauber-salts, 11 lbs. : 
soaper salts, 12 lbs. ; waste soap-ashes, ^ bush. ; siliciou,-i sand, ^ 
cwt. ; glass-sMmmings, 22 lbs. ; broken green glass, 1 cwt.to l.i cvrt. ; 



296 CABINET3IAKEIIS, rAlXTEES*. &C., RECEirTS. 

basalt, 25 lbs. to | cwt. Ko. 2, Pale Green. — Pale sand, 100 lbs. ; 
kelp, 35 lbs. ; Irxiviatecl wood-aslies, 1;^ cwt. ; fresh do., 40 lbs. ; 
pipe-clay, f cwt, ; cullet, or broken glass, 1 cwt. No. 3, Yellow or 
white sand, 120 parts ; wood-ashes, 80 parts ; pearl-ashes, 20 parts ; 
common salt, 15 parts ; white arsenic, 1 part ; very pale. C'njstat 
Glass. — No.l. Refined i^otashes, GO lbs. ; sand, 120 lbs. ; chalk, 24 
lbs. ; nitre and white arsenic, of each, 2 lbs. ; oxide of manganese, 1 
to 2 oz. No. 2. Pure white sand, 120 parts ; refined ashes, 70 parts ; 
saltpetre, 10 parts ; white arsenic, ^ part ; oxide of manganese, \ part. 
No. 3. Sand, 120 parts ; red-lead, 50 pails ; purified pearlash, 40 
l^arts ; nitre, 20 parts ; manganese, ^ part. Flash Glass (of St. 
Etiemic). — l\ire silicious sand, Gl parts ; potash, 3^ parts ; lime, 21 
parts ; heavy spar, 2 i)arts ; oxide of manganese, g.ls. Best Geiinan 

. Crystal Glass. — Take 120 lbs. of calcined Hints or white sand ; best 
pearlash, 70 lbs. ; saltpetre, 10 lbs. ; arsenic, ^ lb. ; and 5 oz magnesia. 
No. 2. ( Cheaper. ) — Sand or flint, 120 lbs. ; pearlash, 4G lbs. ; nitre, 7 
lbs. ; arsenic, G lbs. ; magnesia, 5 oz. This will require a long 
continuance in the furnace, as do all others when much of the arsenic 
is used. Plate Glass. — No. 1. Pure sand, 40 parts ; dry carbonate of 
soda, 2G^ parts ; lime, 4 parts ; nitre, 1^ parts ; broken plate glass, 25 
l^arts. No. 2. lire's. — Quartz-sand, 100 parts ; calcined sulphate of 
soda, 24 parts ; lime, 20 parts ; cullet of soda-glass, 12 parts. No, 
3, Vienna. — Sand, 100 parts ; calcined sulphate of soda, 50 parts ; 
lime, 20 parts ; charcoal, 2f parts. No. 4. French. — White quartz 
sand and cullet, of each 300 parts ; dry carbonate of soda, 100 parts ; 
slaked lime, 43 parts. Crown Glass. — No. 1. Sand, 300 lbs. ; soda- 

. ash, 200 lbs. ; lime 30 to 35 lbs. ; 200 to 300 lbs. of broken glass. No. 
2. {Bohemian.) — Pure silicious ^and, G3 parts ; iwtash, 22 j)arts ; lime, 
12 parts ; oxide of manganese, 1 i^art. No. 3. (Prof. Schioeif/r/ers.) — 
Pure sand, 100 lbs. ; dry sulphate of soda, 50 parts ; dry quicklime in 
powder, 17 to 20 parts ; charcoal, 4 parts. Product, white and good. 
Best Windoio-Glass. — No. 1. Take of white sand, GO lbs. ; puri- 
fied pearlashes, 30 lbs. ; of saltpetre, 15 lbs. ; of borax, 1 lb. ; of arsenic, 
-]j lb. This will be very clear and colorless if the ingredients be good, 
and not be very dear. ^ No. 2. ( Cheaper. ) — AVhite sand, GO lbs. ; un- 
l^urified i:)earl-ashes, 25 lbs. ; of common salt, 10 lbs. ; nitre, 5 lbs. ; 
arsenic, 2 lbs. ; magnesia, l^- oz. No. 3, Common r/reen icindoic- 
glass. — White sand, GO lbs. ; "unpurified pearlashes, 30 lbs. ; common 
salt, 10 lbs. ; arsenic, 2 lbs. ; magnesia, 2 oz. Lookinf/- Glass Plate. 
— No. 1. Cleansed white sand, GO lbs. : pearlashes, purified, 25 lbs. ; 
saltpetre, 15 lbs. ; borax, 7 lbs. This composition should be contin- 
ued long in the fire, which should be sometimes strong and after- 
wards more moderate, that the glass may be entirely free from bub- 
bles before it be worked. No. 2. White sand, GO lbs. ; pearlashes, 20 lbs. ; 
common salt, 10 lbs. ; nitre, 7 lbs. ; borax, 1 lb. This glass will run 
with, as little heat as the former ; but it will be more brittle, and 
refract the rays of light in a greater degree. No. 3. Washed Avhite 
sand, GO lbs. ; purified pearlashes, 25 lbs. ; nitre, 15 lbs, ; borax, 7 
lbs. If properly managed, this glass will bo colorless. Wiiidoio 
Glass. — No. 1. Dried sulphate of soda, 11 lbs. ; soaper salts, 10 lbs. ; 
lixiviated soap waste, ^ bush. ; sand, 50 to GO lbs. ; glass-pot skim- 
mings, 22 lbs. ; broken paZe green glass, 1 cwt. No. 2, (Paler.)— White 
sand, GO lbs. ; pcarl-ashcs, 30 lbs. ; common salt 10 lbs. ; arsenic, 10 



CABINETMAKEKS, TAINTEKS,' &C., RECEirXS. 297 

lbs. ; oxide of manganese, 2 to 4 oz. No. 3. (Fe?7/ Pale.) — ^Wliite 
Kind, 60 lbs. ; good pot ashes, 25 lbs. ; common salt 10 lbs. ; nitre, 5 
lbs. ; arsenic, 2 lbs. : manganese, 2 to 4 oz. as required : broken j)o/e 
Avindow glass, 14 lbs. 

CoLOKED PoTTEKs' Glaztngs. — T17u7e ,' prepare an intimate mix- 
ture of 4 parts of massicot, 2 of tin aslies, 3 fragments of crystal glass, 
and h part of sea salt. Tiie mLxture is suffered to melt in cai-then- 
ware vessels, wben tlie liquid flux may be used. Yellow ; take equal 
parts of massicot, red lead and sulphuret of antimony, calcine the 
mixture, and reduce it again to powder, add then 2 parts of pure 
sand, and 1^ parts of salt ; melt the whole. Green; 2 parts of sand, 
3 parts massicot, 1 part of salt and copper scales, according to the 
•shade to be produced : melt and use. Violet ; 1 part ma.-^sicot, 3 
parts sand, 1 of smalt, ^ part of black oxide of manganese ; melt. 
Jihie; Avhite sand and massicot, equal parts ; blue smalt, ^ part ; 
melt. Black ; black oxide of manganese, 2 parts ; smalt h part ; 
burned quartz, 1 part ; massicot, li i)arts ; melt. Jirovni ; green 
bottle glass, 1 part ; manganese, 1 part ; lead, 2 parts, melt. 

MoKTAH, ri.ASTEiJ, &c. — 22 Ki>"i)S. — 1. Stoue Movtav. — Cement, 
8paits; lime, 3 parts; sand, 31 parts. 2. Mortar. — Lime, 1 ]iart; sharp, 
clean sand, 2^ ])aits. An excess of Avater in slaking the lime SAvelis 
the mortar, Avliich remains light and porous, or slirinks in dj-ying: an 
excess of sand destroys tlie cohesive properties of the mass. 3. 
Broicn Mortar. — Lime, 1 part; sand, 2 parts, and a small quantity of 
hair. 4. Brick Mortar. — Cement, 3 parts; lime, 3 parts; sand, 27 
I'arts. Lime and sand, and cement and sand, lessen about A, in 
volume when mixed together. 5. Turkish Mortar. — Powdered brick 
and tiles, 1 jiart ; fine sifted lime, 2 parts; mix to a proper consistency 
witli water, and lay on layers of 5 or G inches thick between the 
courses of brick or stone. Very useful on massive or very solid 
buildings. 6. Interior Plastering — Coarse Staff. — Common lime 
mortar as made for brick raasonrv', with a small quantity of hair ; or 
by volumes, lime paste (30 lbs. lime,) 1 part; sai;d, 2 to 2j parts; hair, 
J part. "Wlien full time for hardening cannot be allowed, substitute 
from loto 20 j)(?j' cenf. of the lime b}' an equal portion of hydraulic 
cement. Tor the second or broicn coat the i)roportion of hair may bo 
slightly diminished. 7. Fine Staff. — (Lime putty): Lump lime slaked 
to a paste Avith a moderate volume of Avater, and afterwards diluted to 
the consistency of cream, and then harden by evaporation to tlie re- 
quired consistency for Avorking. In this state it is used as a slipped 
coat, and when mixed Avith sand or i:)laster of Paris, it is used for the 
Jinishinf/ coat. 8. Gavf/c Staff or Hard Finish is composed of 3 or 4 
Volumes of fine stuff and 1 volume of i:)laster of Paris, in proportions 
regulated by the degree of rapidity required in hardoiing forcomices, 
&c., the i)roportions are equal volumes of each, fine stuff and plaster. 
0. Stucco is coinposed of from 3 to 4 Aolumes of white sand to 1 
volume of fine stuff or lime putty. 10. Scratch Coat. — The first of 3 
coats when laid upon laths, and is from ^ to | of an inch in thickness. 

11. One Coat Work. — Plastering in 1 coat Avithout finish, either on 
jnasonry or laths that is rendered or laid. AVork on Avell. 

12. Tico Coat iro?A:.— Plastering hi 2 coats is done either in a layinrp 
coat and set or in a screed coat and set. The Screed Coat is also termed 
a Floated Coat. Layiu'j the first coat in two coat work is resorted to 



298 CABINETMAKERS, TAIXTERS', itC, RECEIPTS 

in common work instead of screecUnc/, -when the linislied surface is 
not required to be exact to a straiglit edge. It is laid in a coat of 
about I inch in thickness. The laying coat, except for very common 
work, "should be hand floated, as the tenacity and firmness of the 
work is much increased thereby. Screeds are strips of mortar, 2G to 
28 inches in Avidth, and of the required thicloiess of the first coat, ap- 
plied to the angles of a room or edge of a wall and parallelly, at in- 
tervals of 3 to 5 feet over the surface to bo covered. When these 
have become sufficiently hard to withstand the pressure of a straight 
edge, the interspaces between the screeds should be filled out flash 
with them, so as to produce a continuous and straight, even surface. 
Slipped Coat is the smoothing off of a brown coat with a small 
quantity of lime putty, mixed with three per cent of white sand so as 
to make a comparatively even surface. This finish answers when the 
surface is to be finished in distemper or paper. Hard Finish : Fine 
f tuff applied with a trowel to the depth of about J of an inch. 13. 
Cement for External Use. — Ashes, 2 parts; clay, 3 parts; sand, 1 
part; mix with a little oil. Very durable. 14, Compositions for 
Streets and Roads. — Bitumen, 1G.875 parts ; asphaltum, 2. 25 parts; oil 
of resin, G.25; sand, 1.35 parts. Thickness from IJ to If inches. 
Asphaltum, 55 lbs., and gravel 28.7 lbs. will cover an area of 10.75 
square feet. 15. Asphalt Composition. — Mineral i^itch, 1 part; bitu- 
men, 11 -parts; powdered stone or wood ashes, 7 parts. IG. Asphalt 
Mastic is composed of nearly pure carbonate of lime and about 9 or 
10 per cent, of bitumen. When in a state of powder it is mixed with 
about 7 per cent, of bitumen or mineral pitch. The powdered asphalt 
is mixed with the bitumen in a melted state along with clean gravel, 
and consistency is given to pour it into moulds. The asphalt is duc- 
tile, and has elasticity to enable it, Avith the small stones sifted upon 
it, to resist ordinary wear. Sun and rain do not affect it, wear and 
tear do not seem to injure it. The pedestrian in many cities in the 
United States and Canada, can readily detect its presence on the side- 
walk by its peculiar yielding to the foot as ho steps over it. It is also 
a most excellent roofing material when rightly applied, it being on 
record in France that a stout roof of this material withstood the ac- 
cidental fall of a stack of chimneys, with the only effect of bruising 
the mastic, readily repaired. 17. Asphalt for Walks. — ^Take 2 parts 
very dry lime rubbish, and 1 part coal ashes, also very dry, all sifted 
fine. In a dry place, on a dry day, mix them, and leave a hole in 
the middle of the heap, as bricklayers do when making mortar. Into 
this pour boiling hot coal tar; mix, and when as stiff as mortar, put ifc 
three inches thick where the walk is to be ; the ground should be dry 
and beaten smooth; sprinkle over it coarse sand. When cold, pass 
a light roller over it; in a few days the walk will be solid and water- 
proof. 18. Mastic Cement for Covering the Fronts of Houses. — Fifty 
parts, by measure, of clean dry sand, 50 of limestone (not burned) 
reduced to grains like sand, or marble dust, and 10 parts of red lead, 
mixed with as much boiled linseed oil as will make it slightly moist. 
The bricks to receive it, should be covered with three coats of boiled 
oil, laid on with a brush, and suffered to dry before the mastic is put 
on. It is laid on with a trowel like plaster, but it is not so moist. It 
becomes hard as stone in a faw months. Care must be exercised not 
to use too much oil. 19. Cement for r<7c-7?oo/s,-'Equal parts of whit- 



CABINETMAKERS, PAIXTEKS', &C., RECEIPTS. 299 

ing and dry sand, and 25 per cent, of litharge, made into the consist- 
ency of putty Avith linseed oil. It is not liable to crack when cold, nor 
melt, like coal-tar and asphalt, with the heat of the sim. 20. Cement 
for Outside of Bnck Walls. — Cement for the outside of brick walls, 
to imitate stone, is made of clean sJiud, 90 parts; litharge, 5 paits ; 
plaster of Paris, 5 parts; moistened with boiled linseed oil. The 
bricks should receive two or tliree coats of oil before the cement is 
applied. 21. Water Lime at Fifty Cents per Barrel. — Fme clean sand, 
100 lbs. ; quick-lime in powder, 28 lbs. ; bone ashes, 14 lbs. ; for use, 
beat up with water, and use as quick as possible. 22. Cement for 
Seams in Eoofs. — Take equal quantities of white lead and white sand, 
and as much oil as will make it into the consistence of putty. It will 
in a few weeks become as hard as stone. 

SiiiVEK Polish Kalsomine. — Take 7 lbs. of Paris white and J lb. 
of light colored glue. Set the glue m a tin vessel containing 3 pts. of 
water, let it stand over night to soak, then put it in a kettle of 
boiUng water over the fire, stirring till it is Avell dissolved and quite 
thm. Then, after putting the Paris white mto a largo water pail, 
pour on hot water and stir it till appears like tliick milk. Nowminglo 
tlie glue liquid with the whiting, stir it thorouglily and apply witli a 
whitewash brush, or a largo paint brush. 

MEASUEEMEXT OF STONE OR BEA"^K WORK. 

1. PercJi, Masons' or Quamjm£ns* Measure. 



10^ feet long 

1G" inches wide J- = -^ 22 cubic feet. To be iVT^isuredinwall. 

12 " high. 

IS^Sriide' ^ i 24.75 cubic feet. To \:0 .measured in 



i 24.75 ( 
I pile. 



12 " high 

I cubic yard = 3 feet X 3 feet X 3 feet = 27 cubic f ee^. The cubic 
yard has become the standard for all contract work of *Hte years. 
Stone walls less than 10 inches thick count as if 10 i/\ches thick to 
masons; over 10 inches thick, each additional inch is co anted. 

XUMBER OF BRICK REQUIRED IX WALL PER SQU.VJiB. J'OOT FACE OF 

W^VLL, 



Thic 


kness of wall. 


4 mches 


7^ 


8 


(( 


lo' 


12 


<( 


OOX 


10 


(( 


30' 


20 


(( 


37i 



Thickness o': 


wall. 


24 incl;-3s 


4(5 


28 " 


52^ 


32 " 


GO 


80 " 


G7i 


42 <' 


"^5 



Cubic yard = GOO bricks in wall. 
Perch (23 cubic feet) = 500 bricks in wall. 
To pave 1 gq, yard on flat requires 48 bricks. 
" " 1 "^ " edge " 08 " 
Best "Wash for Barns and Houses. — "Water lime, 1 pock; 
Ireshly slaked limCi Ipeck; yellow ochro in powder, 'i lbs.; burnt 



300 CABINETMAKEKS, PAINTEIIS', JiC, KECEirXS. 

umber, 4 lbs. To be dissolved iu hot ^vater, and applied -n-ith a 
brusli, 

DuKABLE Outside Paint. — Take 2 parts (in bulk) of ^vater lime, 
ground fine; Ipart (iu bullc) of white lead, in oil. Mix theiu 
thoroughly, by adding best boiled Ihiseed oil, enough to prepare it to 
X)ass tlirough a paiut-miil ; after which, temper with oil till it can be 
applied with a common paint brush. ]\Iake aiiy color to suit. It will 
last 3 times as long as lead paint. It is surEuiOK. 

l'\\jiMERs' PjVtkt. — Farmers will find the following profitable for 
house or fence paint : skim milk, two quarts; fresh slaked lime 8 
oz. ; linseed oil, Goz. ; white Bargimdy pitch, 2 oz. ; Spanish white, 
3 lbs. The lime is to be slaked in water, exposed to the air, aud tlieu 
mixed with about one-fourth of the milk; the oil in which the pitch is 
dissolved to be added a little at a time, then the rest of the milk, and 
afterwards the Spanish white. This is sufficient for twciitN'-sevcu 
yards, 2 coats. This is for white paint. If desirable, any other color 
ma}' be produced; thus, if a cream color is desired, in x^lace of part of 
the Spanish white use the other alone. 

rSTIIilATE OF MATEKLVrS AXD LABOR FOR 100 SQUARE YAROS^OF 
LATU A>'D ri.ASTER. 



INratcrials 


Tlii-ee coats 


Two Coats 


]NLaterials 


Three coats 


Two coat3 


aud Labor. 


hard liuisli. 


Sliiiped. 


and Labor. 


hard tiiiish. 


Slipped. 


Liiiio , . . 


4 Casks. 


31/1 casks. 


White Saud 


2y. bushs. 




T, mil p Li mo 


% '' 




Nails . . . 


13 lbs. 


13 ibs. 


Plaster of 






]\rasons . . 


4 davs. 


314 days. 


Palis . . 


V' " 




Laborer 


3 


2 


Laths. . . 


200(5 


2000 


Cai'tago . . 


1 " 


34 « 


Hair . . , 


4 bnslis. 


3 biishs. 








Sand . . , 


6 ]oa«ls. ! G loatls. | 









P-VixTixG TX JIiLK. — Skimmed milk, h gallon ; newly slaked 
lime, oz. ; and 4 oz. of poppj', linseed, or nut oil; and 3 lbs. Spanish 
white. Put the lime uito an earth eji vessel or clean bucket; aud 
liavmg poured on it a sufficient quantity of milk to make it about 
the thickness of cream, add the oil in small quantities a little 
at a time, stirring the mixture well. Then put in the rest of 
the milk, afterwards the Spanish white finely powdered, or 
any other desired color. For out-door work add 2 oz. each more of 
oil and slaked lime, and 2 oz. of Burgundy pitch dissolved in the oil 
by a gentle heat. 

Premiu:\i I'AiNT AviTHOUT OiL OR Lead.— Slake stone-lime with 
boiling water in a tub or barrel to keep in the steam ; then i)ass G 
quarts through a fine sieve. Now to this quantity add 1 quart of 
coarse salt, and a gallon of water; boil the mixture, and skim it clear. 
To every five gallons of this skimmed mixture, add 1 lb. alum; h lb. 
copperas; and by slow degrees f lb. potash, and 4 quarts sifted ashes 
orfinefeand; add any coloring desired. A more durable paint wa.s 
never made. 

Green 1*aint ron Garden Stands, Blinds, r.Tc.-^Tako mineral 



CABINETMAKERS, TAINTEES*, &C., KECEIPT3. 301 

grocn, and white lead ground iu turpcnthic, mix np the quantity you 
wish Avitli a small quantity- of turpentine vavnisli. This serves for the 
first coat. For the second, put as much varnish in your mixture as 
will produce a good gloss. If you desire a hrigliter green, add a little 
Prnssiau blue, which will much improve tlie color. 

IMiLiv Paint, for Bakns, any Colou. — Mix Avater lime with skim 
miUc, to a proper consistence to apply with a brush, and it is ready to 
use. It will adhere well to wood, whether smooth or rougli, to brick, 
mortar, or stone, where oil has not been used (in which case it cleaves 
to some extent), and forms a very hard substance, as durable as the 
best oil paint. It is too cheap to estimate, and any one can put 
it on who can use a brush. Any color may be given to :t, by 
using colors of the tmge desired. If a red is preferred, mix 
Yenetiau red with milk, not usiug any lime. It looks well for lif teen 
years. 

Paint. — To Make wixnorT Lead on Oil.— TVliiting, 5 lbs. ; 
skimmed milk, 2 qts. ; fresh slaked lime, 2 oz. Put the lime into a 
stoneware vessel, pour upon it a sutliciout quantity of the milk to 
make a mixture resembling cream; the balance of the milk is then to 
be added; and lastly, the whiting is to be crumbled upon the suriace 
of the fluid, in which it gradual!}' sinks. At this ])eriod it must be 
well stirred iu or ground, as you would other ixiint, and it is lit for 
use. 

Pakis Gkeen". — Take unslaked lime of the best quality, slake it 
with hot wator; then take the finest part of the powder, and add 
alum water as strong as it can bo made, suflicieut to form a thick 
X^aste; then color it with bichromate of potash and sulphate of copper 
imtil the color suits j'our fancy, and dry it for use. X.B. — Tiio sul- 
phate of copper gives a blue tinge; the bichromate of i^otash, a y.jl- 
low. Observe tliis, and you will get it right. 

Beautiful Geeex Paixt for AValls. — Take 4 lbs. Roman 
vitriol, and pour on it a teakettleful of boiling water. AVhcu dis- 
solved, add 2 lbs. pearlash, and stir the mixture well with a stick un- 
til the elTervescence ceases; then add ^ lb. pulverized yellow arsenic, 
and stir the whole togetlier. Lay it on with a paiut brush ; and if the 
wall has not been painted before, 2 or even 3 coats will be requisite. 
If a pea-green is required, put in less, if an apple-green, more, of the 
yellow arsenic. This paint does not cost the quarter of oil paint, 
and looks better. 

Blue Color for Cetlin-gs, &c. — ^Boil slowly for 3 hours 1 lb. 
blue vitriol and h lb. of the best whiting iu about 3 qts. water; stir it 
frequently while boHmg, and also on taking it off the fire. When it 
has stood till quite cold, pour off the blue liquid, then mix the cake 
of color with good size, and use it with a i)lasterer's brush in the 
same manner as whitewash, either for walls or ceilings. 

To IIaeden" Whitewash. — To h pail of common whitewash add 
vpint of flour. Pour on boUing water in quantity to thicken it. 
Tl^n add G gals, of the lime water, and stir well. 

Whitewash that will kot Rub Off. — Mix up half a pailful of 
lime and water, ready to put on the wall; then take J pt. flour, mLx it 
up with vrater; then pour on it boiling water, a sufficient quantity to 
thicken it; then pour it while hot into the Avhitewash, stir all well 
together, and it is ready for use. 



802 



CALCULATIONS, &C., FOR BUILDERS. 



Slating.— The pitch of a slated roof should be about 1 in height to 4 
in length; the usual lap is about 3 ins., but it is sometimes 4. Each slate 
should be fastened by 2 nails, either of copper or zinc. A square of slate 
is 100 superficial feet, allowances being made for the trouble of cutting 
the slates at the hips, eaves, round chimneys, etc. The sides and bottom 
edges of the slates should be trimmed, and the nail holes punched as near 
the head as possible; they should be sorted in sizes, when they are not 
all of one size, and the smallest size placed near the ridge. The thick- 
ness of slates varies from 3-16 to 5-16 of an inch, and their weight from 
2.6 to 4.53 lbs. per square foot. The following table of sizes, etc., of roof- 
ing slates is very useful": 



Description . 


Size. 


Av'rage 
guage 

in 
inches. 


No. of 
squares 
1200 will 

cover. 


Weight 
per 1200 
in tons. 


No. re- 
quired 
to cover 

one 
square. 


No. of 
nails re- 
quired 
to one 
square. 


Len 


gth 


Bre'th. 


Doubles 

Ladies 

Countesses . . 
Duchesses... 


ft. 
1 
1 
1 
2 


in. 

1 
4 
8 



ft. in. 
6 
8 

10 

1 


51/2 
7 
9 
lOYa 


2 

41/2 
7 
10 


% 
3 


480 
280 
176 
127 


480 
280 
352 
254 


Imperials — 

Hags and 

Queens 

Westmore- 

lands, of 


2 
3 


6 



2 
2 


1 a ton > 


vill cove 


1 
r 214 to iy^ squares. 


va r i ou s 












sizes. 













The next table exhibits the comparative weight of various roof cover- 
ings . 



Plain tiles, per square of 100 sup'l feet 

Pantiles 

Slating, an average , 

Lead, 7 lbs. per sup'l feet 

Corrugated iron 

Copper, or zinc, 16 ozs. per sup'l feet 

Timber framing for slated or tiled roofs . . , 

Boarding, % in. thick 

Boarding, 114 in. thick 

Additional load for pressure of wind 

Gothic roofs, steepest angle 



Weight. 



8 to 18 cwt. 
91/4 cwt. 
7 to 9 cwt. 
61/2 cwt. 
3 cwt. 
1 cwt. 

560 to 672 lbs. 
21/2 cwt. 
5 cwt. 
35 cwt. 



Least 
Slope. 



261/2 to 30° 

251/2 to 30° 

40 

40 

40 

25° 

25° 

60° 



Cement for Marble and Alabaster. — Mix 12 parts of Port- 
laud cement, 6 parts slacked lime, 6 parts of fine sand, and 1 part of 
infusorial earth, and make up into a thick paste with silicate of soda. 
The object to be cemented does not require to be heated. It sets in 24 
hours, and the fracture can not readily be found. 

Superior Blasting Compound. — The English mining engineer, 
Mr. W. B. Brain, has found that one of the most available blasting 
compounds consists of equal parts of potash chlorate, potash nitrate, 
charcoal, and dry oak saw-dust; 3 parts of this mixture is made to 
about 2 parts nitroglycerine of 1.6 specific gravity. 

To Thaw Frozen Sinic Pipes, &c. — Place the end of a piece of 
lead pipe against the ice to be thawed, and then through a funnel iu 



CALCUL4TI0NS, &C., FOR BUILDERS. 



303 



the other eud pour boiling water. Keep the pipe constantly against 
the ice and it will soon disappear. Or stiffen rubber tubing with fine 
w ire and introduce it uito the pipe as far as possible, and direct a jet 
of steam from a small boiler over a portable charcoal furnace, as is 
done by plumbers in many cases. 

ExTi>rGUiSHi>"G Fires. — A solution of pearlash in water, thrown 
upon a fire, extinguishes it instantly ; the proportion is 4 ozs., dis- 
solved m hot water, and then poured into a bucket of cold water. lu 
extinguishing kerosene fires, use no water, but smother the flames 
with blankets or rugs. 

In clapboardincj, 1 bundle laid 31/2 i"s. to the weather will cover 26 
square feet. To be laid with 5-peuiiy nails. 

COMPAKATIVE "WEIGHT OF DIFFERENT "WOODS IX GrEEN AND 

Seasoned states in Pounds and Ounces Per Cubic Foot.— Ash, 
green, 58.3; do., seasoned, 50. Beech, green, (JO; do., seasoned, 50. Amer- 
ican pine, green, 44.12; do., seasoned, 30.11. Cedar, green, 32; do., sea- 
soned, 28.4. English oak, green, 71.10; do. seasoned, 43,8. Riga Fir, 
green, 48.12; do., seasoned, 35.8. 



Shrinkage in Dimensions of Timber by Seasoning. 



Woods. 



Pitch pine, South... 

Spiuce 

White pine, America 
Yellow pine 



Ins. 



18% to I8V4 
8V2 to 8% 
12 to 11 Vs 
18 to IT'/s 



Woods. 



Cedar, Canada. 

Elm 

Oak, English , . 
Pitch pine — 



Ins. 



14 to 131/4 

11 to 10% 

12 to 11% [934 
10x10 to 9% by 



Percentage of Water in Different Woods. 



Alder 41.6[Larch 48.6 

Ash 28.7 Mountain ash 28.3 

Birch 30.8iOak 34.7 

Elm 44.5 Pine 39.7 

Horse chestnut 38.2 Red beech 39.7 



Red pine 45.2 

White oak 36.2 

White pine 37.1 

White poplar 50-6 

Willow 26.0 



In shinglinf/, 1 bundle of 16-inch shingles will cover 30 square ft.; 1 
bundle of 18-iiich shingles will lay 33 square ft., when laid 5% ins. to the 
weather; 6 lbs. 4-penny nails Avill lay 1000 split pine shingles. 

Plasterer's Memoranda. — 130 yards of lath, lay and set, require 1 
load of laths, 10,000 nails, 21/2 cwt. of lime, ly, double load of sand, and 7 
bushels of hair; plaster, laborers and boy, 6 days each. 

Render and Set.—\W yards requires 1% cwt. of lime, 1 double load of 
sand, and 4 bushels of hair; plasterer, laborer and boy, 3 days each. 

iSetting — 375 yards require ll^ cwt. of lime and 5 bushels of hair. 

In lathing, 1 bundle of laths and 384 nails will cover 5 yards. In ren^ 
dering, 187% yards require l^^ cwt. of lime, 2 doxible loads of sand and 5 
bushels of hair. Floating requires more labor, but only half as much 
material as rendering. 

1000 bricks, closely stacked, occupy 56 cubic feet ; 1000 old bricks, 
cleaned and loosely stacked, occupy 72 cubic ft. 

1 rod of brickwork requires 126 gals, water to slack the lime and mix 
the mortar. Bricks absorb 1-15 of their weight in water. No. of bricks in 
cubic yard, 384. A bricklayer's hod will hold 20 bricks, or % cubic ft. of 
mortar, or i^ bushel, nearly. 

Safe Load in Structures, Including Weight of Structure. 

In cast-iron columns 1/4 breaking weight. 

Wrought-iron structures 14 " '» 

In cast-iron girders for tanks 1/4 <* " 

In cast-iron for bridges and tanks 1-6 " " 

In timber 1-10 '• " 

Stone and bricks y^ '* ♦< 







i 

iiilliiiiiiiliiiiiiiiilllit'' t ■ ■ Hi 



CABIXETMAKERS, TAIXTEKS', &C,, KECEIPTS. 305 

Whitewash. — The best method of malcing n whitewash for out- 
side exposure is to slnke h bushel of lime hi n barrel, add 1 lb. oi 
common salt, h lb. of the siUphate of zuic, and a gallon of sweet milk. 
A \Y desired color may be imparted to whitewash by adding coloring 
matter to suit. See Compound Colors. 

Teuua Cotta Maxufacture. — In the terra cotti manufacture of 
the north of England and Scotland, tlie purest lumps of iire clay arc 
selected by their color and texture, and used alone Avithout any other 
clay, while the firms near London i^repare more carefully a inixture 
of clays, Avhich produce a body of better textura. One of the chief 
difticiilties met in mar.ufacturuig terra cotta figures and ornamental 
works is the contraction the clay suffers after it has left the mould ; 
lirst, in drying, afterwards in firing ; By mixing the clays, a further 
advantage is gaiued in the diminished slirinkage, as fire clay terra 
cotta (that is, ununxcd) .shrinks in lineal diuiensions about 12 per cent, 
from the time it leaves the mould until it leaves the kiln ; the mixed 
cLay term cotta shrinks (> per cent, or less, and red clays shrink 3 ]ier 
cent. To enliance the durability of tlic body of terra cotta, a ]iartial 
vitrification of the mass is aimed at by adding clays and subi^tances 
wliich contain a small auiount of alkalies whicli act as a flux to fuse 
the liody harder ; also vitrifying ingredients, pure white river sand, 
Did fire brick, ground fine, previously ground clay called '' grog," arc 
added in various proportions, amounting even t(j 25 per cent. They 
counteract excessive shrinkage, act as vitrifying elements, and ]:cep 
the color lighter. In the manufacture the mixture of clays is groimd 
under an edge runner to tlie consistency of flour. The mills have 
cither revolving or stxitionary pans ; tlio former do the most work. 
In order to mix and incorporate the dilTerent clays, a subsequent care- 
ful i^ugging is re<iiured, for hot water is sometimes used. Tlie mix- 
ture when brought to the proper homogeneous consistency, is placed in 
a plaster mould, dried nwir the kilns or otherwise, and baked in a kiln 
for five or seven days, during which time it is slowly brought to a white 
heat, and is gradually cooled down again. In order to avoid twisting 
and warping during the firing, it is necessary, besides complete mix- 
ing of clays, that the mould bo shaped so as to give a uniform thick- 
ness of material throughout, and if the temperature of the kihis be 
well graded, tlie homogeneous body will not warp. To cheapen ten-a 
cotti building blocks, tliey are made hollow, and filled, during the cou- 
ftruction, Avith concrete or cement. Although hi the kilns the pro- 
ductions are separated from tlie Avares, it is found that the use of sul- 
phurous fuel darkens and fcirnishes the surface, and it is to be avoid- 
ed. This material admits of being used Avith the greatest facility in 
the formation of the most elaborate architectural ornaments and other 
beautiful designs Avhich can be multiplied to any required extent at a 
very cheap rate. A piece of four inch column tested at the 1851 Exhibi- 
tion required a pressure of -lOJ tons per square foot to crush it, or as 
much as good granite and two or three times as much as most build- 
ing stone. 

ExcELiiENT Cheap Roofixo.— Have your roof stiff, rafters made 
of stuff 1^ by 8 inches, Avell supported and (3 feet apart, Avitli ribs 1 
inch by 2 inches, set edgeways, Avell nailed to the i-afters, about 18 
i!iches apart. The boards may be thin but must be Avell seasoned, and 
nailed close together- this done, lay down and cover the roof with thin 

20 



306 CABINETMAKEKS, PAINTEKS', &C., KECEirTS. 

soft, spongy straw paper used in making paper-boxes, -which comes in 
rolls and comes very low. Lay in courses up and down the roof, and 
lap over, nailing down with common No. G tacks, with leather under 
the heads like carpet tacks. Then' spread on several coatings of tho 
following comiwsition, previously boiled, stirred, and mixed together: 
good clean tar, 8 gals. ; Roman cement, 2 gals, (or in its place very 
fine, clean sand may be used) ; resin, 5 lbs. ; tallow, 3 lbs. ; apply 
hot : and let a hand follow, and sift on sharp grit sand, pressing it in- 
to the tar composition. If wished fire-proof, go over the above with 
the following j^reparation ; slake stone lime under cover with hot 
water till it falls into a fine powder, sift and mix G qts. of this with 
1 qt. salt ; add 2 gals, water, boil and skim. To 5 gals, of this add 1 
lb of alum, and l| lb. of copperas, slowly while boiling, l^lbs. potash 
and 4 qts. of clean, sliarp sand, and any color desired. Apply a thick 
coat with a brush, and you have a roof which no fire can injure from 
the outside. 

How TO Build Gea^t:l. Houses. — This is the best building ma- 
terial in the world. It is four times cheaper than wood, six times 
cheaper than stone, and superior to eitlier. I'roportions for mixing : 
to eight barrows of slaked lime, well deluged Avith water, add 15 
barrows of sand ; mix these to a creamy consistency, then add GO 
barrows of coarse gravel, which must bo Avorked well and completely ; 
you can then throw stones into this mixture, of any shape or size, up 
to ten inches in diameter. Form moulds for the walls of the house 
by fixing boards horizontally against upright standards, which must 
be immovably braced so that they will not yield to the immense pres- 
sure outwards as the material settles ; set the standards in pairs 
around the building where the walls are to stand, from six to eight 
feet apart, and so wide that the inner space shall form tlie thickness 
of the waU. Into the moulds thus formed throw in the concrete 
material as fast as you choose, and the more promiscuously tho 
better. In a short time the gravel will get as hard as the solid rock. 

VAKKisn FOB Plaster Casts. — ^^Vhite soap and white wax, each ^ 
oz., water 2 pts., boil together in a clean vessel for a shoit time. This 
varnish is to be applied when cold with a soft brush. 

The Bronzing op Plaster Casts is effected by giving them a 
coat of oil or size varnish, and Avhen this is nearly dry, applying with 
a dabber of cotton or a camel-hair pencil any of the metallic bronze 
powders ; or the j)owdcr may be placed in a little bag of muslin, and 
dusted over the surface, and afterwards finished with a wad of linen. 
The surface must be afterwards varnished. 

Substitute for Plaster of Paris. — ^Best whiting, 2 lbs. ; 
glue, 1 lb. ; linseed oil, 1 lb. Heat all together, and stir thoroughly. 
Let the compound cool, and then lay it on a stone covered with 
powdered whiting, and heat it well till it becomes of a tough and 
firm consistence ; then put it by for use, covering with wet cloths to 
keep it fresh. When wanted for use, it must be cut in pieces adapted 
to the size of the mould, into which it is forced by a screw press. 
The ornament may be fixed to the wall, picture-frame, &c., with glue 
or white lead. It becomes in time as hard as stone itself. 

Modelling Clay. — Knead dry clay with glycerine instead cf 
water, and a mass is obtained which remauis moist and plastic for a 
considerable time, being a great convenieuco to tho modeller. 



WATCHMAKERS, JETTELLERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 307 

Ro:man Ceme>,'T. — Drift sand, 9i parts ; unslaked lime, 12 lbs. ; 
and 4 lbs. of the poorest cheese grated ; mix well ; add hot (not boil- 
ing) -water to reduce to a proper consistence for plastering. Work 
"well and quick with a thin smooth coat. 

To Polish Plaster of Pakis avokk. — The addition of 1 or 2 per 
cent, of many salts, such as alum, sulphate of potash, or borax, 
confers upon gjrpsum the property of setting slowly in a mass caimblo 
of receiving a very high polish. 

To MAKE Plaster of Paris as hard as Marble. — The plaster 
is put in a drum, turning horizontally on its axis, and steam admitted 
from a steam boiler : by this means the plaster is made to absorb in 
a short space of time the desired quantity of moisture, which can bo 
regulated with great precision. The plaster thus prepared is filled 
into suitable moulds ; and the whole submitted to the action of an 
liydraulic press : when taken out of the moulds, the articles arc 
ready for nse, and will be foimd as hard as marble, and will take a 
l^olish like it. 

To TAivE a Plaster of Paris Cast from a Person's Face. — 
The person must lie on his back, and his hair be tied behind ; into each 
nostril put a conical piece of paper, open at each end, to allow of 
breathing. The face is to be lightly oiled over, and the plaster, bemg 
properly prepared, is to be poured over the face, taking particular 
care that the eyes are shut, till it is a quarter of an inch thick. In a 
few minutes the plaster may be removed. In this a mould is to bo 
formed, from which a second Ciist is to be taken, that will furnish 
casts exactly like the original. 




WATCHMAKERS, JEWELLERS AND GILDERS' 
RECEIPTS, TABLES, &c. 

On^ "Watch Cleani>"g.— Tlie greatest care is necessary in fciking 
the watch down, and separating its parts. First, remove the hands 
carefully, so as not to bend the slight pivots on which they work, next, 
remove the movement from the case, and take off the dial and dial 
wheels ; next, let down the main spring by placing your bench key 
uix)n the arbor, or winding post, and turning as though you wero 



308 ArATCIIMAKERS, JEWELLERS', itC, RECEIPTS. 

going to -wind the watch until the click rests lightly upon tlic rntchct; 
then with your screw-driver press the point of the clielc nway iroiu 
the teeth and ease down the springs; next, draw the screws, or pins, 
and remove the bridges of tlie train or tlie upper plate, as tlio 
case may he, next, rcniove the balance witli the greatest care to avoid 
mjuring the hair spring. The stud or small i)OPt into which the hair 
spring is fastened may be removed from the bridge or i)lafce of most 
modern watches without uukeying the spring, by slipping a thin in- 
strument, like the edge of a blade knife, under the comer of it and 
Erying upward, this will save much trouble, as you will not have the 
air-spring to adjust when you reset the balance. If the watch upon 
wliich you propose to work has an upper plate, as an American or an 
Englisli lever for instance, loosen the lever before you have entirely . 
separated the plates, otherwise it wiU hang and probably be broken. 
The watch being now taken apart, brush the dust away from its dif- 
ferent parts, and subject them to a careful examination with your 
eye-glass. Assure yourself the teeth of the wheels and leaves of the 
l)inions are all ])erfect and smooth; that the pivots are all straight, 
round, and highly polished ; that the holes through which they are to 
work are not too large, and have not become oval in shape ; that every 
jewel is smootli and perfectly sound ; and that none of them are loose 
in their settings. See also that the escapement is not too deep or too 
sliallow; that the lever or cylinder is perfect; tliat all the Avheels have 
sufficient play to avoid friction, but not enough to derange their 
coming together properly; that none of them Avork against the pillar- 
plate; that the balance turns horizontally and does not rub: that the 
hair-spring is not bent or wrongly set so that the coils rub on each other 
on the plate, or on the balance; in short, that everything about the 
whole movement is just as reason would teach you it sliould bo. If 
you find it otherAvise, proceed to repair in accordance with a carefully 
weighed judgment and the processes given in this chapter, after whicli 
clean ; if not, the watch oulj'- needs to bo cleaned, and, therefore, you 
may go on with your work at once. 

To Clean. — Tlie best process is to simply Wow your breath upon 
the plate or bridge to be cleaned, and then to use your brush with a 
little prepared chalk. The Avheels and bridges should be held between 
the thumb and finger in a pie(3e of soft paper while undergoing the pro- 
cess; otherwise the oil from the skin will prevent their becoming 
clean. The pinions may be cleaned by sinlmig them several times 
into a piece of pith, and the holes by turning a nicely shaped piece of 
pivot wood into them, first dry, and afterwards oiled a very little witli 
watch oil. When the holes pass through jewels, you must work 
gently to avoid breakhig them. 

The "Chemical Phocess," — Some watchmakers employ what 
they call the " Chemical Process " to clean and remove discoloration 
from watch movements. It is as follows : — 

lleraove the screws and other steel parts ; then dampen with a 
solution of oxalic acid and water. Let it remaiir a few minutes, after 
which immerse in a solution made of one-fourth pound cyanuret pot- 
assa to one gallon rainwater. Let remain about five minutes, and 
then rinse well with clean water, after which you may dry in sawdust, 
or witli a brush and prexxared chalk, as suits your convenience. This 
gives the work an excellent appearance. 



T\'ATCUirAKEKS, JEWELLERS', &C., KECEirXS. 309 

To TRErAEE Chalk for Cleaning. — ^Pulverize your clialk tlior- 
ouglilj^, and then mix it -svith clear rain water in tlie proportion to 
two pounds to the gallon. Stir weU, and then let stand about two 
minutes. In this time the gritty matter wiU have settled to the bot- 
tom. Pour the water into another vessel slowly so as not to stir up 
the settlmgs. Let stiind until entirely settled, and then pour off as 
before. The settlings in the second vessel will be your prepared 
chalk, ready for use as soon as dried. Spanish whiting, treated in 
the same way, makes a very good cleaning or i^olishing powdei*. 
Some operatives add a little jeweller's rouge, and we think it an im- 
provement ; it gives the powder a nice color at least, and therefore 
adds to its impoitance in the eyes of the uniuitiated. In cases where 
a sharper polishing powder is required, it may be i)repared in the 
same way from rotten-stone. 

Pn^OT Wood. — ^^Vatchmakcrs usually buy this article of watch- 
material dealers. A small shrub knoAvu as Indian arrow-wood, to be 
met with in the northern and western states, makes an excellent 
]uvot wood. It must be cut when the sap is down, and split into quar- 
ters so as to throw the pith outside of the rod. 

Pith for Cleanixg. — Tlie stalk of the common mullen affords 
the best pith for cleaning pinions. "Winter, when the stalk is dry, is 
the time to gather it. Some use cork instead of pith, but it is 
inferior 

To PiTOT. — ^Wlien you find a pivot broken, you will hardly be at a 
loss to understand that the easiest mode of repairing the damage is to 
drill into the end of the pinion or staff, as the case may be, and having 
inserted a new pivot, turn it down to the proper proportions. Tliis is 
by no means a difficult thing when the piece to be drilled is not too 
hard, or when the temper may be slightly drawn without injury to 
the other parts of the article. 

To TELL WTiEN THE LE^^:R IS OF TRGPER LENGTH. — ^You may 
readily learn whether or not a lever is of proper length, by measur- 
ing from the guard point to the pallet staff, and then comparing with 
the roller or ruby-pin table ; the diameter of the table should alwaj's 
be just half the length measured on the lever. The rule will work 
both ways, and may be useful in cases where a new ruby-pin table 
has to be supplied. 

To CHANGE Depth of Lever Escapeiment. — ^If you are opera- 
ting on a fine watch, the best i^lan is to put a new staff into the lever, 
cutting its pivots a little to one side, just as far as you desire to 
change the escapement. Common watches will not, of course, justify 
so much trouble. The usual process in their case is to knock out the 
' stjiff , and Avith a small file cut the hole oblong in a direction opposite 
to that in which you desire to move your pallets : then replace the 
staff", wedge it to the required jwsition, and secure by soft soldering. 
In instances where the staff is put in with a screw, you will have to 
-jiroceed differently. Take out the staff, pry the j^allcts from the 
lever, file the pin holes to slant in the direction you would move the 
jiallets, without changing their size on the other side of the lever. 
Connect the pieces as they were before, and, with the lever resting on 
some solid substance, you may strike lightly with your hammer 
until the bending of tho pins ■will allow the pallets to pass Into x)osi- 
tion. 



310 "NYATCnMAKERS, JEWELLERS', &C., EECEirTb. 

CoBiPEK-SATiON BAiiANCE OP CHEONOfETERS.— The balance is a 
Bmall piece of steel covered "with a hoop of brass. The rim, consisting 
of the two metals, is divided at the two extremities, the one diamet- 
rical arm of the balance, so that the increase of temperature which 
■weakens the balance springs contract, in a proportionate degree, 
the diameter of the balance, leaving the spring less resistance to 
overcome. This occurs from the brass exj^anding much more by 
heat than steel, and it therefore curls the semicircular arcs inwards, 
an action that will be immediately understood, if we conceive the 
compound bar of steel to be straight, as the heat would render the 
brass side longer and convex, and in the balance it renders it more 
curved. In the compensation balance, the two metJils are united as 
follows : the disk of steel when turned and pierced with a central hole 
is fixed by a little screw-bolt and nut at the bottom of a small cru- 
cible, with a central elevation smaller than the disk ; the brass is 
now melted and the whole allowed to cool. The crucible is broken, 
the excess of brass is turned off in the lathe, the arms are made 
with the file as usual, the rim is tapped to receive the compensation 
screws or weights, and, lastly, the hoop is divided in two places at 
the opposite ends of its diametrical arm. The balance sprmgs of 
marme chronometers, which are m the form of a screw, are womid 
into the square thread of a screw of the appropriate diameter and 
coarseness ; the two ends of the spring are retained by side screws, 
and the whole is carefully enveloped in platinum foil, and lightly 
bound with wire. The mass is next heated in a piece of gun barrel 
closed at one end, and plunged into oil, which hardens the spruig 
almost without discoloring it, owuig to the exclusion of tlie air by 
the close platmum covering, which is now removed, and the spring is 
let down to the blue before removal from the screwed block. Tlie 
balance or hair spring of common watches are frequently left soft, 
those of the best watches are hardened in the coil upon a plain 
cylinder and are then curled into the spiral form between the edge 
of a blunt knife and the thumb, the same as in curling up a narrow 
ribbon or jiaper, or the filaments of an ostrich feather. The soft 
springs are worth 60 cents each, those hardened and tempered S1.2G 
each. This raises the value of the steel ; originally less than 4 
cents, to $2000 and $8000 respectively. It takes 3200 balance springs 
to weigh an ounce. 

Watch Spuing Manupactitre. — Watch springs are hammered 
out of round steel wire, of suitable diameter until they fill the gauge, 
for width, which at the same time insures equaUty of thickness. 
The holes are punched in their extremities, and they are trimmed 
on the edge with a smooth file. The springs are then tied up with 
binding wire, in a loose open coil and heated over a charcoal fire 
upon a perforated revolving plate. They are hardened in oil and 
blazed off. The spring is now distended in a long metal frame, simi- 
lar to that used for a saw blade, and ground and pohshed with 
emery and oil between lead blocks. By this time its elasticity appears 
quite lost, and it may be bent in any direction ; its elasticity is, how- 
ever, entirely restored by a subsequent hanmiering on a very briglit 
anvil which puts the " nature into the spring," The coloring is done 
over a flat plate of iron, or hood, under which a small spirit lamp 
is kept biuiiuig ; the spring i3 continually drawn backward and 



"WATCHMAKERS, JEWELLEKS', &C., KECEirXS. 311 

forward, about tvro or three inches at a time, until it assumes the 
oi-auge or deep blue tiut throughout, accordmg to the taste of the 
purchaser. By many the coloring is considered to be a matter of 
ornament and not essential. The last process is to coil the spring 
mto the spiral form, that it may enter tlie barrel in -which it is to be 
contained. This is done by a tool Trith a small axis and winch 
handles, and does not require heat. 

To TELIi TTHEN LeVER PALLETS AKB OF PROPER SlZE. — ^TllO 

clear space between the pallets should correspond with the outside 
measure, on the points of three teeth of the scape wheel. The usual 
mode of measuring for new pallets is to set the wheel as close as pos- 
sible to free its self when iu. motion. You can arrange it in your dep- 
thing tool, after which the measurement between the pivot holes of 
the two pieces, on the pillar plate, will show jdu exactly what is re- 
quired. 

To LENGTHEN Levers of Anchor-esc aperient Watciies wixn- 
OTJT HA^OIERI^'G or Solderixg. — Cut square across with a screw- 
head file, a little back from the point above the fork, and, when you 
have thus cut into it to a sufficient depth, bend forward tlie desired 
distance the piece thus partiaUy detached. In the event of the piece 
snapping off while bending — which, however, rarely happens — file 
down the point level with the fork, and insert a pin Euglish lever 
style. 

To TE:MrER Case akd other Springs of "Watches. — Draw the 
temper from the sprmg, and fit it properly in its place in the watch ; 
then take it out and temper it hard in rain-water (the addition of a 
little table-salt to the water will be an improvement) ; after which 
place it in a small sheet-iron ladle or cup, and barely cover it with lui- 
geed-oil ; then hold the ladle over a lighted lamp until the oil ignites, 
let it bum imtil the oU is nearly, not quite consumed ; then re-cover 
with oil and bum down as before ; and so a third time ; at the end of 
which, i)limge it agaui into water. Main and liair springs may, in 
like manner, be tempered by the same process ; first draw the temper, 
and properly coil and clamp to keep it in position, and then proceed 
the same as with case-sprmgs. 

To make Eed Watch Hands. — I oz. carmine, 1 oz. muriate of 
silver, ^ oz. of tinner's Japan ; mix together in an earthen vessel, and 
hold over a spirit-lamp untU formed into a paste. Apply tliis to 
the watch hand, aud then lay it on a copper plate, face side um, 
and heat the plate sufficiently to produce the color desired. 

To Drill lkto Hard Steel. — J^Iake your drill oval in form, in- 
stead of the usual pointed shape, and temper as hard as it will bear 
Avithout breaking ; then roughen the surface where you desire to drill 
Avith a little diluted muriatic acid, and, instead of oil, use turpentine 
or kerosene, in which a little gum camphor has been dissolved with 
your drill. In operating, keep the pressure on your drill firm aud 
steady ; and if the bottom of the hole should chance to become bur- 
nished that the drill will not act, as sometimes happens, again roughen 
Avith diluted acid as before; then clean out the hole caref ullyj and 
proceed again. 

To Put Teeth ix "Watch or Clock "Wheels without Dove- 
TAiLLN'G OR SOLDERING. — Drill a hole somewhat wider than the 
toothy square through the plate, a little below the base of the tooth ; 



612 WATCHMAKERS, JEWELLERS', &.C., RECEirXS. 

cut from the edge of the Tvhcel square down to the liolc already drill- 
ed ; then flatten a piece of wire so as to fit snugly into the cut of the 
saw, and with a light hammer form a head on it like the head of a 
jiin. When thus prepared, press the wire or pin into jiossession in 
the wheel, the head filling the hole drilled through the plate, and the 
projecting out so as to form the tooth ; then with a sharp-pointed 
graver cut a small groove each side of the pin from the edge of the 
wheel down to the hole, and with a blow of your hammer spread the 
lace of the pin so as to fill ihe grooves just cut. Repeat tlie same op- 
eration on the other side of the wheel, and finish off in the usual 
wa.y. The tooth will be found perfectly riveted in on every side, and 
as strong as the original one, while in appearance it will be equal to 
the best dovetailing. 

To Case-iiakdek Ikox. — ^If you desire to harden to any consider- 
able depth, put the article into a crucible with cyanide of potash, 
cover over and heat altogether, then plunge into water. This process 
Avill harden jierfectly to the deptlv of one or two inches. 

To TIGHTEN A CaXKOX PiXION OX THE CE^:TKE AnnoK wnEN" 
TOO LOOSE. — Grasp the arbor lightly with a pair of cutting nipi-)ers, 
and, by a single tuni of the nippers around the arbor, cut or raise a 
small thread Ihcrcon. 

To Fkost Watcji INIovemexts. — Sink that part of the article to be 
frosted for a short time in a compound of nitric acid, muriatic acid, 
and table salt, one ounce of each. On removing from the acid, place 
it in a shalloAV vessel containing enough sour beer to merely cover it, 
then with a fine scratch brush scour thoroughly, letting it remaiji 
under tlie beer during the operation. Next wash off, first in pure 
water and then in alcohol. Gild or silver in accordance with any 
recipe in the jilating dcpa,rtment. 

IluLE FOK deter:mixixg the cokkect Diameter of a Pixiox 
r.Y ]MEAsuiiixG Teeth of the AViieeij that jiatches ixto it. — 
The term full, as used below, indicates full measure from outside to 
outside of the teeth named, and the term cextke, the measure from 
centre of one tooth to centre of the otlier tooth named, inclusive. 

For diameter of a pinion of 15 leaves measure, with calipers, a 
shade less than G teeth of the wheel, full. 

For diameter of a ]iinion of 14 leaves measure, with calipers, a shade 
less than G tcctli of the Avheel, centime. 

For diameter of a pinion of 12 leaves measure, with callipers. 5 teeth 
of the wheel, centre. 

For diameter of a pinion of 10 leaves measure, Avith calipers. 4 teeth 
of the wheel, full. 

For diameter of a pinion of 9 leaves measure, with calipers, a little 
less than 4 tcetli of the wheel, full. 

For diameter of a pinion of 8 leaves measure, with calij^ers, a little 
less than 4 teeth of the wheel, centre. 

For diameter of a ]union of 7 leaves measure, with calipers, a little 
less than 3 teeth of the wheel, full. 

For diameter of ajiinion of G leaves measure, with calipers, 3 teeth 
of tlie wheel, centre. 

For diameter of a pinion of 5 leaves measure, with calipers, 3 tcetli 
ofthowhee], centre. 

A:J a general rule, iiinions that lc;u', as in the hour wheel, should 



■\VATCn:u:AKEK5, jewellers', &C., RliCEIPTS. 312 

be somewhat larger than those that drive, and pinions of cloclcs 
bhonld generally be somewhat larger proportionally than those of 
watches. 

Tor diameter of a pinion of 4 leaves measure, with calipers, on« 
half of one space over 2 teeth of the wheel, /»^^. 

To Polish Wheels pekfectly without ixjurt. — Take a flat 
burnishing file, warm it over a spirit lamp, and coat it lightly with 
beeswax. When cold, wipe off as much of the wax as can be readily 
removed, and with your file thus prepared, polish the wheel, resting 
the wheel while polishing on a piece of cork. The finish i:)roduced 
will be quite equal to the finest buff polish, while there will be no 
clogging, and the edges of the arms and teeth will remain perfectly 
square, 

Saxdoz' Method of Produces'g Isochkoxism ix Flat axd 
Breguet Springs. — IsocJwonism, from the Greek, meaning equal 
time, is the property possessed by the pendulum and the hair spring 
to accomplish their arcs of vibration of different amplitudes in tiie 
same space of time. In a pendulum, the only condition required is 
that its length be such as to make the centre of gravity move accord- 
ing to the CN'cloid curve; but in the hair spring the means change 
with the forms effected by the spring. In the spherical or conical 
springs, the extreme curves constructed after the mathematical rules 
discovered by Prof. Phillipps, of the Polj-technic School of Paris, 
Avill produce an Isochronism very nearly perfect. In the flat spring, 
these curves camiot exist, therefore other means must be resorted to. 
1 shall give now the results of several years of experiment and study, 
which can be embodied in the two following tlieorems : 

1, la the flat sprinf/, evcnj coil has theoretically a point lohere the 
vibrations are Isochronal. 2. That pioint of Isochronism is determined 
1)1/ tlie relative position of the two jjoints connectinfj the hair spri)ig 
vsith the collet and stud, called Points d' attache. 

These two propositions form tl\e base of Isochronism in the flat 
spring; therefore the idea generally accredited among watchmakers 
that the Isochronal properties of a ilat spring depend on its length is 
incorrect, since the 10th as well as tlie 20th coil of the spring is able 
to produce the Isochronism, the only limit being such sizes of springs 
that would prevent the perfect freedom of its action. 

Freedom of action being necessary for the Isochronal properties of 
the sprmg to develop themselves, the spring must be bent to the 
centre, according to Fig. II. — the first coil being too near or the curve 
too flat, so that even a minute part of the spring could touch the 
collet, would hinder the Isochronism. Xext, the spring must be 
l)iimed perfectly tight in the collet and stud, and move freely between 
the regulator pins. 

These conditions fulfilled, tlie watch is run 3, Gor 12 hours with just 
sk-ength enough to keep it going ; the result is compared with a regu- 
lator and set down. Xext, the watch is fully wound up, and after 
a space of time equal to the first trial, the result is again set down. 
Most generally the watch will run slower in the short vibrations than 
in the wide ones, and consequently lose time in the pocket in the last 
twelve hours of its runnmg. Having set down as a principle that every 
coil has an Isochronal point, we have now to detennine that point, re- 
membering that as a general rule, cvcnj increase of length of the 



314 AVATCHMAKEKS, JEWELLERS', &C., KECEIITS. 

sprmg over that point, loill cause the watch to rjain in the short vibra- 
tions, and evenj decrease hack of that point loill cause it to f/ain in (hi 
xoide vibrations. This rule is correct ouly for certain limits, as I am 
going to explain. Supposing that a hair spring of 15 coils is per- 
fectly Isochronal with the two points d' attache just opposite each 
other, as shoAvn in Fig. HI., the 14th and the 16th coil, as Avell as the 
loth, will ijroduce the Isochronism very nearly at the same point. 
Supposing that we increase gradually the length of that hair sj^ring 
of 15 coils, pinned up so that the two points d' attache are primitively 
opposite each other — so that its length ivill now be Ibh coils — the two 
points d' attache are now in the position shown in Fig. IV., or what is 
called pinned to the half coil. The result will he that the hair spring 
will cause the watch to gain in the short vibrations as much as it is iu 
its power to do. 

But if we go further than the half coil, we now enter the ground 
that belongs to the IGth coU, and every increase of length in that half 
coil will cause the hair spring to lose in the short vibrations, in the 
same proportion that it has been gaining in Increasing the length of the 
first half. That change will continue until we reach the same point 
on the 16th coil that we started from on the 15th., the two pins oi>- 
jiosite each other; at chat point we shall have again the Isochronism. 
The same operation is applicable to the 14th coil, with the same re- 
sults. 

Now it is immaterial whether we take tliat half coil to the centre, or 
to the outside of the spring, because both of these operations wiU pro- 
dace the same results, viz., the change of the relative places of the 
points d'attache of the spring. Therefore the artist has his choice, 
and is guided by the size of the spruig and the weight of the balance; 
for taking half a coil to the centre of the spring will not much affect 
the rate of the watch, but taken outside, the difference will be great. 
On the other hand, a very short cut to the centre wiU greatly affect 
the Isochronism, and at the outside, a full half-coil will generally 
produce from 15 to 25'/ difference m 24 hours. If then the watch- 
maker would produce the greatest possible changes of Isochronism in 
a watch, the change of position of the two looints d'attache of the 
spring of one coil around, will give liim the two liighest degrees of 
gaining and losing in the short vibrations. 

It follows from the following pages, that if a watch l()ses in the last 
riinning (short vibrations), the first thmg to do is to increase the 
length "of the hair spring from the outside; if the result is better, but 
not yet good, give still more length ; if the result is worse, it shows 
that you are too far on the coil. Take back the whole length that 
you had given in the first operation, and draw more length, so as to 
affect the spring the other way; or if your spring is already small or 
your balance pretty heavy, cut to the centre so as to come around to 
the required positions. 

Some springs cannot produce the Isochronism; this comes from a 
defect in makmg the spring, or a want of homogeniety in the metal ; 
the only remedy is a new spring. 

In the Breguet Spring, the Isochronism is produced in the same 
manner as the flat sijringings, but great care must be taken in making 
the curve, for if it is not made in conformity to the principle of Pliil- 
lipps, the Isochronism will be disturbed. 



WATCHMAKERS, JEWELLERS/" &C., RECEIPTS. 315 

For instince, in Fig. V.. the spring being pinned in A, and tho 
Avatch losing 7'' in the last 12 hours (short vib.), I first increjise the 
length of the hair spring to the point B ; but as I am already on the 
ground belonging to the losing action, the result will be an increased 
loss of time in the ]a-»t nmning. I then go back to the point A, and 
moreover pin the spring to C, and then I shall approximate Isochron- 
ism. However, in most cases the increase of length -will make tl;o 
Avatch gain in its last running. 



Fig. I 



Timing and Adjusting. 



Fig. IL 




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WATCnMAKEHS, JEWELLERS', &C., EECEirTS. 317 

great principle is to equalize the frictions, so that the pivots -^ill oflfer 
to the action of the spriii<;- the same resistance in tlie four positions 
generally required, viz., dial up, XII np, cock up and III up. After 
iiaving inspected and corrected tlie train so that the motive poAver is 
transmitted uniformly to the balance, the pivots and jewels of the 
lever should be polished and shortened so as to have very little fric- 
tion; next, the lever should be poised as nearly perfect as possible, 
and the slot also in the fork where the ruby pin acts should be 
polished. The balance jewels ought to be made short enough to 
nave the holes Sijiiare, romided inside, and perfectly polished, the 
balance pivots well burnished and their ends half rounded, and the 
balance poised very careful! J^ The English method of throwing tlio 
balance out of poise to obtain the same rate in different positions is 
not accei)ted generally, and is considered a bad practice by the most 
eminent watchmakers. The hair springispnt in its position without 
the balance, and bent so that the collet and the cock jewel will have 
the same centres. The watch being now in good running order, is 
put under trial for 12 or 24 hours, and the rate in each position care- 
fully noted. If there is any difference in the running with the cock 
up, or dial up, making the ends of the pivots even and equally well 
polished will remove the discrepancy. If the watch loses with XII 
up, which is generally the case, and the friction on the balance jewels 
being reduced as much as possible, the remedy is to increase the 
friction when the watch is either dial or cock np. This is done by 
throioinrj the hair spring a little out of the centre of the cock jeicel, 
thereby adding to the friction on the pivot end, a lateral pressure 
against the balance jewels. If the watch is well regulated with XII 
up, and loses with III up, throio the sprinfi a little towards the figure 
III; this operation lifts itp the balance when the watch is in losing 
position and diminishes the friction of the pivots in that particular 
case. Making the ends of the pivots i^erfectly flat has a tendency to 
make the watch gain with dial or cock up. The sound of the watch 
must be clear m all positions, else it indicates a friction, as for instance 
rough jewels or pivots, safety i^iu rubbmg against the roller, etc. 

liow TO Regulate a Watch in a feav IMinutes, axd a Practi- 
cal Method to tut a isew IIaiii Spring, of the eight size and 
Perfectly Regulated in a Watch without Running It. — Pirst, 
ascertain how many vibrations the watch beats in one minute, by 
counting every other vibration and comparing that time with a well- 
regulated watch or regulator. In general, Swiss watches beat 18,000 
in one hour, A'iz., 300 in one minute; American watches, either 18,000 
cither 1G,200, or 270 x^er minute; and the English levers, 14,400, or 
240 per minute. If there is ai»y doubt, it is better to count up leaves 
jind teeth, and ascertain the riglit number • but these cases are scarce 
where watches will beat odd numbers. 

Having found out the right number, examine tne .jalance carefully 
for one or two minutes, counting every vibration going from right to 
left, and in the mean time examinmg the regulator or clock, to see 
when one minute is up. If the watch is well regulated, the number 
of vibrations must be exactly half of the regular first number, viz., 
150, 135, or 120, as only every other vibration has been recorded to 
facilitate the obsen-ation. If not so, move the regulator, right or 
IMt, until a perfect coincidence comes. 



318 WATCnMAKERS, JEWELLERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 

To pick lip a new hair spring, after havinj; recorclcd the right num- 
hcr of beats — eitlier by tlie old liair spring or bj"- tlie numbers of the 
train — lay first the spring with its centre weU in the centre of the cock 
jewel, and having ascertained where the coil will enter between the 
pins of the regulator, note the place. Stick to the pivot of the balance 
a small round piece of beeswax; then stick it to the centre of the 
spring, so as to establish a temporary but firm connection of the two 
pieces, and having pinched with the tweezers the hair spring to the 
place indicated by the regulator pins, cause it to vibrate gently; then 
count up the vibrations for one mmute, and when you have got a 
spring that will produce nearly the required number of beats, pin it 
to the collet, and cause it again to vibrate, moving the tweezers for- 
ward and Ijackward, until the right number of beats is produced ; 
with another pair of tweezers, pinch the hair spring about one-eighth 
of an inch bade of the regulating point, so as to coiuiterbalance the 
gain produced by the regulator pins, and bend slightly the wire, 
which is the place where the hair spring must be pinned to the stud. 
Having then trued up the spring, proceed to put the regulator to the 
right place, by using the way indicated in the beginning of this article, 
and tlie work is done. Success is certain, when the operation has 
been carefully performed. The balance must be made to vibrate on 
some hard and well polished substance, so as to keep up the vibra- 
tion to about the standard of regular running. A little practice will 
soon enable the Avatchmaker to change a hair spring very quick, 
and without any trouble whatever. 

Of Coimpensation. — A most accurate way of counterbalancing 
effects produced on the running of watches by different temperatures, 
is the expansion balance, formed of two concentric rmgs, one in- 
terior, of steel, and one exterior, of hrass, joined together by hard 
soldering or smelting. Tlie general proportion of these two metals is 
one part of steel, two of brass. The stronger dilation of bi"ass, causes 
the rim of tlie balance to head mwardly when the heat, increasing, 
diminishes the strength of the hair spring; the greater contraction 
bends the rim outwardly when cold comes to increase the rigidity of 
the spring's coils. Pushing forward or backward the screws of the 
rim will affect the compensating powers of the balance, by causuig 
their weight to be more active as they comQ,nearer the end of the cut 
arm. The thinner and higher the rim, the greater the action. A few 
trials will bring the balance to compensate the effect of temiierature 
from 30° to 100° Fahrenheit. For extreme temperatures another 
comjpensation, called auxiliai^j, is used, but only in ship chronome- 
ters. A soft spring will be less affected by changes of temperature 
than a hardened one ; this affords a w»y to compensate certain bal- 
ances, where otherwise new ones would have to be used. A precau- 
tion to observe in compensating is to make the screws go freely on the 
balance, and not screw them too tight, else the action of the rim not 
being free, a good compensation could not be attained, until the com- 
buicd actions of dilation and contraction of the rim have freed the 
screws. 

For watchmakers who would want to compensate a watch without 
having an expansion balance, I give the following process, which I 
have successfully used : After having cut off the greater part of the 
regulator's arm, another arm is to be fitted with a screw on the rim 



WATCUMAKEKS, JEWELLERS*, SiC, KECEIPTS. 319 

of the regulator, so as to revolve freely around that screw as an axis. 
The pins are put in the same position as on tlie old arm. A ring, of 
two parts of hi-ass and one of steel, is then fastened to one end on 
that movable arm, and the other end is screwed at any convenient 
place, either on the regulator itself, or on the cock. See Fig. 1. By 
placing the whole ring on the regulator, the latter may be moved as 
m any other watch, the ring opening or shutting itself under the 
changes of temperature, will push backward and forward the regu- 
lator pins, and so effect the compensation which is to be regulated by 
varying either the proportion of brass and steel, or the size of the 
Jang. 

To try the running of the watches, a common refrigerator is used 
to produce tlie low temperature, and then an apparatus, self-regula- 
ting, will produce the high temperature. It is commonly a square 
box of tin or copper, hermetically closed, under which is a gas burner. 
A compensating arm of the form of a U, made of brass and steel, is 
fastened inside the box, and is connected by a string witli a lever at- 
tached to the key of the burner, and acts so that at the high temi)er- 
ature, say 100° Fah., the gas is nearly shut off, the compensating 
arm gradually releasing itself and consequently letting out more gas 
when the heat diminishes inside the box. Use steel pins to secure 
spring to collet and stud. 

To MAKE Polishing Broaches.— These are usually made of ivory, 
and used Avith diamond dust, loose, instead of having been driven in. 
You oil the broach lightly, dip it into the finest diamond dust, and 
]u-oceed to work it into the jewel the same as you do the brass 
broach. Unfortunately, too many watchmakers fail to attach sufli- 
cient importance to tlie polishing broach. The sluggish motion of 
watches now-a-days is more often attributable to rough jewels than 
to any other cause. 

To Polish Steel. — ^Take crocus of oxide of tin and graduate it in 
in the same way as in x>reparing diamond dust, and apply it to the 
steel by means of a piece of soft iron or bell metal, made proper form, 
and prepared with flour of emery, same as for pivot burnishers ; use 
the coarsest of the crocus first, and finish off with the finest. To iron 
or soft steel a better finish may be given by burnishing than can be 
imparted by the use of polishing powder of any kind whatever. The 
German Method of Polishing Steel is performed by tlie use of crocus 
on a buff wheel. Nothing can exceed the surpassing beauty imparted 
to steel Of even cast iron by this process. 

Crocus Powder for Polishing. — Chloride of sodium and sul- 
phate of iron are well mixed in a mortar. The mixture is then put 
into a shallow crucible and exposed to a red heat ; vapor escapes 
and the mass fuses. When no more vapor escapes, remove the 
crucible and let it cool. The color of the oxide of iron produced, 
if the fire has been properly regulated, is a fine violet ; if the heat 
has been too high it becomes black. The mass when cold is to be 
powdered and washed, to separate the sulj)hate of soda. The 
powder of crocus is then to be submitted to a process of careful 
elutriation, and the finer particles reserved for the more delicate 
work. An excellent powder for applying to razor strops is made 
by igniting together in a crucible, equal parts of well dried green 
vitrol and common salt. The heat must be slowly raised and weU 



320 vrATcnMAKERs, jewellers', &C., liECEirXS. 

regulated, otherwise the materials will hoil over in a pasty stale, 
and be lost. When well made, out of contact with air, it has tlio 
brilliant aspect of black lead. It requires to be ground and elutri- 
ated, after which it affords, on drying, an impalpable powder, that 
may be either ax^plied on a strop of smooth buff leather, or mixed 
up with hog's lard or tallow into a stiff cerate. 

To Remove Rust fkom Iiio>r or Steel, &c. — For cleaning pur- 
poses, &c., kerosene oil or benzine are probably the best things 
known. AVlien articles have become pitted by rust, however, thci^o 
can of course, only be removed by mechanical means, such as scour- 
ing with fine powder, or flour of emery and oil, or with very fine 
emery paper. To prevent steel from rusting, rub it with a mixture of 
lime and oil, or with mercurial ointment, either of which will bo 
found valuable. 

To Make Burnishers. — Proceed the same as in making pivot files, 
with the exception that j'ou are to use fine flour of emerj^ on a slip of 
oiled brass or copper, mstead of the emery paper. Burnishers which 
have become too smooth may be improved vastly with the flour of 
emery as above without drawing the temper. 

To Prepare a Burxisher for Polisiiixg. — ^IMelt a little bees- 
wax on the face of your burnisher. Its effect then on brass or other 
fi.ner metals, will be equal to the best buft'. A small burnisher pre- 
pared in this way is the very thing Avith which to polish up watch 
wheels. Rest them on a piece of pith while polishmg. 

liULES FOR Determining the Correct Length of the Lea'er, 
KizE OF Ruby-pin Table, size of the Pallets, and depth of 
Escapement of Lever AVatches. — A lever, from the guard point to 
the pallet staff, should corresi^ond in length with twice the diameter 
of the rubj'-pin table, and when a table is accideutallj'' lost, the cor- 
rect size thereof may be known by measuring half the length of the 
lever between the points above named. For correct size of pa-llet, tlic 
clear space between the pallets should correspond with the outside 
measure on the points of three teeth of the escapement wheel. The 
cnly rule that can be given, without the use of diagrams, for correct 
depth of the- escapements, is to set it as close as it will boar, and still 
fiee itself perfectly when in motion. Tliis may be done by first 
])lacing the escapement in your depthing tool, and then setting it to 
the correct depth. Then by measuring the distance between the 
l^ivots of the lever staff and escapement wheel, as now set, and the 
corresponding i)ivot holes in the Avatch, you determine correctly how 
much the depth of the escapement requires to be altered. 

To Prevent Watches losing .TiaiE rRo:M Action of Pent)Ui.U3I 
Spring. — Pin the pendulum spring into the stud, so that ths.t part, 
the part of the eye immediately emerging from the collet, and the 
centre of the collet, are in a line; then j^ou will have the spring pin- 
ned in, in equal terms, as it is called by those who are versed in tlie 
higher branches of springing. Bring the watch to time by adding to 
or taking from the balance, and poise it; tiythe w'atchwith the 13 
up for 2 "hours, then with the G up for 2 hours, then lyin|^ down for 
the same time ; the trials here described Avill be suflicient if the 
watch has seconds ; keep the curb ]nn close so as to allow the spring 
only a little i)lay; the vibration of the balance should be 1| turn or 
l^f lying. 



"WATCnilAKERS, JEWELLERS', «tC., RECEIPTS. 321 
LIST OF TRAINS OF WATCHES. 

SHOWINO THE NUMBVR OP TilETH IX THE WHEELS, LEAVES IN THB 

I'IKIOXS BEATS IN A MINUTE, AKD TIME THE EOUUTH 

WHEEL REVOLVES IN. 

Trains, for Seven Teetli ita tlie Escapement AVhcel. 



No. of 
Teeth 
ia the 
Centre 
Wheel. 

72 
GG 
C6 
60 
63 
66 
GO 





Leaves 




Leaves 


Teeth 
in the 
Escape- 


Leaves 
in the 


Teeth in 


in 3d 


Teeth ia 


in 4ih 


Escape- 


3d WheeL 


Wheel 


4th Wneel 


AVheol 


ment 


66 


Pinion. 


58 


Pinion. 


Wheel. 


Wheel 
Pinion. 


6 


6 


7 


6 


64 


6 


64 


6 


7 


6 


04 


6 


63 


6 


7 


6 


G3 


6 


63 


6 


7 


6 


C3 


6 


62 


6 


7 


6 


'.;3 


6 


61 


6 


7 


P 


G5 


G 


60 


G 


1 


G 



Xo. of Beats in 
one minute. 



298— 
2924- 
2874- 
283— 
278-f 
274— 
2694- 



-No. or 
SocondJ 
the 4tix 

WhCG. 

revol- 
ves in. 



27 
31 
31 
31 

31 
31 
31 



Trains, for Nine Teetli ia tlie Escapement Wheel, 



O.J 


60 


G 


57 


6 


9 


6 


2994- 


31 


ca 


69 


6 


54 


6 


9 


6 


297 


33 


G3 


60 


6 


53 


6 


9 


6 


294 


34 


CG 


6J 


6 


5:3 


6 


9 


6 


2914- 


3:3 


63 


60 


G 


55 


6 


9 


6 


289— 


31 


66 


60 


6 


52 


6 


9 


6 


286 


3J 


68 


6) 


6 


54 


6 


9 


6 


2834- 


31 


66 


6) 


6 


51 


G 


9 


G 


2804- 


3i 


63 


60 


6 


53 


6 


9 


6 


2784- 


31 


66 


60 


6 


50 


6 


9 


6 


275 


3J 


G3 


GO 


6 


52 


G 


9 


6 


273 


31 



Trains, for Eleven Teetli ia tlie Escapement \Fheel, 



60 


60 


CO 


51 


GO 


56 


61 


62 


5S 


56 


60 


54 


62 


54 


58 


54 


58 


55 


50 


51 


GO 


51 


60 


55 


61 


55 


63 


55 


'59 


54 


60 


54 


61 


51 


56 


51 


60 


60 


62 


54 


63 


54 


63 


48 


70 


70 


70 


70 


70 


60 



49 
54 
52 
52 
53 
53 
51 
54 
53 
53 
52 
51 
50 
48 
52 
51 
50 
51 
48 
52 
50 
56 
56 
48 
4S 



'-^1 



IL 
11 
11 
11 
11 
11 
11 
11 
11 
11 
11 
11 
11 
11 
11 
11 

n 
11 
11 
11 
11 
11 
11 
n 
11 



6 
G 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
G 
6 
G 
6 
6 
6 
6 
G 

G 

G 

6 

G 

6 

6 

6 

7 

6 

6 



3UJ — 


i ^J 


297 


4) 


230— 


3) 


294— 


3) 


2924- 


40 


2914- 


40 


290- 


3:> 


2874- 


41 


287 


41 


2864- 


41 


283 


40 


286- 


30 


285- 


30 


282-h 


33 


2814- 


41 


2814- 


40 


280— 


SO 


2774- 


43 


2934- 


3) 


2954- 


30 


289— 


33 


2874- 


43 


2934- 


8) 


2934- 


3) 


2934- 


86 



322 WATCHMAKERS, JEWELLERS*, AC, RECEIPTS. 



No. of 
Teeth 
in the 
Centre 
Wheel. 

60 
63 
63 
80 
80 
80 
80 
80 
80 
70 
70 
60 
84 
84 
84 
63 
63' 
84 
84 
84 
63 
63 





Leaves 




Leaves 


Teeth 
in the 
Escape- 
ment 
Wheel. 


Teeth in 


in 3d 


Teeth In 


in 4th 


3d Wheel. 


Wheel 


4tb Wheel 


Wheel 


70 


Pinion. 




Pinion. 


6 


48 


7 


11 


50 


6 


66 


7 


11 


63 


6 


50 


7 


n 


80 


8 


64 


8 


11 


80 


8 


56 


8 


11 


80 


8 


48 


8 


11 


70 


8 


56 


7 


11 


70 


8 


48 


7 


11 


60 


8 


48 


C 


11 


80 


7 


66 


8 


11 


80 


7 


48 


8 


11 


80 


6 


48 


8 


11 


72 


8 


50 


8 


11 


63 


8 


60 


7 


11 


54 


8 


60 


6 


11 


72 


6 


60 


8 


11 


63 


6 


50 


7 


11 


64 


8 


66 


8 


11 


56 


8 


56 


7 


11 


48 


8 


66 


6 


11 


64 


6 


56 


8 


11 


56 


6 


56 


7 


n 



Leaves 
in the 
Escape- 
ment 
Wheel 
Pinion. 

6 
6 
6 



No. ot' Beats in 
one Minute. 



>. or 
Seconds 
the 4tb 
Wheel 
revol- 
ves in. 



293+ 

287+ 
289— 
293+ 
293 + 
293+ 
293 + 
293+ 
293+ 
293+ 
293+ 
293+ 
289— 
289— 
289— 
289— 
289- 
287+ 
287+ 
287+ 
287+ 
287+ 



36 

40 
38 
S8 
36 
3C 
33 
3d 
3J 
3 J 
3? 
3) 
Si 
33 
33 
33 
33 
41) 
40 
40 
40 
40 



Trains, for Tliirteen Teeth in tlie Oscapentent Wlaeel. 



{>4 


53 


6 


62 


6 


13 


6 


298+ 


45 


66 


53 


6 


50 


6 


13 


6 


298— 


44 


69 


51 


6 


49 


6 


33 


6 


296— 


43 


60 


61 


6 


48 


6 


13 


6 


294+ 


42 


54 


63 


6 


51 


6 


13 


6 


293— 


45 


66 


63 


6 


49 


6 


13 


6 


292— 


44 


66 


64 


6 


48 


6 


13 


6 


291+ 


44 


67 


63 


6 


48 


6 


13 


6 


291— 


43 


54 


52 


6 


51 


6 


13 


6 


287+ 


46 


64 


43 


6 


60 


6 


13 


6 


287+ 


45 


50 


51 


6 


50 


6 


13 


6 


286+ 


45 


61 


52 


6 


60 


6 


13 


6 


282— 


48 


66 


61 


6 


49 


6 


13 


6 


281— 


45 


57 


61 


6 


48 


6 


13 


6 


280— 


44 


62 


52 


6 


51 


6 


13 


6 


277— 


48 


63 


62 


6 


50 


6 


13 


6 


276+ 


46 


r)2 


62 


6 


52 


6 


13 


6 


293— 


46 


65 


61 


6 


51 


6 


13 


6 


287 


46 


56 


50 


6 


51 


6 


13 


6 


286+ 


4<^ 


56 


52 


6 


48 


6 


13 


6 


280+ 


44 


66 


52 


6 


50 


6 


13 


6 


292+ 


44 


60 


48 


6 


48 


6 


13 


6 


277+ 


45 


60 


50 


6 


48 


6 


13 


6 


289- 


43 


60 


54 


6 


60 


8 


13 


6 


292+ 


53 


60 


58 


7 


56 


7 


13 


6 


287+ 


51 


60 


60 


8 


54 


6 


13 


6 


300 


44 


62 


56 


7 


66 


7 


13 


6 


296+ 


47 


63 


52 


7 


51 


6 


13 


6 


285 


60 


63 


60 


7 


60 


7 


13 


6 


290 


60 


64 


60 


7 


60 


7 


13 


6 


285 


60 


72 


70 


8 


68 


8 


13 


C 


280 


6) 


74 


68 


8 


68 


8 


13 


6 


286-1- 


60 



"WATCnMAKERS, JEWELLERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 323 



Trains, for Fifteen Teeth in the Escapement Wheel. 


No. of 
Teeth 
in the 
Centre 
Wheel. 




Leaves 




Leaves 


Teeth 
in the 
Escape- 
ment 
Wheel. 


Leaver 
in the 




No. 01 
Seconfla 


Teeth in 
3d Wheel. 


in 3d 
Wheel 


Teeth in 
4th Wheel 


in 4th 
■Wheel 


Escape- 
ment 


No. of Beats in 
one Minute. 


the 4th 
Wheel 


50 


Pinion. 




Pinion. 


Wheel 
Pinion. 




revol- 
ves in. 


54 


6 


48 


6 


15 


6 


286 


48 


58 


48 


6 


46 


6 


15 


6 


290 


50 


48 


45 


6 


59 


6 


15 


6 


291— 


60 


48 


45 


6 


58 


6 


15 


6 


300 


62 


48 


45 


6 


57 


6 


15 


6 


288 


62 


48 


45 


6 


56 


6 


15 


6 


288 


50 


56 


48 


6 


46 


6 


15 


6 


289— 


50 


63 


56 


7 


56 


7 


15 


7 


288 


50 


60 


56 


8 


58 


7 


15 


6 


288 


50 


62 


60 


8 


60 


8 


15 


6 


288 


50 


72 


64 


8 


50 


8 


15 


6 


288 


50 


72 


64 


8 


56 


8 


15 


7 


288 


50 


72 


64 


8 


64 


8 


15 


8 


288 


50 


52 


50 


6 


43 


6 


15 


6 


28S 


50 


54 


48 


6 


48 


6 


15 


6 


288 


5U 


72 


64 


8 


48 


8 


16 


6 


288 


50 


72 


80 


8 


64 


10 


15 


8 


288 


50 


72 


80 


8 


56 


10 


15 


7 


288 


50 


72 


80 


8 


48 


10 


15 


6 


288 


50 


63 


80 


7 


64 


10 


15 


8 


288 


50 


63 


80 


T 


56 


10 


15 


7 


288 


50 


63 


Srt 


7 


48 


10 


15 


6 


288 


50 



Trains, for Seventeen Teeth In the li^scapement "Wlieel. 



64 


80 


8 


48 


10 


17 


6 


299+ 


53 


54 


48 


6 


44 


6 


17 


6 


299+ 


50 


51 


48 


6 


45 


6 


17 


6 


1 295+ 


53 


54 


48 


6 


43 


6 


17 


6 


292+ 


50 


48 


48 


6 


4S 


6 


17 





1 290+ 


53 


51 


48 


6 


45 


6 


17 


6 


1 289 


53 


54 


48 


6 


42 


6 


17 


6 


286- 


53 


48 


48 


6 


47 


6 


17 


6 


1 284+ 


53 


51 


48 


6 


44 


G 


17 


6 


' 283— 


53 


48 


48 


6 


46 


6 


17 


6 


' 278 


53 


48 


48 


6 


45 


6 


17 


6 


272 


53 


64 


64 


8 


64 


8 


17 


8 


290+ 


50 


72 


64 


8 


56 


8 


17 


8 


286- 


50 


64 


64 


8 


60 


8 


17 


8 


289— 


63 


5"^ 


56 


7 


66 


7 


17 


7 


290+ 


53 


63 


56 


7 


40 


7 


17 


7 


286- 


60 


64 


56 


8 


48 


7 


17 


6 


290+ 


53 


80 


80 


10 


64 


10 


17 


8 


290+ 


53 


80 


64 


10 


64 


8 


17 


8 


290+ 


63 


80 


64 


10 


66 


8 


17 


7 


290+ 


5Li 


. 80 


64 


10 


48 


8 


17 


6 


290+ 


53 


8) 


56 


10 


56 


7 


17 


7 1 


290+ 


53 


80 


66 


10 


43 


7 


17 


6 


290+ 


53 


61 


80 


8 


64 


10 


17 


8 


290+ 


63 


64 


80 


8 


56 


10 


17 


7 


290+ 


63 



To RfiMOVB Soft Solder from Gold. — Place the work in spirits 
of salts, or reraove as much as possible with the scraper, using a 
geiitle heat to enable you to get off the solder more easily. Very 
use^l to be known where hard soldering is required, either ic 
bri'ght or colored work. 



324 WATCHMAKERS, JEWELLERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 



Trains, for Tbird TVbeel and Patent Seconds. 



No. of 
Teeth 
Intho 
Ccntro 

Whcul 




Leaves 




Leaves 


Teeth 
in the 
Esoapo- 

ment 
Wheel. 


in the 




-No. i.f 

.Seconds 


Teeth In 


in 3d 


Teeth In 


in 4th 


Escape- 


Ifo.of Beata in 


ihe 4th 


od Wheel. 


Wheel 


4th Wheel 


"ttTicel 


ment 


one Hlnute. 


AVheel 




rinion. 




riuiou. 


Wheel 
rinim. 




revol- 
ves In. 


GO 


72 


G 


GO 


12 




6 


800 


G) 


GO 


GO 


6 


GO 


10 




6 


3it0 


GO 


GO 


43 


G 


60 


8 




6 


3 


CO 


48 


GO 


G 


60 


8 




G 


300 


GO 


GO 


72 


6 


64 


12 




6 


270 


GO 


to 


GO 


G 


C4 


10 




G 


270 


GO 


48 


GO 


6 


54 


8 




6 


270 


GO 


GO 


72 


G 


48 


12 


• • 


6 


240 


GO 


GO 


GO 


G 


48 


10 




6 


240 


GO 


48 


G) 


6 


48 


8 




6 


240 


GO 



Trains, for Fourtlt Wlieel Seconds, \i'itU lillevon Teeth 
1:1 llie I^soapeuient Wliool, 



.48 


■ij 


6 


71 


6 




C 


2o0-r 


GJ 


43 


45 


6 


74 


6 




6 


2714- 


60 


43 


45 


6 


7G 


6 




6 


279- 


CO 


48 


45 


6 


78 


6 




6 


283 


GO 


CO 


• 49 


7 


74 


7 




6 


271f 


GO 


GO 


49 


7 


7G 


1 




6 


279- 


GO 


GO 


49 


1 


78 


1 




6 


283 


GO 


45 


6G 


6 


74 


1 




6 


271 + 


GO 


45 


53 


6 


76 


1 




6 


279- 


GO 


45 


5G 


6 


78 


1 




6 


2SS 


60 


64 


60 


8 


74 


8 




6 


27I-I- 


6) 


64 


60 


8 


7G 


S 




5 


279- 


GO 


64 


GO 


8 


7S 


8 




6 


2S6 


60 


CO 


56 


8 


74 


7 




6 


2714- 


60 


GO 


56 


8 


7G 


1 




6 


279- 


m 


60 


56 


8 


78 


i 




6 


283 


6) 


GO 


48 


8 


74 


6 




6 


2714- 


60 


48 


48 


8 


78 


6 




6 


'283 


60 


48 


60 


6 


74 


8 




C 


2714- 


60 


48 


60 


6 


7S 


8 




6 


286 


60 


56 


60 


t 


74 


8 




6 


2714- 


60 



Trains, for Fourtli Wheel Seconds, Axitli Thirteen Teeth 
in the Kscapeiueut Wlieel. 



134 


GO 


3 


66 


8 


13 


6 


•.^83 


GO 


Gt 


60 


8 


67 


8 


lo 


6 


2904- 


GO 


61 


GO 


8 


68 


8 


13 


6 


295— 


60 


61 


60 


S 


69 


8 


13 


6 


299 


60 


G) 


49 


< 


( i 


/ 


13 


1 


286 


60 


to 


49 


( 


63 


7 


12 


6 


283 


60 


GO 


49 


7 


67 


i 


13 


6 


29)4- 


60 


48 


45 


6 


G6 


6 


13 


6 


283 


60 


43 


45 


6 


67 


G 


13 


6 


2904- 


CO 


48 


45 


6 


63 


G 


13 


6 


264— 


60 


^^ 


45 


6 


CO 


6 


13 


G 


2i^9 


60 


GO 


£6 


8 


C'o 


( 


13 


6 


283 


60 


SO 


60 


10 . 


GG 


8 


13 


6 


280 


60 


64 


75 


8 ■ 


66 


10" 


13 


6 


28-3 


GO 


48 


60 


• 6 • 


6G . 


8 


13 


6 


283 


GO 


48 


75 


t 6 


66 


10 


13 


6 


286 


60 


45 


66 


« 6 


66 


1 


13 


6 


'.86 


60 


66 


75 


7 


68 


10 


13 


6 


295— 


- 60 



WATCnJIAKERS, JEWELLERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 325 



Trains, for Fourth "Wlieel Seconds, Ti^ltli Fifteen Teeth 
iu Fscapemeut Wheel, 



Ko. of 
Teeth 
in the 
Centre 
Wheel. 




Leaves 




Leaves 


Teeth 
in the 

Escape- 
ment 
Wheel. 


Leaves 
in the 




So. of 

Seconds 


Teeth In 


In 3d 


Teeth In 


in 4th 


Escape- 


Xo. of Beats In 


ch3 4th 


3a Wheel. 


Wheel 


4th Wheel 


■NVheel 


ment 


on:: Alioute. 


■Wheel 


60 


Pinion. 




Pinion. 


Whec! 
Pinion. 




revol- 
ves in, 


64 


8 


70 


8 


15 


7 


300 


60 


64 


60 


8 


60 


8 


16 


6 


300 


60 


64 


45 


8 


60 


6 


15 


6 


300 


60 


60 


56 


8 


60 


7 


15 


6 


300 


6U 


48 


60 


6 


60 


8 


15 


6 


300 


60 


60 


70 


7 


70 


7 


15 


7 


300 


6) 


60 


49 


7 


60 


7 


15 


6 


300 


GO 


48 


49 


6 


60 


G 


15 


6 


?00 


GO 


80 


45 


10 


70 


8 


15 


7 


3)0 


GO 


75 


60 


10 


GO 


8 


15 


6 


3)0 


CO 


6t 


64 


8 


70 


10 


15 


7 


3 


GO 


61 


75 


8 


60 


10 


15 


G 


3i>0 


GO 


66 


75 


7 


70 


10 


15 


7 


3 


60 


m 


75 


7 


60 


10 


15 


G 


300 


GO 


«1 


75 


8 


5t 


8 


15 


6 


270 


GO 


60 


60 


8 


54 


7 


15 


6 


270 


GO 


6t 


56 


8 


54 


6 


15 


6 


270 


GO 


43 


45 


6 


51 


8 


15 


G 


270 


60 


60 


60 


7 


63 


7 


15 


7 


270 


60 


GO 


49 


7 


54 


7 


15 


6 


270 


60 


48 


49 


6 


54 


6 


15 


6 


270 


60 


64 


45 


8 


48 


8 


15 


6 


240 


60 


60 


60 


8 


48 


7 


15 


G 


240 


GO 


48 


50 


6 


48 


8 


]5 


G 


240 


GO 


64 


60 


8 


48 


6 


15 


6 


240 


GO 


to 


45 


7 


56 


7 


15 


7 


240 


69 


(0 


49 


7 


48 


7 


15 


G 


240 


60 


4S 


45 


6 


48 


6 


15 


6 


240 


60 


60 


56 


8 


48 


7 


15 


6 


240 


60 



Trains, for Fourth "Wlicel Seconds, witli Seventeen 
Teeth in Fscapement Wheel. 



U4 
Gl 
60 
80 
75 
75 
7') 
8) 



GU 


8 


51 


8 


17 


G 


60 


8 


50 


8 


IT 


6 


56 


8 


51 


7 


IT 


6 


60 


10 


50 


8 


IT 


6 


64 


10 


50 


8 


IT 


6 


56 


10 


68 


( 


17 


8 


68 


10 


68 


8 


17 


8 


75 


10 


68 


11 


17 


8 



•/b9 

283-t- 

289 

283+ 

283 -f 

289 

289 

289 



OJ 
50 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 



Train of the American Watch Company's Watch. 



Gl 



60 



61 



15 



300 



()) 



NoTB.— Bjr use '^f the foregoing set. of Trains, and the rule for sizes of 
piuioas, on page 312, all difficulty of calculating is obviated ; and at one 
view, in case of the accidental loss of a wheel and pinion, may be known 
tlic correct size and count of the pinion, and number of teeth in the 
wheel lost. 



326 WATCHMAKERS, JEWELLERS*, AC, RECEIPTS. 

To Put Watches ik Beat.— If a cylinder escapement, or a de- 
tached lever, put the halance into a position, then turn the regulator 
so that it will point directly to the pivot-hole of the pallet staff, if a 
lever, or of the scape- wheel, if a cylinder. Then lift out the balance 
with its bridge or clock, turn it over and set the ruby-pin directly m 
line with the regulator, or the square cut of the cylinder at right 
angles with it. Your watch will then be in perfect beat. In case of 
an American or an English lever, when the regulator is placed upon 
the plate, you will have to proceed differently^. Fix the balance into 
its place, cut off the connection of the train, if the mainspring is not 
entirely down, by slipping a fine broach into one of the wheels, look 
between the plates and ascertain how the lever stands. If the end 
farthest from the balance is equi-distant between the two brass pins, 
it is all right ; if not, change the hair-spring till it becomes so. If 
dealing with a duplex watch, you must see that the roller notch, 
when the balance is at rest, is exactly between the locking tooth and 
the line of centre; that is, a line drawn from the centre of the roller 
to the centre of the scape- wheel. The balance must start from its 
rest and move through an arc of about ten degrees before bringing the 
locking tooth into action. 

To Frost AVatch Plates. — ^Watcli plates are frosted by means 
of fine brass wire scratch brushes fixed in a lathe, and made to re- 
volve at great speed, the end of the wire brushes striking the j)latc 
producing a beautiful frosted appearance. 

To Restore Watch Dials. — If the dial be painted, clean the 
figure off with spirits of wine, or anything else that will render the 
dial perfectly clean; then heat it to a bright red, and plunge it into a 
strong solution of cj^anide of potassium, then wash in soap and water, 
and dry in box dust. Repeat if not a good color. Iiidia ink, ground 
with gum water, will do for the figures. 

To WHiTE>f Silver Watch Dials. — ^Flatten a piece of charcoal 
"by rubbmg it ou a flat stone : on this place the dial face upwards, ap- 
f)ly a gentle heat carefully with the blow-pipe, allowing the flame to 
play all over the surface of the dial without touching it, so as to 
thoroughly heat without warping the dial. Then pickle and rinse, 
using acid enough to make the water very tart, and immersing but 
for a few occonds. Silver dials may also be annealed by heating 
them red hot on a flat piece of copper over a clear fire. 

To MAKE a Watch Keep Good Tlme when the CrLrtTDER 
Edges are Worn Off, by Altering the EscArE:MENT without 
Putting a new Cylinder in. — Look at the cylinder^ and see if 
there is room, either above or below the old wears, to shift the action 
of the wheel. If the wheel holes are brass, making one a little 
deeper, and iDutting a shallower one on the other side, will perhaps 
be sufficient. This must be done according as you want your wheel 
up or down. If the holes are stone, shift your wheel on the pinion 
by a new collet, or turning away more of the old one, as tlie case 
may require. If you raise your wheel see that it works free of plate 
and top of cylinder, and that the web of wheel clears the top of pas- 
sage. This last fault may be altered by polishing the passage a little 
wider, if the rub be slight. If shifted downwards, see to freedom at 
bottom of cylinder, &c. 

Poising AVatch Balance.— This may be done with sufficient ac- 



AVATCUrJAKEKS, JEWELLERS*, &C., RECEIPTS. 327 

curacy by scraping one ann of the callipers with a file when the 
balance is set in motion. This avUI canse the heaviest part to settle 
downwards with certainty, observing alwaj's that the pivots are nicely 
rounded and formed at the ends. In some cases it becomes necessary 
to put a balance out of poise, in order to make the watch go equally 
in various positions. The rule for this is: to make the watch gain, 
the balance should be heaviest on the lower side when hanging up : 
to make it lose, the reverse. 

To Prevent a Chain RiJN>axG off the Fusee. — Tn the fir.«5t 
l)lace, you must look and ascertain the cause of the difficult3^ If it- 
results from the chain being too large, the only remedy is a new 
chain. If it is not too large, and j-et runs off without any apparent 
cause, change it end for end — that will generally make it go all right. 
In cases where the channel in the fusee has been damaged and is 
rough, you will be under the necessity of dressing it over with a file 
the proper size and shape. Sometimes you find the chain naturally 
inclined to work away from the body of the fusee. The best wa^- to 
remedy a difficulty of this kind is to file off a very little from the 
outer lower edge of the chain the entire length ; this, as yoii can see, 
"will incline it to work on instead of off. Some workmen, when they 
have a bad case and a common watch, change the standing of the fusee 
so as to cause the winding end of its arbor to incline a little from the 
barrel. This, of course, cannot do otherwise than make the chain run 
to its place. 

To Weaken the Hair-Spring. — Tliis is often effected by grinding 
the spring down. You remove the spring from the collet, and place 
it upon a piece of pivot wood cut to fit the centre coil. A piece of 
soft steel wire, flattened so as to pass freely between the coils, and 
armed with a little pulverized oil-stone and oil, will serve as your 
grinder, and with it you may soon reduce the strength of the spring. 
Your operations will, of course, be confined to the centre coil, for no 
other part of the sprmg will rest sufficiently against tlie wood to en- 
able you to grind it, but this will generally suffice. The effect will 
be more rapid than one would suppose, therefore it will stand you in 
Land to be careful, or you may get the spring too weak before you 
suspect it. 

To Tighten a Ruby Pin. — Set the ruby pin in asphaltum varnish. 
It will become hard in a few minutes, and be much firmer and better 
than gum shellac, as generally used. 

To Teimter Brass, or to Draw its Te:mper. — Brass is rendered 
hard by hammering or rolling; therefore, when you make a thing of 
brass necessary to be in temper, you must prepare the material be- 
fore shaping the article. Temper may be drawn from brass by heat- 
ing it to a cherry red, and then simply plungmg it into water, tlie 
same as though you were going to temper steel. 

To Teiviper Gravers. — Gravers, and other instruments larger 
than drills, may be tempered in quicksilver as above; or you may use 
lead instead of quicksilver. Cut do^vn into the lead, say half an 
inch; then, having heated your instrument to a light cherry red, 
press it firmly into the cut. The lead will melt around it, and an ex- 
cellent temper will be imparted. 

To Teiviper Drills.— Select none but the finest and best steel for 
your drills. In makuig them, never heat higher than a cherry red. 



328 WATCHMAKERS, JEWELLERS*, &C., RECEIPTS. 

and always hammer till nearly cold. Do all your hammering in ono 
way, for if, after yoa have flattened your piece out, you attempt to 
hammer it back to a square or a round, jou spoil it. When your drill 
is in proper shape, heat it to a cherry red, and thrust it into a piece 
of reshi or into quicksilver. Some use a solution of cyauuret potassa 
and rain-water for tempering their drills, but the resin or quicksilver 
will work best. 

Other Methods to TEarPEU SrRiNcs. — ^Having fitted the spring 
into the case according to your liking, temper it hard by heating and 
plungmg into water. Next polish the small end so that you may bo 
able to see when the color changes ; lay it on a piece of copper or 
l)rass plate, and hold it over your lamp, with the blaze directly under 
the largest part of the spring. Watch the polished part of the steel 
closely, and when you see it turn blue, remove the plate from the 
lamp, letting all cool gradually together When cool enough to 
handle, polish the end of the spring a^ain, place it on the plate, and 
hold it over the lamp as before. The third bluuig of the polished end 
will leave the spring in proper temper. Any steel article to which 
Aou desire to give a spring temper may be treated in the same waj". 
A Qother i^rocess, said to be good, is to temper the spring as in tho 
fu'st instance; then put it into a small iron ladle, cover it with linseed 
oil, and hold over a lamp tiH the oil takes fire. Remove the ladle, 
but let the oil continue to bum until nearly all consumed, then blow 
out, re-cover with oil, and hold over the lamp as before. The third 
buniiiig out of the oil will leave the spring in the right temj)er. 

To TEMrER Clicks, Ratchets, &c. — Clicks, ratchets, or other 
steel articles requiring a similar degree of hardness, should be tem- 
pered in mercurial ointment. The process consists in simply heating 
to a cherry red and plunging into the ointment. No other mode wlU 
combine toughness and hardness to such an extent. 

To Draw the Te:mper from Delicate Steel Pieces wrrn- 
ouT Sprikging them. — Place the articles from which you desire to 
draw the temper into a common iron clock key. Pill around it with 
brass or iron filings, and then plug up the open end with a steel, iron, 
or brass plug, made to fit closely. Take the handle of the key with 
your pliers and hold its i^ipe into the blaze of a lamp till near hot, 
then let it cool gradually. When sufficiently cold to handle, removo 
the plug, and you will find the article with its temper fully drawn, 
but in all other respects just as it was before. 

You will understand the reason for having the article thus plugged 
up Avhile passing it through the heating and cooling process, when 
you know that springuig alwaj'^s results from the action of changeable 
currents of atmosphere. The temper may be drawn from cylinders, 
staffs, pinions, or any other delicate i)ieces, by this mode with perfect 
safety. 

To TEiNiPER Staffs, CrLi>T)ERS, or Pimoxs, ttithout SpRixGnsra 
them. — Prepare the articles as in the preceduig process, using a steel 
plug. Having heated the key-pipe to a cherry red, plunge it into 
Avater; then polish the end of your steel plug, place the key upon a 
plate of brass or copper, and hold it over your lamp with the blaze 
immediately under the pipe till the jiolished part becomes blue. Let 
cool gradually, then polish again. Blue and cool a second time, and 
the work will be done. 



AVATCHMAKERS, JEWELLERS', AC, RECEIPTS. 329 

To Draw the Temper from r.VET of a Smalts Steel Article. — 
Hold the part from which you wish to draw tlie temper with a pair of 
tweezers, aud witli your hlow-pipe direct tlie liame upon them — not 
the article — till sufficient heat is commiuiiciited to the article to pro- 
duce the desired effect. 

To Blue Screws Evenly. — Take an old watch barrel and drill as 
many holes into the head of it as you desire to blue screws at a time, 
rill it about one-fourth full of brass or iron fillings, put in the head, 
and then fit a wire, long enough to bend over for a handle, into tlio 
r.rbor holes — head of the barrel upwards. Brighten the heads of youi* 
Kcrews, set them i^oint downwards, into the holes already drilled, and 
expose the bottom of the barrel to your lamp till the screws assume 
the color you wish. 

To Remove Bluixg rRo:w Steel. — Immerse in a pickle composed 
of equal parts muriatic acid and elixir vitriol. liiuse iu pure water, 
and dry in tissue paper. 

To lilAKE DiAMOXD Broaciies. — Make you broaches of brass tlio 
size aud shape you desire; then, having oiled them slightly, rolltlieir 
points into fine diamond dust till entirely covered. Hold them then 
on the face of your anvil, and tap with a light hammer till the grains 
disappear in the brass. Great caution will be necessary iu this 
operation. Do not tap heavy enough to flatten the broach. Very 
light blows are all that will be required; the grains will be driven in 
much sooner than one would imagine. Some roll the broach between 
two small pieces of steel to imbed the diamond dust. It is a very 
good way, but somewhat more Avasteful of the dust. Broaches mado 
on this plan are used for dressing out jewels. 

Jewellln'g. — In using the broaches, press but lightly into the jewel 
liole, and tuni the broach rapidly with your fingers. For polishiiig, 
use a bone or ivory pomt, lightly coated ^ith the finest diamond dust 
and oil, and while using it with the one hand, accompany the motion 
Avith a slight oscillatmg motion of the other hand, m which the jewel 
is held. This will insure a more even polish to the hole, with less 
liability to press the jewel out of its i)laco iu the plate, than if held 
firm and steady. 

To m-uce Dia:mo>'d Files. — Shape your file of brass, and chargo 
Avith diamond dust, as iu case of the mill. Grade the dust in accord- 
ance with the coarse or fiue character of the file desired. 

To aiAKE Pivot Files. — Dress up a piece of wood file-fashion, 
about an inch broad, aud glue a ]iiece of fine emery paper upon it. 
Shape your file then, as you wish it, of tho best cast steel, and before 
tempermg pass your emery paper heavily across it several times, 
diagonally. Temper by heating to a cherry red, and plunging into 
liuseed oil. Old Avorn jnvot files may be dressed over aud made new 
by this process. At first thought, one would be led to regard them 
too slightly cut to work well, but not so. They dress a pivot mora 
rapidly than any other file. 

To Make a Diamond Mill. — Make a brass chuck or wheel, suit- 
able for use on a foot-lathe, Avith a flat even surface or face of about 
1.^ or 2 inches in diameter; then place a number of the coarsest pieces 
of your diamond dust on different parts of its face, and Avith smooth 
faced steel hammer drlA'e the pieces of dust all evenly into tho brass to 
nearly or quite level Avith the surface. Your mill, thus prepared, ^ 



330 AVATCIIMAKERS, JEWELLERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 

now used for making pallet jewels or for grinding stone and glass of 
any kind. For i^olishing, use a bone or boxwood chuck or wheel, of sim- 
ilar form, to your mill, and coat it lightly witli the finest grade of 
your diamond-dust and oil; with this a beautiful polish may be given 
to the hardest stone. 

To Make Diamond Dust. — Place a few small pieces of common 
or cheap diamond on a block of hard polished steel, in a suitable ves- 
sel, and cover it with water to prevent it flying or scattering, then 
place a flat steel jimich on each piece separately, and strike the punch 
with a mallet or hammer, with sufficient force to crush the diamond. 
When reduced sufficiently fine in this way, the dust may be collected 
and dried for use ; after drying, it may be graduated for different 
l^irposes, by mixing it with a little watch oil ; when agitated, the fin- 
est particle's will float near the surface, while the coarsest pieces will 
sink at once to tlie bottom ; and thus by decanting the oil in which 
the dust floats, as many grades of fineness as desired may be obtain- 
ed. The dust may be separated from the oil bj'' pouring on a piece of 
smooth clean paper ; the paper will absorb the oil, or allow it to fil- 
ter through, while the dust will remain on the surface ; but to pre- 
vent waste, the better way is to leave it in the oil and use directly 
therefrom as required, or the oil may be washed out of the dust "with 
alcohol. 

To rRESERVE PiNiOiSrs OR Bearings from Corrosion and Rust. 
— ^In case of the lower centre bearing under the camion puiion cor- 
roding or rusting, when you clean the watch, be particular to take the 
central wheel off. Clean it thoroughly ; if the pivot is scratched, pol- 
ish it, then make a little hollow in the top hole ; put good fresh oil 
on it, and the pivot will not corrode or rust for two or three years. 
As to the other pivots in the watch, they should all be thoroughly 
cleaned, and old oil cleaned out ; then if no dust gets in, and no acci- 
dent happens the watch, it will run for years. 

To Clean a Clock. — ^Take the movement of the clock " to piece.s." 
Brush the wheels and pinions thoroughly with a stiff coarse brush ; 
also the plates which the trains work. Clean the pivots well by turn- 
ing m a piece of cotton cloth held tightly between your thumb and 
finger. The pivot holes in the plates are generally cleansed by turn- 
ing a piece of wood into them, but I have always found a strip of 
cloth or a soft cord dra^^^^ tightly through them to act the best. K you 
use two cords, the first one slightly oiled, and the next dry, to clean the 
oil out, all the better. Do not use salt or acid to clean your clock — 
it can do no good, but may do a great deal of harm. Boiling tlio 
movement in water, as is the practice of some, is also foolishness. 

To Bush. — ^The hole through which the great arbors, or winding 
axles, work, are the only ones that usually require bushing. When 
they have become too much worn, the great wheel on the axle before 
named strikes too deeply into the ijinions above it and stops the cloclc. 
To remedy this, bushing is necessary, of course. The most common 
way of doing it is to drive a steel point or punch into the plate just 
above the axlo hole, thus forcing the brass downwards until the hole 
is reduced to its original size. Another mode is to solder a piece of 
brass upon the plate in such a position as to hold the axle down to its 

5n-oper place. If you simply wish your clock to run, and have no am- 
otion to produce a bush that will look workmanlUve, about as good a 



WATCnilAKEKS, JEWELLERS', &C., KECEIPTS. 331 

"vray as any is to fit a piece of hard -wood between the post -which 
comes througli the top of the plate and axle. Make it long enougli 
to hold the axle to its proper place, so that the axle will run on the 
cud of the grain. Cut notches where the pivots come througli, ana 
secure by wrapping around it and the plate a piece of small ^Yire or a 
thread. 

To Remedy Worn Pintox. — Turn the leaves or rollers, so the 
vrorn places upon them will he towards the arbor or shaft, and fasten 
them in that position. If they are "rolling pinions" and you cannot 
secure them otherwise, you had better do it with a little soft solder. 

To Oil Properly. — Oil only, and very lightly, the pallets of the 
verge, the steel pin upon which the verge works, and the point whero 
the loop of the verge wire works over the pendulum wire. Use Jione 
but the best watch oil. Though you might be working constantly at 
the clock-repairing business, a bottle costing you but twenty-fivo 
cents would last you two years at least You can buy it at any watch- 
funiishing establishment. 

To Make the Clock Strike Correctly. — If not very cautions 
inputting up your clock you will get some of the striking-train wheels 
in wTong, and thus produce a derangement in the striking. If this 
should happen, pry the plates apart on the striking side, slip tlie 
pivots of the upper wheels out, and havmg disconnected them from 
the train, turn them part around and put them back. If still not 
right, repeat the experiment. A few efforts at most will get them to 
working properly. The sound in cuckoo clocks is caused by a wire 
acting on a small bellows which is connected with two small pipes 
like organ pipes. 

A Defect to look after. — Always examine the pendulum wire 
at the point where the loop of the verge wire works over it. You will 
generally find a small notch, or at least a rough place worn there. 
Dress it out perfectly smooth, or your clock will not be likely to work 
well. Small as this defect may seem, it stops a large number of 
clocks. 

Figures on Gold ajntd Silver Dl\ls. — Hold a small piece of 
copper over a gas flame for a few minutes till it is coated with soot ; 
clear this off on to a piece of finely ground glass, add fat oil and a 
small quantity of oil of spike lavender, and grind up ; x:)aint with a 
gmall-camel hair pencil. 

To Determine the Exact Focal Distance op Spectacle 
Glasses. — Place the end of a measure of thirty or forty inches in 
length against a smooth wall, or other suitable ground, in pLain view 
of some well-defined object a few rods distant, as for instance a 
building or window on the opposite side of the street. Then j^laco 
the edge of your lens on the measure, and move it backwards or 
forwards rmtil a spectrum is formed, or, m other words, luitil a clear 
and distinct outline of the distant object is produced on tlie ground 
against which your measure rests. This point will represent sufii- 
ciently near, for all practical purposes, the exact focal distance of the 
lens, and will correspond in inches Avith the number on all jDroperly 
marked convex spectacles. For mending fine steel spectacle frames, 
use the best gold solder in preference to silver or brass solder. 

Valuable Receipts for Golds^hths. — Standard gold is com- 
XJOimded of 440 grains of fuie gold, and 40 grains (Troy weight.) to 



332 WATCHMAKERS, JEWELLERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 

the oz. alloy ; therefore, when you jiidije how much gold a piece of 
work will take, compound it to the standard weight by the foUowiui; 
directions : Assay Weight. — The weight of gold is a pound, Avhicli is 
divided into 12 ozs. each oz. into 24 carats, each carat into 4 gTaius, 
and, lastly, each grain into 4 quarters ; then j^ou see the assay quarter- 
grain, is in reality \\ grain Troy. 

On Melting and Refining. — In melting Brass Gold, urge the 
fire to a great heat, and stir the metal with the long stem of a 
tobacco pipe to prevent honey-combmg. If Steel or Iron filw'js 
get uito gold while melting, throw in a piece of sandiver the size 
of a common nut ; it will attract the iron or steel from the gold 
into the flux, or, sublimate of mercury will destroy the iron or 
steel. To cause Gold to roll loell, melt with a good heat, add a 
tcaspoonful of sal ammoniac and charcoal, equal quantities, both 
pulverized, stir up well, put on the cover for 2 minutes, and pour. 

To Refine Sweepings Containing Gold or Silver. — To 8 
ozs. of the dirt, which has been washed and burnt, add salt, 4 ozs. ; 
pcarlash 4 ozs. ; red tartar 1 oz. ; saltpetre ^ oz., mix thoroughly in 
a mortar, melt in a crucible, and dissolve out the precious metals iu 
a button. 



quantity of STAND^UtD GOLD TO COMPOUND AN OZ. OF ANY OF 
THE FOLLOWING ALLOYS C.\XCULATED TO THE ij OF A GRAIN, 
AS FOLLOWS : 



Carat, 


Dwts. 


Grs. 


Qrs. 




Dwts. 


Grs. 


Qrs. 


1 





21 


9 




19 


2 


2 


2 


1 


19 


7 




18 


4 


4 


3 


2 


17 


5 




17 


G 


G 


4 


3 


15 


3 


Q 
W 

Q 


16 


8 


8 


6 


4 


13 


1 


15 


10 


10 


6 


5 


10 


10 


14 


13 


1 


7 


G 


8 


8 




13 


15 


3 


8 


7 


6 


G 


<i 


12 


17 


6 


9 


8 


4 


4 




11 


19 


7 


10 


9 


2 


2 




10 


21 


9 


It 


10 








10 








12 


10 


21 


9 


O 


9 


2 


2 


13 


11 


19 


7 


H 


8 


4 


4 


U 


12 


17 


5 


r^ 


7 


C 


6 


15 


13 


15 


3 


o 


G 


8 


8 


16 


14 


13 


1 


^ 


5 


10 


10 


17 


15 


10 


10 


^ 


4 


13 


■• 


18 


16 


8 


8 


< 


3 


15 


3 


19 


17 


6 







2 


17 


5 


20 


18 


4 


4 




1 


19 


7 


21 


19 


2 


2 







21 


9 


22 


22 

















To Fuse Gold Dust, — Use such a crucible as is generally 
used for meltuig brass ; heat very hot ; then add your gold du.«t 
mixed with powdered borax ; — after some time a scum or slag AviU 
arise on the top, which may be thickened by the addition of a 
little lime or bone ash. If the dust contains any of the more 
oxidizcable metals, add a little nitre, skim off tlie slag or scum very 
carefully ; when melted, grasp the crucible with strong iron tongs ; 



WATCHMAKERS, JEWELLERS*, &C., RECEIPTS. 333 

jind pour off immediately into cast iron moulds, slightly greased. 
The slag and crucibles may be afterwards liulverized, and the 
auriferous matter recovered from the mass through cupellation b}^ 
means of lead. 

Gold Alloys. — The "New Standard" for watch cases, &c., is 18 
carats of fine gold and 6 of alloy. No gold of inferior quality can 
receive the "Ilall mark;" and gold of lower quality is generally 
described by its commercial value. The alloy may be entirely 
gilver, which will give a gTcen color, or entirely copper for a red 
color, but the copper and silver are more usually mixed in ono 
alloy according to the taste of the jeweller. It "svill be imderstood 
that these are all made with fuie gold, fine silver, and fine copjier, 
direct from the refiner. Gold of 22 carats fine being so little used, 
is intentionally omitted. 1. Gold of 18 carats, of yelloio tint. Gold 
15 d'^\'t., silver, 2 dwt, 18 grs., copper 2 dwt., G grs. 2. Gold of IS 
carats, red tint. Gold 15 dwt., silver, 1 dwt. 18 grs., copper, 3 dwt. 
G grs. 3. Spring r/old of IG carats. Gold 1 oz. 16 dwt., silver, G dwt., 
copper, 12 dwt. This when drawn or rolled very hard makes springs 
little inferior to steel ; 4 Jeioellers' Fine Gold, yelloio tint, IG carats 
nearly. Gold, 1 oz. silver, 7 dwt., copper, 5 dwt. 5. Gold of red 
tint IG carats. Gold, 1 oz. silver, 2 dwt., copper, 8 dwt. 

Sterling Gold Alloy, 78s. teb oz. — 1. Tine gold, ISdwts., 12 
grs., fine silver, 1 dwt., fine copper, 12 grs. 2.—iJry colored Gold 
Alloys. 17 Carat. Fine gold, 15 dwts., fine silver, 1 dwt. 10 grs., fine 
copper, 4 dwts. 17 grs. — 3, Aiiother, 18 Carat. Fine gold, 1 oz., fine 
silver, 4 dwts. 10 grs., fine copper, 2 dwts. 5 grs.— 4. Another, 18 
Carat. Fine gold, 15 dwts., fine silver, 2 dwts. 4 grs., fine copper, 2 
dwts. 19 grs. — 5, Another, 18 Carat. Fine gold, ISdwts., fine silver, 
2 dwts. 18 grs., fine copper, 3 dwts. 18 grs.— ^. Another, 19 Carat. 
Fme gold, loz., fine silver, 2 dwt.s. 6 grs., fine copper, 3 dwts. 12 
gi's. — 7. Another, 20 Carat. Fine gold, loz., fine silver, 2 dwts., fine 
copper, 2 dwts. 4 grs. — 8. Another, 22 Carat. Fhie gold, 18 dwts,, fine 
silver, 12 gTs., fine copper, 1 dwt. 3 grs. — 9. Gold solder for the fore- 
going Alloys. Take of the alloyed gold you are using, Idwt., fine 
silver, G grs. — 10. Alloy fov Dnj Colored Rings. Fine gold, 1 oz., 
fine silver, 4 dwts. G grs., fine copper, 4 dwts. G grs. — 11. Solder for 
ditto. Scrap gold, 2 ozs., fine silver, 3 dwts., fine copper, 3 dwts. — 12. 
Dnj Colored Scrap reduced to 35s. Gold. Colored scrap, 1 oz., 9 
dwts. 12 grs., fine silver, 2 dwts., fine copper, 17 dwts. 12 grs., spelter, 
4 dwts. 

Dry Coloring for the Foregoing. — Polish your work well and 
for every 2 ozs., take saltpetre, 8 ozs., alum, 4 ozs., salt, 4 ozs., melt 
all together in a black lead pot, stirring with a thin iron bar when 
dissolving. Use the fire on a forge and urge it well with the bellows, 
as you a\n not make it too hot. Your ix)lished work being well 
cleaned with soda, soap, and hot water, is dried in box sawdust, is 
afterwards covered, with a thin layer of borax ; annealed and boiled 
out, and again dried in box sawdust, and finally himg on platinum 
or silver wire. When the "color " in the pot assumes a brown yellow 
flame, the work is dipi^ed ui for two or three seconds, and quenched 
with hot water diluted with muriatic acid, which removes any " color" 
that may adhere to the work. This ought to joroduce the desired 
color, but if it does not, repeat the process, i^rcviously drying the 



334: TVATCHMAKEES, JEWELLERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 

■work Defore re-immersion in the "color." The color-pot must be 
emptied immediately upon the forge, so that it may he ready for 
future use. 

Wet Colored Alloys. — 1. Fine gold, 1 oz., fine silver, 3 dwts. 12 
j^rs., fine copper, 9 dwts. 2. Fine gold, 1 oz., fine silver, 4 dwts. 12grs., 
fine copper, 10 dwts. 3. Fine gold, 1 oz., fine silver, 4 dwts. 12 grs.^ 
fine copper, 10 dwts. 12 grs. 4. Fine Gold, 1 oz., fine sUver, 4 dwts., 
fine copper, 9 dwts. 12 grs. 5 Green Gold for Fancy Work. Fine- 
gold, 1 oz., fine silver, 6 dwts. IG grs. 6. Another Green Gold 
Fine gold, 10 dwts., fine silver, 2 dwts. 2 grs. 7. Red Gold, for 
fancy loorTc. Fme gold, 5 dwts., fine copper, 2 dwts. 12 grs. 
8. Another Red Gold, Fine gold, 5 dwts., fine copper, 1 dwt. 
Ggrs. Q. Gold solders for the foregoing Alloys. Take of the alloyed 
gold you are using, 1 dwt., fine silver, 6 grs., or, 5 grs. silver and 1 gr. 
copper may be used. 10. Solder for Repairing. Gold alloyed, 1 dwt., 
fine silver, 5 grs., pin brass, 1 gr. 11. Wet Colored Solder. Wet 
colored scrap, 3 ozs., fine silver, 10 dwts,, fine copper, 5 dwts. 12. 
Gold, 15 carat, cost 5Gs. or $14: per oz. Fine gold, 1 oz. 18 dwts., fine 
silver, 12 dwts. 12 grs., fine copper, 10 dwts. 13. Fine gold, 1 oz., fine 
silver, 8 dwts. fine copper, 4 dwts. 14. Fine gold, 1 oz., fine silver, 8 
dwts., fine copper, 4 dwts. 15. Fine gold, loz., fine silver, 6 dwts., 
fine copper, 8 dwts. IG. Gold solder for the last. Gold scrap, 1 oz., 
fine silver, 5 dwts. 17. Gold good color. Fine gold, 1 oz,, fine silver, 
Gdwts., fine copper, 4 dwts. 18. Gold costGOs. or $15, good color. 
Fine gold, 1 dwt,, fine silver, 6 dwts,, fine copper, 4 dwts, 19. Wet 
colored solder. Scrap gold, 4 ozs., fine silver, 13 dwts., fine copper, G 
dwts. IG grs. 20. To reduce 22 carat into Wet colored Gold. Gold 
coins 4 ozs. 8 dwts., fine silver, 13 dwts., fine copper, 1 oz. 13 dwts. 21. 
To reduce 22 carat to ordinary ivet colored Gold with scrap. Coins 1 
■oz., fine gold, 3 ozs., fine silver, 17 dwts. 12 grs., fine copper, 2 ozs. 1 
dwt. 12 grains., scraj), 3 ozs. 1 dwt. 22. Another way with scrap. 
Coins, 3 ozs. 1 dwt. G grs., fine gold, 2 ozs,, fine silver, 1 oz. 1 dwt, 
fine copper, 2 ozs. 11 dwts,, scrap, 1 oz. G dwts. 18 grs. 23. Another 
toay with scrap. Coins, 2 ozs,, fine gold, 3 ozs, 3 dwts. 8 grs., fine 
silver, 1 oz. 1 dwt. 4 grs., fine copper, 2 ozs. 10 dwts. 12 grs,, scrap, 1 
oz. 5 dwts. 24. To reduce 22 carat to ordinary loet colored Gold loith- 
out sci^ap. Coins, 1 oz., fijie gold, 8 ozs., fine silver, 2 ozs., fine cop- 
jier, 4 ozs. 14 dwts. 25. Another loay loithoiit scrap. Coins, 1 oz., 
fine gold, 2 ozs., fine silver, 13 dwts., fine copper, 1 oz. 11 dwts. 2G. 
Another loay witJiout scrap. Coins, 2 ozs., fine gold, G ozs., fine silver, 
1 oz. 14 dwts., fine copper, 4 ozs. 2 dwts. 

To Wet-Color THE foregoing Alloys. — For 5 ozs. of work take 
saltpetre, 16 ozs., alum, 8 ozs., salt, 8 ozs., all pulverized and muriatic 
acid 2 ozs., dissolve the ingredients gradually in a black lead pot. 
When it boils up, add the acid, and stir the whole with a wooden 
spoon. Having annealed your work and made it x^erfectly clean, tie 
in small parcels with platinum or fine silver wire, and when the color 
boils up immerse it therein for four minutes, moving it about to en- 
sure a perfect contact with all parts of the surface. Then take it out 
and rinse it well in boiling water, then immerse in tiie color again for 
for 1 ^ minutes and rinse well once more in fresh hot water. No^7 
add 2 ozs. of fresh hot water to the color in the pot, which will can so 
it to sink. When it rises i)ut in your work for 1 minute, rinsing ia 



WATCnSIAKERS, JETVELLERS', &G., RECEIPTS. 335 

fresh liot -water again, -when it will begin to brighten. Now immerse 
your Avork for half a minute longer, and rinse for the last time in 
clean hot water, when it will appear of a most beautiful color. 

Alloys, continued. 1. Pale gold for coloring Enamelling, or 
Lapping — Fine gold, 1 oz., fine silver, 9 dwts, fine copper, 2 dwts. 12 
grs, 2. Another ditto — Fine gold 1 oz,, fine silver 9 dwts., fine cop- 
per 3 dwts. 12 grs. 3. Another ditto — Fine gold 1 oz., fine silver 10 
dwts., fine copper 3 dwts. 12 grs. 4. Enamelling Gold No. 1 — Fine 
gold 1 oz., fine silver 1 dwt. 12 grs., fine copper 2 dwts. 12 grs. 5. 
enamelling Gold from Sterling — Sterling 1 oz., fine silver 8 grs., fine 
copper 2 dwts. G. Enamelling Gold Solder — Gold alloyed, 1 dwt., 
fine silver 4 grs. 7. Another ditto, cost 43s. stg., or $10.75 per oz. — 
Fine gold 12 dwts., fine silver 7 dwts. 3 gi-s., fine copper 6 dwts. 8. 
Enamelling Gold No. 2. cost 50s stg. per oz. — Fine gold 1 oz., fine sil- 
A-er 9 dwts. 12 grs., liae copper 7 dwts. 12 grs. 9. Enamelling Gold 
No. 3. — Fine gold 1 oz., fine silver 14 dwts., fine copper 8 dwts. 10. 
Enamelling Gold No. 4. — Fine gold 2 ozs. 5 dwts., fine silver 1 oz. G 
dwts., fine copper 1 oz., pin brass 5 dAA'ts. 11. Enamelling Gold No. 5. 
— Fine gold 1 oz., fine silver 12 dwts., fine copjser 6 dwts. 12. En- 
amelling Gold No. G. for transparent cnam.elling — Fine gold 1 oz., fine 
silver 14 dwts., fine copper G dwts. 13. Gold solder for enamelled 
icorJc — Fine gold 1 oz., fine silver 1 oz., fine copper 10 dwts., silver 
solder 8 dwts. 8 grs. 14. Pale Gold alloys for polishing, &c., Nol. 
— Fine gold 1 oz., fine silver 8 divts., fine copper 3 dwts. 12 gi-s. 15. 
Another, No. 2. — Fine gold 1 oz., fine silver 1 dwt. 20 grs., fine cop- 
per 1 dwt. 4 grs. IG. I^ale 18 Carat Gold — Fine gold 1 oz., fine silver 
4 dwts., fine copper 2 dwt<?. 15 grs. 17. Another Pale 18 Cai^at Gold 
— Fine gold 1 oz. 12 grs., fine silver 3 dwts. 8 grs., fine copi)er 3 dwts. 

8 grs. 18. Pale Gold Solder — Gold alloyed 1 dvrt. Ggrs., fine silver 
1 dwt. 19. Alloy for best Pens — Fine gold 1 oz., fine silver 5 dwts., 
fine copper 7 dwts. 18 grs., spelter 1 dwt. G grs. 20. Solder for ditto 
— Fine gold 12 dwts., fine silver 7 dwts. 3 grs., fine copper G dwts. 

21. Medium quality pens — Fine gold 1 oz., composition 1 oz., 13 dwts. 

22. Composition for the last — Fine silver 1 oz. 17 dwts., fine copper 5 
ozs. 15 dwts., spelter 18 dwts. 20 grs. 23. Solder for ditto — Fine gold 
1 oz., fine silver 2 ozs., pin brass 1 oz. 24. Gold for common pens-- 
Fine gold 1 oz., fine silver 2 ozs., fine copj^er 1 oz. 25. Solder for ditto 
Fine gold 1 oz.^ fine silver 2 ozs., pinbrass 1 oz. 26. Alloys of Gold 
with Brass, No. .1. — Fine gold 1 oz., fine silver 5 d\vts. G grs., fine cop- 
per 3 dwts. 12 grs., pin brass 18 dwts. 27. Another ditto. No. 2. — 
Fine gold 1 oz., fine silver 4 dwts., fine copper 4 dvrts., phi brass 16 
dwts. 28. Another ditto. No. 3. — Fine gold loz., fine silver 5 dwts. 
12 grs., fine copper 3 dwts. 12 grs., pm brass 19 dwts. G grs. 29. 
Another alloy. — Fine gold 1 oz., fine silver 3 dwts. 21 grs., fine copper 

9 dwts. 3 grs., composition 5 dwts. 6 grs. 30. Another ditto — Fine 
gold 15 dwts. 9 grs., fine silver 5 dAvts. 19 grs., fine copper 3 dwts. 21 
grs., composition 15 dwts. 31. Composition for the last two alloys — 
Finest copper 1 oz., spelter 5 dwts. 32. Solder for foregoing alloys-^ 
Gold alloyed, 1 dwt., fine silver 12 grs. 33. Imitation Gold, costs 87c. 
per oz. — Fine silver 2 oz. 5 dwts., fine copper 1 oz,, composition 1 oz.. 
keeps its color very well. 34. Composition for ditto — Fine copper 11 
ozs., spelter 2 ozs. 35. " California" (roZcZ— Fine gold 5 ozs. 12 dwts. 
composition! ozs. 17 dwts 36. Composition for *^ California"— Tm^ 



.036 WATCHMAKERS, JEWELLERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 

silver, 7 ozs. 17 dvrts. fine copper 33 ozs. 12 dwts., spelter 5 ozs. 12 dvrts. 
37. Medium Gold — Fine gold 1 oz., fine silver 12 dwts., fine copper 13 
dwts. 38. Brirjht Gold — Fine gold 1 oz., fine silver 7 dwts. , compo- 
Gition marked Jko. 34, 1 dwt. 6 grs. 39. Common Gold No. 1. — Fine 
gold 1 oz., fine silver 8 dwts., composition No, 34. 1 oz, 12 dwts. 41. 
Common Gold, No. 2. — Fine kold 5 dwts., fine silver 3 dwts, 6 grs., fine 
copper 6 dwts. 12 grs. 42. Gold for Fins — Fine gold 1 oz., fine silvei 
5 dwts. , fine copper 1 oz. , spelter 5 dwts. 43. Dnj Colored Scrap redueed 
to 35s. or $8.75 Gold— Colored scrap 1 oz. 9 dwts, 12 grs., fine silver 2 
dwts., fine cojDper 17 dwts. 12 grs., spelter 4 dwts. 44. Allorjfor Gold 
Chains. — Fine gold 11 dwts. 6 grs., fine silver 2 dwts. 5 grs., fine cop- 
per 6 dwts. 13 grs. 45. Another ditto — Fine gold 1 oz., fine silver & 
dwts., fine copper 8 dwts, 46. Gold worth 45 stg. or $11.25. — Fine gold, 
1 oz., composition (see No, 22) 1 oz. 47. Solder for ditto. — Fine gold 1 
oz., fine silver 15 dwts., fine copper 15 dwts. 48. 12 Carat Gold, — Fine 
gold 1 oz., fine silver 10 dwts., fine coppor 9 dwts. 6 grs. 49. Com- 
mon Gold from " California" — "California," (see No. 35) 8 ozs. fine 
silver 13 ozs. 16 dwts., fine copper 6 ozs. 16 dwts. 50. 29s or $7.25 
Gold. — Fine gold 1 oz. 13 dwts. 6 grs., fine silver 1 oz. 12 d\vts. 12 
grs., fine copper 1 oz. 16 dwts. 6 grs., spelter 4 dwts. Standi nitric 
acid very "weU. 

OllDINAKY BRIGHT GOLD WIRE, TABLE SHOWIXG THE PROPORTIOXS 
OF ALLOY FROM 1 OZ. UP TO 21 OZ. 



Fine Gold. 


Fine Silver, 


Fine Copper. 


Total. 


Oz, Dwts. Grs. 


Oz. Dwts. Grs. 


Oz. 


Dwts. Grs. 


Oz. 


Dwts. 


Grs. 


5 21 


6 





6 21 


1 








11 18 


14 12 





13 18 


2 








17 15 


1 1 18 


1 


15 


3 








1 15 6 


2 3 12 


2 


1 6 


6 








2 12 21 


3 5 6 


2 


1 21 


9 








3 10 12 


4 7 


4 


2 12 


12 








4 8 3 


5 8 18 


5 


3 3 


15 








5 4 18 


6 10 12 


6 


3 18 


13 








6 3 8 


7 12 G 


2 


4 9 


21 









To Recover the Gold lost in Coloring. — Dissolve a handful 
of sulphate of iron in boiling water, then add this to your "color" 
■water, it precipitates the small particles of gold. Now draw off the 
-water, being very careful not to disturb the auriferous sediment at 
t!ie bottom. You" will now proceed to wash the sediment from all 
trace of acid with plenty of boiling water : it will require 3 or 4 sep- 
arate washings, with sufficient time between each to allow the water to 
cool and the sediment to settle, before pouring the vrater off. Then 
dry in an iron A'essel by the fire and finally fuse in a covered skittle 
pot with a flux as directed on page 202. 

Allots for Gold. — 1. Red c/old. — Copper, G0.G7 parts ; gold, 33.- 
33 parts. 2, Yelloio c/old. — Copper, 12.50 parts ; silver, 37.50 parts ; 
gold, 50 parts. 3, Green ffold. — Silver, 25 parts ; gold, 75 parts. 4. 
Yclloiv fjold. — Silver, GG.G7 parts ; gold, 33.33 parts. 5. Gray gold. — 



WATCHMAKERS, JEWELLERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 3a7 

Silver, 5.89 parts ; gold, 88.23 parts ; iron, 5.89 parts. C. Dentists' gold. 
—Silver, 8.34 parts ; platinum, GG.67 parts ; gold, 24.29 parts. 7. 
En cflish gold coin. — Copper, 8.34 parts ; gold, 91. GO parts. 8. American 
gold coin. — Copper, 10 parts ; gold, 90 parts. French gold coin same 
as American. 10. Alloys for Silver Coin and Plate. — English 
standard. — Copper, 7.50 parts ; silver, 92.50 parts. 11. American ditto. 
— Copper, 10 parts ; silver 90 parts. French, the same. 

Gilding Metal for common jewelry is made by mixing 4 parts 
copper with one of calamine brass. Sometimes 1 lb. copper, with 
oz. of brass. Dentists' Plate.— No. 1 Gold, 20 dwts. ; silver, 1 dwt. ; 
copper, 2 dwts. 2. Gold, 21, silver, 2, copper. Gold for Springs. 
— Gold, 18 dwts. 12 grs. ; silver, 6 dwts. ; copper, 5 dwts. 

Jewellehs'Soldekixg Fluid. — Muriatic acid, ^pt; grain zinc, 
IJ oz. Dissolve, and add a little common solder and sal-ammoniac. 

"Jewellers' Gold Compositions. — Common Gold. — Silver, Ipart; 
Spanish copper, 16 parts, gold, 2 parts; mix. Ring Gold. — Spanish 
copper, G parts; silver, 3 jmrts; gold, 5 parts; mix. Manheim Gold. — 
copper, 3 parts; zinc, 1 part. Molt, and stir well. Mosaic Gold. — 
copper and zuic, equal parts; melt at the lowest temperature that will 
fuse the former, then mix by stirring, and add 5 per cent, more zmc. 
Parker's Mosaic Gold. — Copper, 100 parts ; zinc, 54 parts. For common 
Jeioelrij. — Copper, 3 parts ; 1 of old brass, and 4 oz. of tin to every lb. 
of copper. Factitious Gold. — Copper, 16 parts; platinum, 7 parts; 
zinc, 1 part; fused together. This alloy resembles gold of 16 carats 
iine, or §, and will resist the action of nitric acid, ui2ess very concen- 
trated and boiling. Ilarmstadt's True Imitation of Gold. — is stated 
not only to resemble gold in color, but also in specific gravity and 
ductility. Platinum, 16 parts; copper, 7 parts; zinc, 1 part; put it in a 
crucible, cover with charcoal powder, and melt into a mass. Do. of 
Silver. — Copper, ^ oz. ; brass, 2 oz. ; pure silver, 3 oz. ; bismuth, 2 oz. ; 
•saltpetre, 2 oz. ; common salt, 1 oz. ; arsenic, 1 oz. ; potash, 1 oz. ; melt 
in a crucible with poAvdercd charcoal. This compound, used by a 
German chemist for unlawful jDurposes, was so perfect that he was 
never discovered. 

Aktificial Gold. — This is a new metallic alloy which is now very 
extensively used iu France as a substitute for gold. Pure copper, 100 
parts; zinc, or, preferably, tin, 17 parts; magnesia, 6 parts; sal- 
ammoniac, 3-6 parts; quick-lime, \ part; tartar of commerce, 9 parts; 
are mixed as follows : The copper is first melted, and the magnesia, 
sal-ammoniac, lime and tartar are then added separately, aud by 
degrees, in the form of powder; the whole is now briskly stirred for 
about ^ an hour, so as to mix thoroughly; and when the zinc is added 
in small grains by throwing it on the surface, and stirring till it is 
entirely fused; the crucible is then covered, and the fusion maintained 
for about 35 minutes. The surface is then skimmed, and the alloy is 
/eady for casting. It has a fine grain, is malleable, and takes a splen- 
did polish. It close not corrode readily, and for many purposes, is an 
excellent substitute for gold. When tarnished, its brilliancy can bo 
restored by a little acidulated water. If tin be employed instead of 
zinc, the alloy will be more brilliant. It is very much used m France, 
and must ultimately attain equal popularity liere. 

New FiiENcn Patent Alloy for Sil^-er.— ]\Iessieurs Do Ruolz 
& Fonteuay have invented the following alloy, which may to used 

22 



338 WATcnicAKEiis, jewellers', «lc., receipts 

for almost all purposes in which silver is usually applied. Silver, 20 
parts ; purified niclcel, 28 parts ; copper, 52 parts, Melt the copper and 
nickel in the granular state, then introduce the silver. The flux to he 
employed is charcoal and horax, both in the state of powder ; and the 
ingots obtained are to be rendered malleable by annealiug for a con- 
siderable time in powdered charcoal. 

GoiiD. — To find the number of carats of gold in an object, first weigh 
the gold and mix with seven times its weight in silver. This alloy i.s 
"beaten into thin leaves, and nitric acid is added ; this dissolves the 
silver and copper. The remainder (gold) is then fused and weighed ; 
by comparing the first and last weights the number of carats of jiure 
gold is found. This operation is always repeated several times, 
and if any difference occurs in the result, all is done over again. 

Jewellers' Allots. — Solder, &c. Etghteen-carat gold for rings — 
Gold coin, 19^ gr. ; pure copper, 3 grs. ; pure silver, 1^ gr. Cheap gold, 
twelve carat. — Gold coin, 25 gr. ; pure copper, 13.^ gr. ; pure silver, 
7^ grs. Very cheap four-carat gold. — Copper, 18 parts ; gold, 4 parts ; 
silver, 2 parts. Imitations of gold. — 1 I'latina, 4 dwt. ; pure copper, 
2^ dwt. ; sheet-zmc, 1 dwt. ; block-tin, 1| dwt. ; pure lead, 1^ dwt. 
If this should be found too hard or brittle for practical use, re-melting 
the comi)osition with a little sal-ammoniac will generally render it 
malleable as desired. 2. Platiaa, 2 parts ; silver, 1 part ; copper, 3 
parts. These compositions, when properly prepared, so nearly resem- 
ble pare gold it is very difficult to distinguish them therefrom. A 
little powdered charcoal, mixed with metals while melting, will bo 
found of service. Best oreide of gold. — ^Pure copper, 4 oz. ; sheet 
zinc, 1| oz.; magnesia, f oz. ; sal-ammoniac, ^ oz. ; quick-lime, 9-32 
oz. ; cream tartar, ^ oz. First melt the copper at as low a temperature 
as it will melt ; then add the zinc, and afterwards the other articles 
in powder, in the order named. Use a charcoal fire to melt these 
metals. Bushing Alloy for Pivot-holes, &c. — Gold coin, 3 dwts. ; sil- 
ver, 1 dwt. 20 grs.; copper, 3 dwts. 20 grs.; palladium, 1 dvrt. The 
best composition Icnown for the purpose named. Gold Solder for 
Fourteen to Sixteen-carat Work. — Gold cohi, 1 dwt. ; pure silver, 9 
grs. ; pure copper, 6 grs. ; brass, 3 grs. Darker solder. — Gold coin, 1 
dwt. ; pure copper, 8 grs. ; pure silver, 5 grs. ; brass, 2 grs. ; melt to- 
gether in charcoal fire. Solder for Gold. — Gold, 6 dwts. ; silver, 1 
dwt. ; copper, 2 dwts. Soft Gold Solder. — Gold, 4 parts ; silver, 1 
part ; copper 1 part. Solders for Silver.— (For the use of jewellers. ) — 
Fine silver, 19 dwts. ; copper, 1 dwt. ; sheet brass, 10 dwts. White 
Solder for Silver. — Silver, 1 oz. ; tin, 1 oz. Silver Solder, forPlated 
Ifetal.— Fine silver. 1 oz. ; brass 10 dwts. Solders. — For Gold. — 
1. Silver, 7 parts; copper, 1 part, with borax. 2. Gold, 2 parts; silver, 

1 part ; copper, 1 jxart. 3. Gold, 3 parts ; silver, 3 parts ; copper, 1 
part; zinc | part. For Silver. — Silver, 2 parts; brass, 1 part, with bo- 
rax ; or, silver, 4 parts ; brass, 3 parts ; zinc, 1-18 part, with borax. 
Gold Solders. — 1. Copper, 24,24 parts ; silver, 27.57 parts ; gold, 48. 
19 parts. 2. Enamel Solder. — Copper, 25 parts; silver, 7.07 parts; gold, 
C7.93 parts. 3, Copper, 2(5.55 parts; zinc, 6.25 parts; silver, 31.25 parts; 
gold, 36 parts. 4. Enamel Solder. — Silver, 19.57 parts ; gold, 80.43 
parts. Solder. — For 22 carat j/oZd— Gold of 22 carats, 1 dvrt. ; silver, 

2 gr. ; copper, 1 gr. For 18 carat gold. — Gold of 18 carats, 1 dwt. ; sil- 
ver, 2 gr. ; copper, 1 gr. For cheaper gold.— Gold, 1 d\A't ; sUver, 10 



WATCHMAKERS, JEWELLERS*, &C., RECEIPTS. 339 

gr. ; copper, 8 gr. Clieaper still.— Ym& gold, 1 dwt. ; silver, 1 dwt. ; 
copper, 1 dwt. 

Silver Solders. — 1. {hard.) Copper, 30 parts ; zinc, 12.85 parts ; 
silver, 57.15 parts. 2, Copper, 23.33 parts ; ziuc, 10.00 parts ; silver, 
60.67 parts. 4. Copper, 26.66 parts; ziuc, 10.00 parts; silver, 63.34 
parts. 5. {soft.) Copper 14.75 parts; zinc 8.50 parts : silver, 77.05 
parts. 6. Copper, 22.34 parts ; zinc, 10.48 parts ; silver, 67.18 parts. 
7. Tin, 63.00j)arts ; lead, 37 parts. 

Colored Gold. — 1. Full red gold. — Gold, 5 dwts. ; copper, 5 dwt?. 

2. Red gold. — Gold, 5 dwts. ; silver, 1 dwt. ; copper, 4 dwts. 3. 
Green Crold. — Gold, 2 dwt. ; silver, 21 gr. 4. Gray gold. — Gold, 3 
dwts. 15 gr ; silver, 1 d\vt. 9 gr. 5. Blue gold. — Gold, 5 dwt. ; steel 
filings, 5 dwt. 6. Antique gold, greenish-yellow color. — Gold, 18 dwts. 
9 gr. ; silver, 21 gr. ; copper 18 gr. These all req\iire to be submitted 
to the process of wet coloring. 7. Fictitious gold, venj bright. — Cop- 
per, 16 parts ; platina, 7 parts ; zinc, 1 part ; fused together. 

English Standard for Silver. — Pure silver, 11 ozs. 2 dwts. ; 
copper, 22 d\vts. : melt. Silver Imitation, — Copper, 1 lb.; tin, ^ oz., 
melt. This composition will roll and ring very near to silver. 

Frenxh Gold Plate. — 1. Gold, 92 parts ; copper, 8 parts. 2. 
Gold, 84 parts ; copper, 16 parts. 3. Gold, 75 parts ; copper, 25 parts. 
Jewellers' Metal. — Copper, 30 parts ; tin, 7 parts; brass, 10 parts; mix. 

Alloy for Watch Pinion Sockets. — Gold, 31 parts; silver, ID 
parts ; copper 39 parts ; palladium, 1 part. 

Coloring OF Jewelry. — 1. To Heighten the Color of Yelloio gold. 
— Saltpetre, 6 ozs ; green copperas, 2 ozs. ; white vitriol and alum, of 
each 1 oz. If wanted redder, a small quantity of blue vitriol must 
be added, 2. For Green Gold. — Saltpetre, 1 oz. 10 dwts. ; sal-ammo- 
niac, 1 oz. 4 dwts. ; Roman vitriol, 1 oz. 4 dwts. ; verdigris, 18 dwts. 

3. To Clean Gilt Jeicelnj. — Boiling water in a clean liask, \ pt. ; 
cyanide of potassium, 1 oz. ; shake the flask to dissolve the potas- 
sium. Add, when cokl, liquor ammonia, ^ oz. ; rectified alcohol, 1 
oz. Used by brushing over gilded articles. 4. Coloring Jeicelry. — 
Boil the articles in a diluts eolution of terchloride of gold, to which 
some bicarbonate of soda has been added. 5. Coloring of Gilding. — 
Defective colored gilding may also be improved by the help of the 
following mixture : nitrate of potash, 3 ozs. ; alum l^ozs. ; sulphate 
of zinc, 1^ ozs. ; oommou salt, Ih ozs. These ingredients are to be put 
into a small quantity of water to form a sort of paste which is put 
upon the articles to be colored ; they are then placed upon an iron 
plate over a clear fire, so that they will attain nearly to a black heat, 
when they are suddenly plunged into cold water ; this gives them a 
beautiful high color. Different hijes may be had by a variation in 
the mixture. 6. For Red Gold. — To 4 ozs. melted yellow wax, add, in 
fine powder, 1^ ozs. of red ochro, ; li ozs. verdigris, calcined till it yields 
no fumes ; and ^oz. of calcined borax. Mix them well together. 
Dissolve either of above mixtures in water, as the color is wanted, and 
use as required. 7. Fine color for Heavy Gilt WorTc. — Alum, 3 ozs. ; 
saltpetre, 6 ozs. ; sulphate of zinc, 3 ozs. ; common salt, 3 ozs. Mix all 
into a thick paste, dip the articles into it, and heat them until nearly 
black on a piece of sheet iron over a clear coke or charcoal fire, then 
plunge them into cold water. 8. Fine Color For Light Plated icork. — 
Sulphate of copper, 2 dNvts. ; best verdigris, 4 dwts, 12 grs. ; sal-ammo- 



340 WATCnMAKERS, JEWELLERS*, <fcC., RECEirTS. 

niac, 4 dwts. ; saltpetre, 4 d-wts. ; acetic acid, 1 oz. ; pulverize the solid 
articles, add tlie acetic acid gradually, stirring all the time. Dip 
your aiticles into this mixture aud heat them to a black color on a 
jiheet of copi:>er. When cold, place them in a middlmg strong sul- 
phuric acid pickle, which dissolves tlie coloring salts and induces a 
very fine gold color. 9. Etruscan Gold Colorinfj. — Alum, 1 oz. ; fine 
table-salt, 1 oz. ; salt])etre (powdered), 2 oz. ; hot rain-water, suffi- 
cient to make the solution, when dissolved, about the consistency of 
thick ale ; then add sufficient muriatic acid to produce the color de- 
sired. The degree of success must always depend, in a greater or 
less degree, upon the skill or judgment of the operator. The article 
to be colored should be from fourteen to eighteen carats fine, of pure 
gold and copper onlj-, and be free from coatings of tin, or silver 
solder. The solution is best used warm, and when freshly made the 
principle on which it acts is to eat out the copper alloy from the sur- 
face of the article, leaving thereon i)ure, frosted gold onlv. Alter 
coloring, wash off, first in rain-water, then in alcohol, and dry with- 
out rubbmg, in fine clean sawdust, fine Etruscan jewelry, that 
lias been defaced or tarnished by use, may be perfectly renewed by 
the same process. 

For SiiiVEKSMiTHS, Sterling Silver. — 1. Fine silver 11 oz. 2 
dwts., fine copiDcr 18 dwts. 2. Equal to Sterlinri^-Ym& silver 1 
oz., fine copper 1 dwt. 12 grs. 3. Another ditto — Fine sUver 1 cz., 
fine copper 5 dwts. 4. (joiiwion Silver for Chains — Fine silver G 
dwts. , fine copper 4 dwts. 5. Solder for ditto — Fine silver 10 dwts. , 
fine copper 12 grs., pin brass, 3 d'5\'ts, 12 grs, G. Alloy for Plat in r;. 
— Fine silver 1 oz., fine copper 10 dwts. 7. Silver Solder — Fine 
silver 1 oz., pin brass, 10 dwts., pure spelter, 2 dwts. 8. Copjnr 
Solder for Plating — Fine silver, 10 dwts., fine copper 10 dwts. 
9. Common Silver Solder — Fine silver 10 ozs., pin brass, 6 ozs. 12 
dwts., spelter, 12 dwts. 10. Silver Solder for Enamelling, $lper oz. 
— Fme silver 14 dwts., fine copper, 8 dwts. 11. Ditto, for Jilling 
Signet Rings. — Fine silver, 10 ozs., fine copper, 1 oz. 16 dwts., fine 
pin brass, G ozs. 12 dwts., spelter, 12 dwts. 12. Silver Solder for 
Gold Plating — Fine silver, 1 oz., fine copper, 5 dAvts., pin brass, 5 
dwts. 13. (c^uick Silver Solder — Fine silver, 1 oz., pui brass, 10 
dwts., bar tm, 2 dwts. 14. Imitation Silver — Fine silver, 1 oz., 
nickel, 1 oz. 11 grs., fine copper, 2 ozs. 9 grs. 15. Another ditto — 
Fine sUver, 3 ozs., nickel, 1 oz. 11 dwts,, fine copper, 2 ozs. 9 grs., 
spelter, 10 dwts, 16, Fiiie Silver Solder for Filigree Woi'k — Fine 
silver, 4 dwts. 6 grs., pm brass, 1 dwt. 17. Bismuth Solder — ^Bismuth, 
3 ozs,, lead, 3 ozs, 18 dwts., tm, 5 ozs. G dwts. 

Dead White on Sllveb Articles.^ — Heat the article to a cherry 
red, or a dull red heat and allow it to cool, then place it in a pickle of 
5 parts sulphuric acid to 100 parts of water, and allow it to remain for 
an hour or two. If the surface is not right, rinse in cold water, and 
repeat the heatiiyj and pickling operation as before. This removes 
the copper from tiie surface of the article, leaving p?/re silver on the 
surface. When sufficiently whitened, remove from the pickle, well 
rmse in pure hot water and place in warm box sawdust. 

Pickle, for Frosting and W^hitening Silver Goods. — Sul- 
phuric acid, 1 dr. ; water, 4 oz. ; heat the pickle, and immerse the 
gilver in it uutil frosted as desired ; then wash o£E cleaji, and dry with 



-WATCnMAKERS, JEWELLERS*, &C., RECEIPli. 341 

a soft linen clotli, or in fine clean sawdust. For wliitening only, a 
smaller proportion of acid may be used. 

To FiiosT Polished Silver. — Cyanide of potassium 1 oz. ; dis- 
solved in h pt. of water. Do not hold the silver in your hands, but 
use pliers made of lance wood or box wood, and api)ly the mixture 
with a brush to the polished surface. 

SiLVERixG Hooks a>'d Eyes, &c. — The small iron articles aro 
suspended in dilute sulphuric acid mitil the iron shows a bright clean 
surface. After rinsmg iu pure water they are placed in a bath of a 
mixed solution of sulphate of ziuc, sulphate of copper and cyanide 
of potassium, and there remain until the^^ receive a bright coating of 
brass. Lastlj-, they are transferred to a bath of nitrate of silver, 
cyanide of jjotassium and sulphate of soda, in wliich they quickly 
received a coating of sihHjr. 

Ornamental Designs ox Silver. — Select a smooth part of the 
silver, and sketch on it a monogram or any other design you choose, 
with a sharp lead pencil, then place the article in a gold soUition with 
the battery in good worlcing order, and in a short time all the parts 
not sketched wltli the lead pencil will be covered with a coat of gold. 
After cleansing the article, tlie black lead is easily removed by the 
fingers, and the silver ornament disclosed. A gold ornament may bo 
XJroduced by reversmg the process. 

To Extract Silver from waste Products. — Mix your refuse 
with an equal quantity of wood charcoal, place in a crucible and sub- 
mit to a bright red heat, and in a short time a silver button will be 
found at the bottom. Carbonate of soda is another good flux. 

To Solder Tortoise Shell. — Bring the edges of the pieces of 
shell to fit each otlier, observing to give the same inclination of grain 
to each, then secure them in a piece of paper, and place them between 
hot irons or pincers ; apply pressure, and let them cool. The heat 
must not be so great as to hum the shell, therefore try it first on a 
white piece of paper. 

Artificl\l Pearls. — Are made from beads of opaline glass filled 
with gum, the polish of tiie glass being reduced by the vapor if 
hydrofluoric acid. 

Eeviver for Old Jewelry. — Dissolve sal-ammoniac in urine, 
and put the jewelry in it for a short time ; then take it out, and 
rub with chamois leather, and it will appear equal to new. 

To Recover Gold from Gilt Metal. — Take a solution of borax 
water, apply to the gilt surface, and sprinkle over it some finely 
powdered sulphur ; make the article red hot, and quench it in water; 
then scrape off the gold, and recover it by means of lead. 

Polishing Powder for Gold and Silver. — Rock alum bunit 
and finely powdered, 5 parts ; levigated chalk, 1 part. Mix ; apply 
Avith a dry brush. 

. Silver-Plat iNO Fluid. — Dissolve 1 ounce of nitrate of silver, in 
crystals, m 12 ounces of soft water ; then dissolve in the water 2 oz. 
cyannret of potash ; shake the whole together, and let it stand till it 
becomes clear. Have ready some half-ounce vials, and fill half full 
of Paris white, or fine whiting ; and then fill up the bottles witli the 
liquor, and it is ready for use. The whiting does not increase 
the coatuig powder ; it only helps to clean the articles, and save the 
silver iluid, by hall filling the buttles. 



342 WATCHMAKERS, JEWELLERS, &C., RECEIPTS. 

To Reduce English Sovereigns to Lower Fineness. — No. 1. 
15 Carat f/old, Coins, 2 ozs. ; gold, 8 ozs. ; silver, 2 ozs. 3 dwts. ; copper, 
5 ozs. 3 dwts. 2. Another ditto. Coins, 4 ozs. ; gold, 6 ozs. ; silver, 2 
ozs. 2 dwts. ; copper, 5 ozs. 2 dwts. 3. Another ditto. Coins, 2 ozs. ; 
gold, 6 ozs. ; silver, 1 oz. 14 dwts. ; copper, 4 ozs. ; 2 dwts. 4. 14 Caixit 
gold. Coins, 3 ozs. ; gold, 5 ozs. ; silver, 1 oz. 9 dwts. 12 grs. ; copper, 11 
dwts. 12 grs. 5. Another ditto. Coins, 1 oz, ; gold, 2 ozs. ; silver, 13 
dwts.; copper, 1 oz. 11 dwts. 6. Another ditto. Coins, 1 oz. ; gold, 8 
ozs. ; silver 2 ozs. ; copper, 4 ozs. 14 dwts. 
Sterling Value of Gold of different Degrees of Fineness. 





Value per. 




Value per. 


Carats Fine. 


oz. Troy. 


Carats Fine. 


oz. Troy. 




£ 




£ 


24 


4 4 1H 


12 


2 2 5^ 


23 


4 15 


11 


1 18 11 


22 British Standard. 


3 17 10^ 


10 


1 15 4i 


21 


3 14 4 


9 


1 11 10 


20 


3 10 9 


8 


18 3 


19 


3 7 3 


7 


14 9 


18 (Lowest HaU Mark). 3 3 8* 


6 


1 1 21 


17 


3 2 


5 


17 8 


16 


2 17 .7^ 


4 


14 2 


15 


2 13 1 


3 


10 7^ 


14 


2 9 G^ 


2 


7 1 


13 


2 6 


1 


3 6i 



liFote.—The British Standard for gold, is go'Id, 22-24 of a pound, 
equal to 11 parts pure gold and 1 of alloy; a pound is estimated to be 
divided into 24 equal parts or carats, hence the proportion is rated 
equal to 22 carats. The Standard of Silver is 222-240 of a pound, 
equivalent to 37 parts pure silver and 3 of alloy. A Troy ounce of 
Standard gold is coined into £3.17.10.2f., and an ounce of Standard 
silver into 5s. 6d. A lb. Troy of gold yields 46 19-240 sovereigns. A 
lb. Troj of silver 66 shillings. £150,000 in gold weighs over a ton. 
£75,000,000 weighs 500 tons. 

The American Standard of Gold and Silver is COO parts of pure 
metal and 100 of alloy in 1,000 parts of coin, the fineness being ex- 
pressive of the quantity of pure metal in 1000 parts. The value of 1 
ounce of pure (/old is $20.67.183i, as standard gold coin it is w^orth 
$18.60.465. The value of 1 ounce of pure silver is $1.29.29., as stand- 
ard silver coin it is worth $1 16.36-36. 

To Melt Gold. — Prepare a good fire, and heat the mgot in 
which you wish to cast the gold, a little hotter than boiling water; 
next put the alloy in the crucible, add a sn..il quantity of pulverized 
borax, and leave on the fire until melted. Cast this in a clean ingot, 
and after breaking the bar into small fragments, return to the pot 
and remelt the gold, not adding borax this time, but when the gold 
looks clear and smooth on the top, add, for every 6 ozs. gold, a piece 
of saltpetre about the size of a pea, and in about a minute pour the 
gold. Keep up the heat after adding the saltpetre, and, previous to 
pouring the gold, pour a few drops of oil into the iron ingot. If the 
stock was clean when you commenced, the gold will roll well. Much 
depends on the first rolling of the stock; 18 carat should be subjected 
to a very heavy strain ; the first and second draughts, which imparts 
a grain to the stock ; light draughts stretch the gold on the surface, 
and the middle portion remaining as cast, causes the gold to crack ; 
iwaiiy good bars having been condemned, when the trouble was iu 



WATCHMAKERS, JEWELLERS, &C., RECEIPTS, 34o 

the rolling. After the 18 carat has been rolled to about twice its 
origiaal length, it must be annealed, then rolled to the size you re- 
quire. Proceed with melting 14 carat as above described for 18 carat, 
giving it as heavy strains in the rolls, but not rolling so much before 
annealing as the 18 carat. The other carats of cheaper grade, do 
not require the use of saltpetre to toughen; instead of Avhich, use a 
little salammoniac, and then proceed as above. AVhen you anneal 
red gold, do not quench it when red hot, but allow the gold to blacken 
before quenching, otherwise it will slit or seam. INIelt new alloys in 
every ciise twice ; treat solder the same Avay, to ensure a thorough 
admixture of the copper with the gold. 

To Remove Tix from the Stock. — Just previous to pouring 
the gold, throw a small piece of corrosive sublimate in the pot, stir 
well with a long piece of pointed charcoal, and allow the pot to re- 
main on the fire about half a minute afterward. This will take tin 
from the alloy; Avhile the tm is in, the gold will not roll without 
cracking. To remove emery or steel filings from gold, add a small 
piece of glass-gall, while melting; it Avill collect them in the flux. 

Making Brittle Gold Strong. — Gold is sometimes so brittle 
that the jeweller cannot well Avork it ; this is probably due to i)hos- 
phorus, which, being no metal, is of course not detected in the assay. 
The remedy is to pass chlorine gas through the molten gold, by which 
treatment most of the gold which had otherAvise to be set aside as 
unfit for certain kinds of work, can be redeemed. 

To Make Plated Stock. — Cast the bar you wish to plate the 
breadth you require, and roll to the thickness of the 8th of an inch. 
If you plate on silver, cast the silver the same width as the gold, and 
roll a little longer than the gold. Generally the lower, cheaper 
grade metal, is 2 or 3 times the thiclcness of the dearer, therefore use 
as much of each as Avill make the desired proportions. Polish as 
nearly flat and straight as possible, then file one face of silver and 
one face of gold, until they are bright. Previous to this you have 
rolled a piece of plate solder verj- thin, say, 3() in. round size plate, 
and cut a strip a little wider and longer than your gold. Emery 
paper can be used to clean each side of this from dirt and grease. 
Cover the surface with ground borax from the slate, on each side; do 
the same on the bright faces of the gold and silver ; place the solder 
between them, and have a piece of iron Avire about | of an inch in 
thickness, and 3 feet long, in readiness, place this lengthAvise on the 
gold, and squeeze the Avhole tightly together in a vice, and bind every 
inch or so Avith heavy binding Avire verj^ secure. Next make a gooi 
charcoal fire in the forge, shaped so as"^ to be like an oven, and then 
solder; Avh en the solder melts on each side the AA^hole length, all is 
ready ito roll like any other stock. If you make gold plating that is 
18 carat, or 16 carat, or 14 carat, and 12 carat, you must use a gold 
spider about 5 or 6 carats less than the inferior gold. If gold on sil- 
A-'er or composition, use copper solder. The clippings from the above, 
Avhenthe gold is on silver, may be placed in an enamelled A'essel, and 
covered Avith nitric acid, 2 parts; Avater, 1 part. The silver will bo 
taken in solution, Avliich must be saved in an earthen pot. Precipi- 
tate the silver from the solution, or after the solution has been di- 
luted, a bar of copper placed in it avIU collect it; this sediment must be 
AA'ell Avashed and dried, then melted . The gold after being Avell 
dried, can be melted in a bar, a small amouut of copper being added, 
so that it AA'ill be of the same quality as before. 



3-14 ^VATCUMAKERS, JEWELLERS , &C., RECEIPTS. 

Jewellers' Akmenian Ceme>'t. — Isinglass soaked in water and 
dissolved in spirit, 2 oz. (thick) ; dissolve in this 10 grs. of very pale 
gum ammonia (in tears) by rubbijig them together ; then add G large 
tears of gum mastic, dissolved in the least possible quantity of rec- 
tified spirits. When caref ull}"- made this cement resists moisture and 
dries colorless. Keep in a closely stopped phial. 

Jeavelleks' Ceme'Kt. — Put in a bottle 2 ozs. of isinglass and 1 oz. of 
the best gum arable, cover them with proof spirits, cork loosely, and 
place the bottle in a vessel of water, and boil it till a thorough solu- 
tion is effected ; then stram it for use. 

Gold is taken from the surface of silver by spreading over it a 
paste made of powdered sal-ammoniac, with aquafortis, and heating 
it till the matter smokes, and is nearly dry ; when the gold may be 
separated by rubbing it with a scratch brush. 

To Sepaiiate Gold akd Silver from Lace, &c. — Cut in pieces 
the gold or silver lace, tie it tightlj-, and boil in soap ley till the size 
appears dimhiished ; take the cloth out of the liquid, and after re- 
peated rinsings of cold water, beat it with a mallet to draw out the 
alkali. Open the linen, and the jiuie metal will be found in all its 
beauty. 

Tarnish on Electro-Plate Goods maybe removed by immers- 
ing the article from one to ten or fifteen minutes, or until the tarnish 
has been removed, but no longer, in the following solution : liaiu 
water, 2 gals. ; cjauuret potassa, ^ lb. ; dissolve and put into a stone 
jug or jar and closely cork. After immersion, the articles must be 
taken out and thoroughly rinsed in two or three waters, then dried 
with a soft linen cloth, or, if frosted or chased work, with fine clean 
.sawdust. Tarnished jewelry may be speedily restored by this 
process ; but make sure work of removing the alkali, otherwise it 
will corrode the goods. 

A Bright Gold Tinge may be given to silver by steeping it for 
a suitable length of time in a weak solution of sulphuric acid and 
water strongly impregnated with iron-rust. 

To Refine Gold. — If j'-ou desire to refine gold from the baser 
metals, swedge or roll it out very thin, then cut into narrow strips 
and curl up so as to prevent its lying flatly. Drop the j^ieces thus 
Xn"e pared into a vessel containuig good nitric acid, in the proportion 
of acid, 2 ozs., and pure rain-water ^ oz. Suffer to remain until tlior- 
oughly dissolved, which will be the case in from ^ an hour to 1 hour. 
Then pour off the liquid caref ullj^ and you will find the gold, in the 
lorm of ycUow powder, lying at the bottom of the vessel. "Wash 
this with pure water till it "ceases to have an acid taste, after which 
YOU may melt and cast into any form you choose. Gold treated in 
this way may be relied on as perfectly pure. 

In melting gold use none other than a charcoal fire, and during 
the process sprinkle saltpetre and potash into the crucible occjision- 
ally. Do not attempt to melt with stone coal, as it renders the metal 
brittle and otherwise imperfect. 

To Refine Silver. — Dissolve in nitric acid as in the case of the 
gold. When the silver has entirely disappeared, add to the 2^ oz. of 
solution nearly 1 quart of pure rain-water. Sink, then, a sheet of 
clean copper into it ; the silver will collect rapidly upon the cox^i er, and 
you can scrape it off and melt into bulk at x^lcasure. 



WATCnMAKERS, JEWELLERS*, &C., RECEIPTS. 345 

In tlic event of jour refining gold in accordance Tvitli the foregoing 
formula, and the impurity was silver, the only steps necessary to save 
the latter would he to add the ahove named proportion of water to the 
solution poured from the gold, and then to x^roceed with your copper 
plate as just directed. 

To Kefine Copper, — This process differs from the one employed to 
refine silver in no respects save the plate to ¥e immersed; you use an 
iron instead of a copper plate to collect the metal. 

If the impurities of gold refined were both silver and copper, you 
might, after saving the silver as above directed, sink your iron plate 
into tlie solution yet remaining, and take out the copper. The parts 
of alloyed gold may be sejjarated by these lirocesses, and leave each 
in a perfectly pure state. 

Cold Silvering of Metals. — Mix 1 part of chloride of silver 
with 3 parts of pearlash, Imparts common salt, and 1 part Avhiting; 
and well rub the mixture on the surface of brass or copi^er (previously 
well cleaned), by means of a piece of soft leather, or a cork moistened 
with water and dipped in the powder. When properly silvered, the 
metal should be well washed in hot water, slightly alkalized; then 
wiped drj'. 

To Hard Solder Gold, Silver, Copper, Brass, Iron, Steel or 
Platixa. — The solders to be used for gold, silver, copper and brass are 
given in the preceding part. You commence operations by reducing 
your solder to small particles, and mixing it with powdered sal- 
ammoniac and powdered borax in equal parts, moistened to make it 
hold together. Having fitted up the joint to be soldered, j'ou secure 
the article upon a piece of soft charcoal, lay your soldering mixture 
immediately over the joint and then with your blow-pipe turn the 
ilame of your lamp upon it until fusion takes jilace. The job is then 
done, and ready to be cooled and dressed up. Iron is usually soldered 
with copper or brass in accordance with the above process. The best 
solder for steel is pure gold or i^ure silver, though gold or silver solders 
are often used successfully. Platina can only be soldered well with 
gold ; and the expense of it, therefore, contributes to the hindrance of a 
general use of platina vessels, even for chemical j)urposes, where they 
lire of so much importance. 

To Soft Solder Articles.— Moisten the parts to be united witli 
soldering fluid ; then, having joined them together, lay a small piece 
of solder upon the jomt and hold over your lamp, or direct the blaze 
upon it with your blow-pipe until fusion is apparent. A\'ithdraw them 
from the blaze immediately, as too much heat will render the solder 
brittle and unsatisfactory. When the parts to be joined can be made 
to spring or press against each other, it is best to place a thin piece of 
solder between them before exposing to the lamp. Where two smooth 
surfaces are to be soldered one upon the other, you may make an ex- 
cellent job by moistening them with the fluid, and then, having placed 
a, sheet of tin foil between them, holding them pressed firmly together 
over your lamp till the foil melts. If the surfaces fit nicely, a joint 
may be made in this way so close as to be almost imperceptible. The 
bright looking lead which comes as a lining to tea boxes works better 
in the same way than tin foil. 

To Cleanse Gold Tarnished in Solderino.— The old English 
mode was to expose all parts of the article to a uniform heat, allow it 



346 WATCHMAKERS, JEWELLERS', itC, RJlCEIPTS. 

to cool, and then boil until bright in nrine and sal-ammoniac. It is 
now usually cleaned "with diluted sulphuric acid. The pickle is made 
in about the proportion of one-eighth of an ounce of acid to one ounce 
of miu water. 

To Cleax Silver TAK>nsirED in Soldering. — Some expose to 
a uniform heat, as in the case of gold, and then boil in strong alum 
water. Others immerse for a considerable leugth of time in a liciuid 
made of h oz. of cj-anuret potassa to 1 pint rain water, and then brush 
off with prepared chalk. 

Nickel Plating. — The following is the substance of the patent 
granted to Dr. Isaac Adams, March 22, 1870. The process is highly 
successful. " This improvement consists in the use of 3 new solutioua 
from which to deposit nickel by the electric current. 1. A solution 
formed of the double sulphate of nickel and alumina, or the sulphate 
of nickel dissolved in a solution of soda, potash, or ammonia alum, 
the three different varieties of commercial alum. 2. A solution formed 
of the double sulphate of nickel and magnesia, with or without an 
excess of ammonia. I have found that a good coating of nickel 
can be deposited from the solution before mentioned, provided they 
are prepared and used in such a mamier as to be free from any acid 
or alkaline reaction. "When these solutions are used, great care must 
be taken, lest by the use of too high battery power, or from the in- 
troduction of some foreign matters, the solution becomes acid or 
alkaline. I prefer to use Siese solutions at a temperature above 100° 
Fall., but do not limit my invention to the use of these solutions at 
that temperature. I therefore claim, 1. The electro deposition of 
nickel by the means of solution of the double sulphate of nickel and 
alumina, prepared and used in such a mauner as to be free from the 
presence of ammonia, potash, soda, lime or nitric acid or from any 
other acid, or from any acid or alkaline reaction. 2. The electro 
deposition of nickel by means of a solution of the double sulphate of 
nickel and potash, prepared and used in such a maimer as to be free 
from the presence of ammonia, soda, alumina, lime or nitric acid, or 
from any acid or alkaline reaction. 3. The electro deposition of nick- 
el by means of a solution of the double sulphate of nickel and mag- 
nesia, prepared and used iu such a mamier as to be free from tho 
presence of potash, soda, alumina, lime or nitric acid, or from any 
acid or allcaliiie reaction. " 

Stalba's Nickel Plating Process. — Consists in plating with 
nickel, by the action of zinc u]X)u salts of nickel, in the presence of 
chloride of zinc and the metal to be plated. By this process, Stalba 
states that he has succeeded iu plating objects of wrought and cast 
iron, steel, copper, brass, zinc, and lead. It is only necessary that 
the size of the objects should permit them to be covered entirely by 
the plating liquid, and that their surfaces should be free from diit. 
The following is the modus operandi : — A quantity of concentrated 
chloride of zinc solution is placed in a clean metallic vessel, and to 
this is added an equal volume of water. This is heated to boiling, 
and hydrochloric acid is added drop by drop, until the precipitito 
which had formed on adding the water has disappeared. A small 
quantity of zinc powder is now added, wliich produces a zinc coating 
on the metal as far as the liquid extends. Enough of the nickel s;iit 
(the cliloride or sulphate answers equally well, is now introduced to 



"WATCUMAKERS, JEWELLERS,' «fcC., RECEIPTS. 347 

color the liquid distinctly green ; the objects to be plated are placed 
in it together with some zmc clippmgs, and tlie liquid is brought to 
boiling. The nickel is precipitated in the course of 15 minutes, and 
the objects will be foimd to be completely coated. The coating va- 
ries in lustre with the character of the metallic surface ; when this is 
• polished, the plating is likewise lustrous and vice versa. Salt of co- 
balt affords a cobalt plating, which is steel gray in color, not so lus- 
trous as the nickel, but more liable to tarnish. 

To Make Silver Solution for Electro-Plating. — Put to- 
gether into a glass vessel 1 oz. good silver, made thin and cut into 
strips; 2 oz. best nitric acid, and ^oz. pure rain water. If solution 
docs not begin at once, add a little more water — continue to add a 
very little at a time till it does. In the event it starts off well, but 
stops before the silver is fully dissolved, you may generally start it 
up again all right by adding a little more water. When solution is 
entirely effected, add 1 quart of warm rain water and a large table- 
spoonful of table salt. Shake well and let settle, then proceed to 
jjour off and wash through other waters as in the case of the gold 
preparation. Wlien no longer acid to the taste, put in an ounce and 
an eighth cyanuret potassa and a quart pure rain water: after stand- 
ing about 24 hours, it will be ready for use. 

To MAKE Gold Solution for Electro-Plating. — Dissolve fivo 
pennyweights gold coin, 5 grains pure copper, and 4 grains pnro 
silver in 3 ozs. nitro-muriatic acid; which is simply 2 parts muriatic 
acid and 1 part nitric acid. The silver will not be fciken into solution 
as are the other 2 metals, but will gather at the bottom of the vessel. 
Add 1 oz. pulverized sulphate of iron, ^ oz, pulverized borax, 25 
grains pure table salt, and 1 quart hot rain water. Upon this tlio 
gold and copper will be thrown to the bottom of the vessel with the 
silver. Let stand till fully settled, then pour off tlie liquid carefully, 
and refill with boiling rain water as before. Continue to repeat tliis 
operation until the precipitate is thoroughly washed ; or, in other 
words, fill up, let settle, and pour off so long as the accumulation at 
the bottom of the vessel is acid to the taste. You now have about an 
18 carat chloride of gold. Add to it an ounce and an eighth cyanuret 
potassa, and 1 quart rain water — the latter heated to the boiling 
point Shake up well, then let stand about 24 hours, and it will bo 
ready for use. Some use platina as an alloy instead of silver, under 
the impression that plating done with it is harder. I have used both, 
but never could see much difference. Solution for a darker colored 
plate to imitate Guinea gold may be made by adding to the above 1 
oz. dragon's blood and 5 grs. iodide or iron. If j^ou desire an alloyed 
plate, proceed as first directed, without the silver or copper, and with 
an ounce and a half of sulphuret potassa in place of the iron, borax, 
and salt. 

To Plate with a Battery. — ^If the plate is to be gold, use the 
gold solution for electro-plating; if silver, use the silver solution. Pre- 
pare the article to be plated by immersing it for several minutes in a 
strong ley made of potash and rain water, polishing off thoroughly at 
the end of the time with a soft brush and prepared chalk. Care should 
be taken not to let the fingers come in contact with the article while 
polishing, as that has a tendency to prevent the plate from adhering; 
it should be held in two or three thicknesses of tissue paper. At- 



348 "WATCHMAKERS, JEWEI.LKRS', AC, RECEIPTS. 

ticli the article, -when thoroncrhly cleansed, to tl'o positive pole of 
your battery, then ultix a piece of gold or silver, as the cjxse may bo, 
to the negative pole, and immerse both into the solution in such a 
•way as not to hanjj in contact with eacli other. 

After the article has been exposed to the action of the battery 
about ten minutes, tiike it out and wash or polish over with a thick 
mixture of water and prepared chalk or jewellers' rouge. If, in the 
operation, you find places where the plating seems inclined to ])eel 
oif, or where it has not taken avcII, mix a little of tlie plating .solution 
w itli prepared chalk or rouge, and rub the defective pint thoroughly 
with it. This will be likely to set all right 

Govern your time of exposing tlie article to the battery by the de- 
sired thickness of the plate. During the time, it shoukl be tiiken out 
and polished up as just directed about every ten minutes, or as often 
at least as there is an indication of a growing darkness on any part of 
its surface. AVhen done, finish with the buniisher or ]-»repared chalk 
and chamois skin, as best suits your taste and convenience. In case 
the article to be plated is iron, steel, lead, pewter, or block tin, you 
must, alter first cleaning with the ley and challc, ]r)rcpare it by ai>- 
plying with a soft brush — a camels'-hair pencil is bci^t suited — a 
solution made of the foUoAving articles in the proportion named : — 
Kitric acid, i^ oz. ; muriatic acid, ^ oz. ; sulphuric acid, l-9th oz. ; 
muriate of potash, l-7th oz. ; sulphate of iron, ^^ oz. ; sulphuric ether, 
1-oth oz. ; and as much sheet zinc as it will dissolve. This prepares 
a foimdation, without which the plate would fail to take well, if at 
all. 

To MAKE Gold Amalgam. — ^Eight parts of gold and one of mer- 
cury are formed into an amalgam for plating, by rendering the gold 
iuto thin plates, making it red hot and then putting it into the mercury 
while the latter is also heated to ebullition. The gold immediately 
disappears in combination with the mercury, after which the mixture 
may be turned into water to cool. It is then ready for use. 

To Plate with Gold Ajnialgam. — Gold amalgam is chiefly nsed 
as a plating for silver, copper or brass. The article to be plated is 
washed over with diluted nitric acid or jxttashlyeand prepared clialk, 
to remove any tirnish or rust that might i)revent the amalgam froui 
.idhcring. After having been polished perfectly bright, the amal- 
gam is applied as evenly as possible, usually with a fine scratch 
brush. It is then set upon a grate over a charcoal fire, or placed into 
an oven and heated to that degree at which mercury exhales. The 
gold, when the mercury has evaporated, presents a dull yellow color. 
Cover it with a coating of pulverized nitre and alum in equal parts, 
mixed to a paste with water, and heat again till it is thoroughly 
melted, then plunge into water. Burnish up with a steel or blood- 
stone burnisher. 

To Make and Apply Gold-Platixg Solutioin'. — ^Dissolve i oz. 
of gold amalgam in 1 oz. of nitro-muriaticacid. Add 2oz. of alcohol, 
and then, having brightened the article in tlie usual way, apply the 
solution with a soft brush. Rinse and dry in saw^dust, or' with tissue 
paper, and polish up wnth chamois skin. 

To ]\Iake and Apply Gold-Plating Powder. — Pre]iare a 
chloride of gold the same as for plating with a battery. Add to it, 
^hcn thoroughly washed out, cyanurot potassa in a jiroportion of 3 



WATCnMAKERS, JEWELLERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 3V3 

oz. to 5 pennyAA'cishts of gold. Pour in a pint of clean rain "water, 
eliake up well and then let stand till the chloride is dissolved. Add 
then 1 lb. of prepared Spanish whitmg and let it evaporate in the open 
air till dry, alter Avhich put away in li tight vessel for use. To ai)ply 
it you prepare the article in the usual way, and having made the 
powder into a paste with water, rub it upon the surface with a piece 
of chamois skin or cotton flannel. 

An old mode of making a gold-plating powder was to dip clean 
linen rags into solution prepared as in the second article pre- 
ceding this, and having dried, to fire and burn thera into ashes. 
The ashes formed the powder, and were to be applied as above. 

To Make and Apply Silveh-Plating Solution, — Put together 
in a glass vessel 1 oz. nitrate of silver, 2 ozs. cyanuret potassa, 4 ozs. 
prepared Spanish Avhiting, and 10 ozs. pure niin water. Cleanse the 
article to be plated as per preceding directions, and ai)i)ly with a soft 
brush. Finish with the chamois skin or burnisher. 

To Make and Apply Silvek-Plating Powder. — Dissolve sil- 
ver in nitric acid by the aid of heat; put some pieces of copper into 
the solution to precipitate the silver; wash the acid out in the usual 
way ; then, witli 15 grains of it mix 2 drams of tartar, 2 drams of 
table salt, .and ^ dram of pulverized alum. Brighten the article to 
be plated with" ley and prepared chalk, and rub on the mixture. 
AVhen it has assumed a white appearance, expose to heat as in the 
case of plating with gold amalgam, then polish up with the burnisher 
or soft leather. 

To Destroy the Effects of Acid on Clothes. — Dampen as 
fioon as possible, after exposure to the acid, with spirits ammonia. It 
will destroy tlie effect immediately. 

To Wash Silverware. — Never use a particle of soap on your 
silverware, as it dulls the lustre, giving the article more the appear- 
ance of pewter than silver. When it wants cleaning, rub it with a 
piece of soft leather and prepared chalk, the latter made into a kind 
of paste with i)ure water, for the reason that water not pure might 
contain gritty particles. 

To Cleanse Brushes. — The best method of cleansing watch- 
makers' and jewellers' brushes ie to wash them out in a strong 
soda water. When the backs are wood, you must favor that 
part as much as j)ossible ; for beuig glued, the water may injure 
them. 

To Cut Glass Round or OvAii •without a Diamond.— Scratch 
the glass around the shape you desire with the corner of a file 
or graver ; then, having bent a piece of wire in the same shape, 
heat it red hot and lay it upon the scratch, sink the glass i-nto cold 
water just deep enough for the water to come almost on a level 
with its upper surface. It will rarely ever fail to break perfectly 
true. 

To Re-Black Clock Hands. — Use asphaltum varnish. One coat 
■NTill make old rusty hands look as good as new, and it dries in a few 
minutes. 

To Gild Steel. — Pour some of the ethereal solution of gold into a 
wineglass, and dip into it the blade of a new penknife, razor, lancet, 
&c. ; withdraw the instrument and allow the ether to evaporate. 
The blade will then be foimd covered with a beautiful coat of gold. 



350 WATCHMAKERS, JEWELLEUS', «feC., RECEIPTS. 

The blade may be moistened -with a clean rag, or a small piece of 
very dry sponge dipped in the ether, and the same effects will be 
produced. 

SiiiVERiNG SHEiiLS. — Silver leaf and gum water, a sufficient quan- 
tity; grind to a proper thicliness, and cover tlie inside of the shells. 
For a Gold Color, grind up gold-leaf with gum water, and apply to 
the inside of the shells. 

Liquid Foil fob, Silvering Glass Globes, &c. — Lead, 1 part; 
tin, 1 part; bismuth, 1 part; melt, and, just before it sets, add mer- 
cury, 10 parts. Pour this into the globe, and turn it rapidly 
jound. 

Silver-Platers' SxRirriNG LiQino. — Sulphuric acid, 8 parts; 
nitre, 1 part. Used to recover silver from old plated ware. 

To Silver Clock Faces, &c. — Old silver lace, ^ oz, ; nitric acid, 
1 oz. Boil them over a gentle fire for about 5 minutes in an earthen 
pot. After the silver is dissolved, take the mixture off, and mix it in 
a pint of clean water, then pour it into another vessel free from sedi- 
ment; then add a tablcspoonful of common salt, and the silver will be 
precipitated in the form of a white powder of curd ; pour off the acid, 
and mix the curd with 2 oz. salt of tartar, and ^ oz. whiting, all to- 
gether, and it is ready for use. To Use. — Clean'j^our brass or copper 
l)late with rotten-stone and a piece of old hat ; rub it with salt and 
water with j' our hand. Then take a little of the composition on your 
finger, and rub it over your plate, and it will firmly adhere and com- 
pletely silver it. Wash it well with water. When dry, rub it with a 
clean rag, and varnish with this varnish for clock faces. Spirits 
of wine, 1 pt. ; divide in three parts, mix one part with gum-mastic in 
a bottle by itself ; 1 part spirits and ^ oz. sandarac in another bottle ; 
and 1 part spirits and ^ oz. of whitest gum benjamin, in another bot- 
tle; nix and temper to your mind. If too thin, some mastic; if too 
soft, some sandarac or benjamin. When you use it, warm the 
silvered plate before the fire, and, with a flat camels' -hair pencil, 
stroke it over till no white streaks appear, and this will preserve the 
silvering for many j^ears. 

Refineng Gold and Silver. — ^The art of assaying gold and sil- 
ver is founded upon the feeble affinity which these have for oxygen 
in comparison with copper, tin, and other cheap metals, and on the 
tendency which the latter metals have to oxidize rapidly in contact 
with lead at a high temperature, and sink with it into any porous, 
earthy vessel in a thin, glassy, vitrified mass. The precious metal 
having previously been accurately weighed and prepared, the first 
process is Cupellation. The muffle, with cupel properly arranged 
on the " rmiffle plate," is placed in the furnace, and the charcoal ad- 
ded, and lighted at the top by means of a few ignited pieces thrown 
on last. After the cupels have been exposed to a strong white heat 
for about half an hour, and have become white hot, the lead is put 
into them by means of tongs. As soon as this becomes bright red 
and " circulating," as it is called, the specimen for assay, wrapped 
in a small piece of paper or lead-foil, is added ; the fire is now kept 
up strongly until the metal enters the lead and ^^ circulates" well, 
when the heat, slightly diminished, is so regulated that the assay 
appears convex and more glowing than the cupel itself, whilst the 
^^undulations" circulate in all directions, and the middle of the 



"WATCnilAKERS, JEWELLERS', &C., KECExPTS. 351 

metal appears smooth, "^ith a margin of litharge, "svhich is freely ab- 
sorbed by the cupel. "When tlie metal becomes bright and shining, 
or, in technical language, begins to " lighten" and prismatic hues 
suddenly flash across tlie globules, and undulate and cross each otlier, 
followed by the metal becoming very brilliant and clear, and at 
length bright and solid (called the brir/htcning), the separation is end- 
ed, and the process complete. The cupels are then dra^vn to the 
mouth of the "muffle," and allowed to cool slowly. When quite 
cold, the resulting "6?/«07i," if of silver, is removed by the 
*'phers" or "tongs" from the cupels, and, after beiug flattened on 
a small anvil of polished steel, with a polished steel hammer, to de- 
tach adhering oxide of lead, and cleaned Avith a small, hard brush, is 
very accurately iceigJied. The weight is that otpure silver, and the dif- 
ference between the weight before cupeUation and that of the pure metal 
represents the proportion of alloy in the sample examined. In the 
case of GOLD, the metal has next to undergo the operations of quah- 
TATiON. The cupelled sample is fused with 3 times its weight of 
pure silver (called the " icitness"), hj which the gold is reduced to 
one-fourth of the mass less, and in this state may easily be removed 
by PARTING. The alloy, after quartation, is hammered or rolled out 
iuto a tliiu strip or leaf, curled into a spiral form, and boiled for a 
quarter of an hour with about 2^ to 3 ozs. of nitric acid (specific 
gravity, 1.3) ; and the fluid being poured off, it is again boiled in a 
similar manner, with 1^ to 2 ozs. more nitric acid (sp. gr., 1.2); after 
which the gold is carefully collected, washed in pure water, and dried. 
When the operation of partmg is skilfully conducted, the acid not too 
strong, the metal preserves its spiral form; otherwise it falls into 
flakes or powder. Tbe second boiling is termed tlie " reprise." The 
loss of weight by parting corresjionds to the quantity of sila'er orig- 
inally in the specimen. 

Tor Alloys Containing Platinttm, which usually consist of 
copper, silver, platinum, and gold, the method of assaying is as fol- 
lows : The aUoy is cupelled in the usual way, the loss of weight ex- 
presses the amount of copper, and the " button," made iuto a riband 
and treated with sulphuric acid, indicates by the portion dissolved 
that also of the silver present. By submitting the residuum to quarta- 
tion, ihe platinum, becomes soluble in nitric acid. The loss after di- 
gestion in this menstruum expresses the weight of that metal, and the 
weight of the portion now remaining is that of pure gold. Gold con- 
taining palladium may be assayed in the same manner. Annt;al- 
iNG. — This consists in putting the pure gold into a sinall, porous 
crucible, or cupel, and heating it to redness in the muffle. Weighing 
must be done with the utmost accuracy. The weight in grams Troy, 
doubled or quadrupled, as the case may be, gives the number of 
carats fine of the alloy examined, without calculation. According to 
the OLD French jiethod of assaying gold, the following quantities 
were taken ; For the assaij pound, 12 gr. ; fine silver, 30 grs. ; lead, 
108 gr. These having been cupelled together, the perfect, button is 
rolled into a leaf (1^ X 5 inches), twistecl on a quill and submitted 
to parting with 2^ oz. and Ih oz. of nitric acid, sp. gr., I.IG (20° 
Baume. ) The remainder of the process is similar to that above de- 
cribed. Tne usual weight of silver taken for the assay pound, when 
the fineness is reckoned m lOOOths, is 20 grs., every real grain of 



352 WATCHMAKERS, JEAVELLERS', AC, RECEIPTS. 

which represents 50-lOOOths of fineness, and so on of smaller divi- 
sions. 

Enamel,ling ON" Gold ok Copper.— Tlie basis of all enamels is 
a highly transparent and fusible glass, called fkit, flux, or pastk, 
which readily receives a color on the addition of the metallic oxides. 
Preparation. — Red lead, IG i)arts ; calcined borax, 3 parts ; pounded 
flint glass, 12 parts; flints, 4 parts. Fuse in a Hessian crucible for 12 
hours, then pour it out into water, and reduce it to powder in a bis- 
cuit-ware mortar. The following directions will serve to show how 
tlie coloring . preparations are made : i*/«cA; enamels are made witli 
peroxide of manganese, or jjrotoxide of iron, to which more depth of 
color is given with a little cobalt. Violet enamel of a very fine hue is 
made from peroxide of manganese, in small quantity, with saline or 
alkaline fluxes. Red enamel is made from the protoxide of copper. 
Boil a solution of equal parts of sugar and acetate of copper in four 
jiarts of water. The sugar takes possession of a portion of the cupre- 
ous oxide, and reduces it to the protoxide; when it may be precipi- 
tated in the form of a granular powder of a brilliant red. After about 
two hours of moderate boiling, the liquid is set aside to settle, de- 
canted off the precipitate, which is washed and dried. By this pure 
oxide any tint may be obtained from red to orange by addmg a 
greater or smaller quantity of peroxide of iron. The oxide and 
j)urple of Cassius are likewise emi^loyed to color red enamel. This 
composition resists a strong fire very well. Green enamel can bo 
produced by a mixture of j'cllow and blue, but is generally obtained 
direct from the oxide of copper, or, better still, with the oxide of 
chrome, which last will resist a strong heat. Yellow. — Take one part 
of white oxide of antimony, witli from one to three parts of white 
lead, one of alum, and one of sal-ammoniac. Each of these sub- 
stiinces is to be pulverized, then all are to be exactly mixed, and ex- 
posed to a heat adequate to decompose the sal-ammoniac. This oper- 
ation is judged to be finished when the yellow color is well brought 
out. Blue. — This color is obtained from the oxide of cobalt, or some 
of its combinations, and it jiroduces it with such intensity that only a 
very little can be used lest the shade should pass into black, A 
ivhite enamel may be prepared with a calcine formed of 2 parts of tin 
and 1 of lead, calcined together : of this combined oxide, 1 part i^ 
melted with two parts of fine crystal and a very little manganese, all 
previously ground together. When the fusion is complete, the vitreous 
matter is to be ]ioured into clear water, and the frit is then dried and 
melted anew. Repeat the pouring into water three or four times, to 
insure a perfect combination. Screen the crucible from smoke and 
flame. The smallest portions of oxide of iron or copper admitted in- 
to this enamel will destroy its value. The artist prepares his enamel 
colors by pounding them in an agate mortar, with an agate pestle, 
and grinding them on an agate slab, with oil or lavender rendered 
viscid by exposure to the sun, in a shallow vessel, loosely covered 
with gauze or glass. He should have alongside of him a stove, in 
which a moderate fire is kept up, for drying his work whenever the 
figures are finished. It is then passed through^ the muffle. 

"Black Enamel on Gold or Silver. — Take ^ pennyweight of 
silver, 2i pennyweights of copper, 3^ pennyweights of lead, and 2.^ 
pennyweights of muriate of ammonia. Melt together, and pour into a 



WATCUMAKERS, JEWELLERS', &.€., RECEIPTS. 350 

crucible ■with twice as much pulverized sulphur; the crucible is then 
to be immediately covered that thesulj^hur may not take fire, and the 
mixture is to be calcined over a smelting fire until the superfluous 
sulphur is burned away. The compound is tlien to be coarsely 
pounded, and, with a solution of muriate of ammonia, to be formed 
into a paste which is to be placed upon the article it is designed to 
enamel. The article must then be held over a spirit lamp till the 
compound upon it melts and flows. Alter this it may be smoothed 
and polished up in safety. 

Silvee-Platixg. — File the parts which are to receive the plate 
very smooth; then apply over the surface the muriate of zinc, which 
is made by dissolving -zinc in muriatic acid ; now hold this part over 
a dish containing hot soft solder, and "with a swab api>ly the solder to 
the part to which it will adhere, brush off all superfluous solder, so 
as to leave the surface smooth; you will now take No. 2 fair silver 
plate, of the right size to cover the prepared surface, and lay the 
plate upon it, and rub down smooth with a cloth moistened with oil ; 
then, with a tinned soldering iron, pass slowly over all the surface of 
the plate, which melts the solder underneath it, causing the jilate to 
adhere as firmly as the solder does to the iron; then polish the sur- 
face, and finish with buckskin. 

Pi.ATixo WITH Nickel may be effected by placing the object to bo 
plated, cither of iron, steel, copper, bronze, zinc or lead in a 
boiling neutral solution of zinc chloride containing a salt of nickel 
and granulated zinc. If the zinc solution is acid, the coating of 
nickel is dull. A plating of cobalt may be made iu the same 
manner, 

Elkln'oton's Patent Gilding.— Fine gold, 5 oz. (troy); nitro- 
muriatic acid, 52 oz. (avoirdupois); dissolve by heat, and continue the 
heat imtil red or yellow vapors cease to be evolved ; decant the clear 
liquor into a suitable vessel; add disllUed water, 4 gals.; pure bi- 
carbonate of potassa, 201b.; and boil for 2 liours. X.B. — The nitro- 
muriatic acid is made with pure nitric acid (s]). gr., 1.45) 21 oz, ; 2virc 
muriatic acid (sp. gr., 1.15), 17 oz. ; and distilled water, 14 oz. The 
articles, after being perfectly cleaned from scale or grease, and 
receiving a proper face, are to be suspended on wires, dipped uito the 
liquid boiling hot, and moved about therein, when, in from a few 
seconds to a minute, depending on the newness and strength of t!ie 
liquid, the requisite coating of gold will be deposited on them. By a 
little practice the time to withdraw the articles is readily known; the 
duration of the immersion required to produce any given effect 
gradually increases as the liquid weakens by use. When properly 
gilded, tiie articles are withdra-wn from the solution of. gold, washed 
iu clean water and dried ; after which they midergo the usual opera- 
tion of coloring, &c. 

A "dead fjold" appearance is produced by the application to the 
articles of a wcaTc solution of nitrate of mcrcin^j previously to tlio 
immersion in the gilding liquor, or the deadening may be given by 
applying a solution of the nitrate to the newly gilded surface, and 
then expelling the mercury by heat 

Spot Gilding, or gilding iu spots, producing a very fine appear- 
ance, is done by putting a thin coat of oil on those parts of the metal 
where you do not wish'the gilding to appear, the gold will then be 

23 



354 jiAciiiNiSTS, engineers', &c., keceipts. 

deposited in those spots only where there is no oil, and the oil is easily 
removed when the job is finished. 

Watchmakers' Oil. — Put thin sheet lead into olive oil in a bottle, 
expose it to the sun for a few weeks, and pour off the clear. 

Solution for Dipping Steel Articles, Previously to Elec- 
tro-Plating. — Nitrate of silver, 1 part; nitrate of mercury, 1 part; 
nitric acid (sp. gr. , 1.384), 4 parts ; water, 120 parts. For copper articles. 
— Sulphuric acid, 64 parts; water, 64 parts; nitric acid, 32 parts; 
muriatic acid, 1 part ; mix. The article, free from grease, is dipped m 
the pickle for a second or two. 

Arrangement of Lapidaries Cutting Plates. — 1. Soft iron 
(very thin) with diamond dust in oil. 2. Pewter,' with coarse emery 
and water. 3. Pewter, with fine emery and water. 4. Wood with 
sand and water. 5. Pewter with rotten-stone and water. G. Leather 
with putty powder slightly wet. 

Polishing Diamonds. — The plan in use at all the large diamond 
cutters is simply a cast iron disc of good metal, with a vertical spindle 
run through its centre, balanced, and turned, and faced true in a 
lathe. The disc revolves at about 1000 revolutions per minute. With 
a little diamond dust and oil, the stone is set in a small brass cup filled 
with common soft solder; it is then screwed up in the clamps and 
applied to the skive till the facets is formed. 




RECEIPTS FOR MACHINISTS, ENGINEERS, 
MILLOWNERS, BLACKSMITHS, LOCOMO- 
TIVE BUILDERS AND METAL WORKERS 
OF EVERY KIND. 

Instructions to Engineers — Getting up Steam. — Before light- 
hig the fire in the morning, raise your safety valve, brushing away 
all the ashes and dust which may impair its free action, and if it 
leaks steam grind it on its seat with fine emery or grindstone grit. 
Valves with vibratory stems are safer than those with rigid stems, as 
they are not so liable to bind by the lever and weight getting out of 
true. To guard against loss by leakage and cvaporatioiij leave the 



MACHINISTS, ENGIXEERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 355 

■vrater up to tlio third giiagc at niglit and keep it up to the second 
gauge during working hours. Clean all ashes and cinders from the 
f uniace and ash pit, and spread a layer of two or three inches of 
coal over the grate bars ; pile on i>lenty of shavuigs over the coal, 
with dry sawdust, split wood, &c., then start your fire. Keep the 
fire even and regular over the grate bars, about 5 inches thick with 
soft coal, and about 3 inches with anthracite, and always avoid ex- 
cessive firing. Moderate charges or firings at intervals of 15 to 20 
minutes give the best results. In getting up steam from cold water 
the fire sliould be raised gradually, to avoid damaging the boiler by 
unequal expansion of the iron. Do not keep the damper and fur- 
nace door open at the same time, as the extreme draught expels the 
heat from the furnace into the chimney, and the cold air entering 
through the door uiduces a damaging contraction of the boiler plates 
wherever it strikes. The current of air enters the ash pit with a 
velocity of 12 feet per second, and every 100 lbs. coal requires about 
15.524 cubic feet for its combustion. With loood for fuel, the area of 
grate surface should be 1.25 to 1.4 that for coal. Volume of furnace 
for coal burning should be from 2.75, to 3 cubic feet for every square 
foot of its grate surface, for loood 4.6 to 5 cubic feet. The use of the 
l\vrometer has satisfactorily established the following facts. 1st. 
That the admission of a certain quantity of air behind the bridge 
developes a greater amount of heat for raising steam by assistmg 
combustion and consuming the smoke, the existence of smoke being 
always a sure sign of waste. 2. A regular and continuous supply of air 
to the furnace incretises its heatuig powers 33^ per cent. 3. The supply 
of air may enter behmd the bridge, through" the bars, or through the 
furnace doors, as long as it is properly regulated. 4. The supply of 
air may vary with the nature of the fuel ; light burning coal requir- 
ing less air than cakhig coal, because the latter becomes a compact 
mass in the funiace, excluding the air from the bars, while the latter 
is the reverse. 5. For perfect combustion a high temperature is 
necessary. In all cases see that the bars are well covered and the 
fuel kept from caking. Kjiock away the clinlcers as soon as formed, 
keepuig the spaces open between the bars. Regulate the supply of 
air either by the dampers, ashpit, furnace doors, or by an orifice 
behind the bridge. A jet of steiim from a pipe placed across the top 
of, and inside the door, will greatly assist in consuming the smoke 
and intensifying the heat, by yielding up its oxygen and hydrogen. 

If steam commences to blow off at the safety valve while the 
engine is at rest, start your pump or injector to create a circulation, 
Cover or bank your fire with a charge of ashes or fresh coal to absorb 
the heat, and allow the steam to have free egress through the safety 
valve. If by neglect the water gets very low, and the boiler dan- 
gerously hot, the fire should either be dra\vn, or drenched with water. 
Should the fire be very hot and the water supply temporarily cut off, 
■ stop the engine and cover the fire quite thickly with fresh fuel to 
absorb the heat, keeping the usual allowance of water in tlie boiler 
until the supply is renewed. Boilei-s should be blown out every 2 or 
3 weeks, or as often as mud appears in the water, but never until 
after the fire has been drawn at least one hour, and the damper 
closed, otherwise the empty boiler might be damaged by the heat. 
Never fill a hot boiler with cold water, as the sudden contraction 



356 MACHINISTS, EXGINEERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 

majiy times repeated -svill eventually cause it to lealc. Never blow 
out a boiler with a higher pressure than 50 lbs. to the square inch, as 
steani at a high pressure indicates a high temperature in tlie iron, 
which under careful management should always be let down gradu- 
ally. Previous to filling a boiler raise the valve to permit the free 
egress of the air which might otherwise do manifold damage. 

Use every possible precaution against using foul water as it in- 
duces foaming in the boiler ; soapy or oily substances and an insuffi- 
oiency of steam room have a like effect, causing the boiler to bum. 
on the spots where the water is lifted from it, and the glass gauges to 
indicate falsely, besides damaging the cylinder by primmg, carrying 
mud, grit, water and slush into it through the pipe, and rendering 
the cylinder heads liable to be luiocked out. Steam from jjure water 
at 212° Fahr. supports a 30 inch column of mercury. Steam from sea, 
or impure water at the same temperature, will support only 22 inches. 

Pare soft water derived from lakes and large streams, rain water 
from cisterns, reservoirs, &c., and springs outside of limestone dis- 
tricts, is the best for steam purposes. Water from wells and springs 
in limestone districts and small streams, hold in solution large 
quantities of chloride of sodium, carbonate of lime, sulphate of 
lime, &c., besides quantities of vegetable matter in suspension. The 
carbonic acid in the water, which holds the carbonate of lime, &c., in 
{jolutiou, being driven off by boiling, the latter is precipitated and 
forms an incrustation which adheres with obstinate tenacity to the 
boiler i)lates. By continual accretion the deposit of scale becomes 
thicker and thicker, and being a noii-conductor of heat it requires 
GO per cent, more fuel to raise the water to any given temjierature 
when the scale is \ of an inch thick ; the conductmg power of scale 
compared with that of iron being as 1 to 37. The red scale formed 
from water impregnated with salts of iron, derived from percolation 
through iron ore, is still more mischievous and destructive to steam 
boilers. In no way can the evil be completely averted except by 
boiling the water to drive off the carbonic acid, but this is sometimes 
impracticable, although many feed water heaters are in successful 
operation. A list of scale lireveutives can be foimd in another part 
01 this work. 

In tubular boilers, the hand holes should be opened frequently and 
all sediment removed from over the fire ; keep the sheets, flues, 
tubes, gauge cocks, glass gauges and connections well swept and 
jierfectly clean, and the boiler and engine-room in neat condition. 
Keep a sharp look out for leaks, and repair them if possible without 
delay, and allow no water to come in contact with the exterior of the 
bcDer imder any circumstances. Examine and repair every blister 
vs soon as it appears, and make frequent and thorough exauunations 
of the boiler with a small steel hammer. 

In case of foaming, close the throttle, and keep closed long enougli 
to show true level of water. If the water level is right, feeding and 
blowing will generally stop the trouble. With muddy water it is a 
safe rule to blow out G or 8 inches every day. If foammg is violent 
from dirty water, or change from salt to fresh, or from fresh to salt, 
in addition to following the above directions, check draught, and 
cover the fires with ashes or fresh fuel. 

Great watchfulness is necessary when steam is raised, the safety 



MAcnixisTs, engineers', &c., receipts. 357 

valve fixed, the fire stronj:^, and the engine at rest. In every case 
there is a rapid and dangerous absori)tion of lieat, the temperature, 
latent and sensible heat included, often rising to 1200° Fahr. 
Frequently it is but the Avork of an instarit to convert the latent into 
t^en.^ible heat, thus generating an irresistible force •which bursts the 
boiler and destroys life and propertj'. The destruction generally 
coming at the moment of starting the engine, the opening of the 
valve inducing a commotion in the water, -which flashes into steam the 
instant it touches the heated plates. Steam has been known to rise 
from a pressure of 32 lbs. to the square inch to 90 lbs. to the square 
inch, in the short space of seven minutes, -with the engine at rest. It 
ought to quicken the vigilance of every engineer to know that the 
explosive energy in each and every cubic foot of Avater in his boiler 
at 00 lbs. pressure, is equal to that contained in 1 lb. of gunpowder. 

From avaricious motives it has become quite common to discharge, 
or to decline to employ, qualified and c^areful engineers. Incompe- 
tent men are employed because their labor costs a few dollars less 
than that of the former. This is too much of a bad thing to pass 
over witliout notico. Employ good skilful men in the management 
of steam power, or employ none at all, and pay them decent wages. 
If an oversight takes place, and the best and most careful men are 
liable to make n\istakes, never scold, reprimand, or exact service 
during dangerous emergencies, as in the event of lost water in the 
boiler. In no case risk life, limb, or property, and do not let the 
consideration of saving a few dollars debar you from securmg inteUi- 
gent assistants. The Turkish mode of driving business on a late 
occasion was to 'discharge the English engineers who brought out 
the war vessels which were built in England, and su^iply the 
vacancies by installing cheap green hands. After getting up steam 
the new "Chief" proceeded to start the engines. A lift at a crank 
produced no results, a pull at a lever was equally nseless. At length 
the illustrious official espied a bright brass cock, and thinking he had 
got hold of a sure thing this time, proceeded to give it a twist, when 
he was suddenly saluted with a jet of steam full in the face, wliich 
swept the "engineer" and his assistants out of the engine room, 
into the fire room down stairs. So much for cheap labor and the 
consequent results. 

Duties to the Engine wJien under steam. — Before starting the 
engine, warm the cylinder by admitting steam so as to slov.ly move 
the piston back and forth, letting the condensed water flow from the 
drip-cocks, which should be left open all night for tliis pui-pose ; 
especially should this be done during cold and frosty weather, during 
wliich time all pipes and connections should have extra protection. 
The minimum speed of the piston should be 240 ft. per minute, and 
the maximum speed 700 ft. in any engine. The most economical 
steam pressure is from 80 to 90 lbs. to the square inch, on the piston 
of any high pressure steam engine. To attain this it is necessary 
that the boiler pressure should be considerably higher, for there is a 
loss of at least 30 per cent., arising from the irregularity of the steam 
pipes and steam ports, by radiation of heat, by improper packing, by 
friction of valve, by the effect of the governor and by atmospheric 
pressure, which of itself entails a loss of 15 lbs. per square inch on 
the niston. The lower the steam pressure per square inch on the 



358 31ACU1N1STS, engineers', &c., RiCEirxs. 

l^iston, the greater the loss of power from the atinospheric pressure ; 
for iiistiince, (\ steam pressure of 30 lbs. per square inch ontlie piston, 
leaves ouly 15 lbs per square inch effective pressure for actual -work, 
the other 15 lbs. being required to overcome atmospheric pressure. 

In tightening piston rod packing, screAv no tighter than merely to 
prevent leakage; any more consumes power by friction, and will des- 
troy the packiug. Sprmg packing in the cylinder should be adjusted 
■with great care, alwaj^s kept i^p to its place, and never allowed to 
become loose, or leakage will ensue, causing loss of power. On tlic 
other hand, if it is set too tight it will cut the cylinder, and loss wilJ 
result from friction. Keep your packing free from grit, sand, filings, 
&c., as such substances will cut the cylinder and llnte the rod. 
Remove all old packing before inserting new, observing to cut the 
packiug into proper lengtlis, and breaking joints by placing each 
joint on opposite sides of the stuffing box. Keep the governor clean, 
easy in its movement*?, and avoid excessive tight packing around the 
spmdle. Use good oils. Avoid Avaste in the use of oil, as too great 
l>rofusion generates gum and dirt. Use it with judgment in combi- 
nation Avith concentrated ley when it is required to remove gum or 
dirt from these or other parts of the machinery. Do not lubricate 
the cylinder imtil after startmg the engine, andclosmgthe drip cocks. 
If you have occasion to separate a rust joint, or any cranlc from a 
shaft on which it has been shrmik, the simplest plan is to apply heat, 
when the bodies being of different dimensions will expand miequally 
and separate. Iron when heated exj^ands with irresistible force, 
liailway contractors know that the heat of the svm on a warm day 
will cause such an extension of the iron, that the rails, if laid with 
close joints, "will rise with the sleepers from the ballast, and form 
arches 4 or 5 feet high and 50 or GO feet in lengtli. In accommoda- 
tion to this law of expansion, spaces are left between the rails ou rail- 
way tracks. 

Tlie contraction of iron by cold is equally powerful, and has been 
put to good use m tnieuig up large bulgmg buildings by fitting ii'on 
girders across them with strong wall plates at each end. Then, by 
applying gas jets all along the girders they will expand ; the screws 
are then tightened up, and the girders allowed to cool, and the strain 
of these contractions several times repeated is sufficient to bring the 
walls to the perpendicular. Again, in hoisting heavy machinery, &c. 
by means of pulley-blocks, if the ropes stretch and the blocks como 
together too soon, wet the rope, and the object will be elevated by 
its contraction without any other force. These hints will be found 
useful when occasion offers. 

In drivmg the kegs on the crank-pin and cross-head, nse a leaden 
mallet, or interpose a piece of leather, or a sheet of soft metal for 
protection, if a steel hammer is used. 

The piston should be removed every 6 months, and the parts in- 
jured by friction, &c. carefully ground, fitted, and if need be turned, 
trued, and made steam tight. If knockmg occurs in the engine it 
may arise by the crank being ahead of the steam ; if so, move the 
eccentric forward to give more lead on the valve, if caused by too much 
lc3id move the eccentric further back, if caused by the exhaust closing 
too soon, enlarge the exhaust chamber in the valve ; if caused by the 
engine bcuig out of line, or by hard or tight piston rod packiug, these 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., IlECEirTS ood 

fjiiUta ratist be corrected ; if caused by lost motion in the jam nuts on 
the valve, macover the steam chest and adjust thein cunectl y. It may 
be that laiocldng is caused by lost motion in the crank-iiin, piUow- 
blocks, key of the piston in the cross-head, or boxes on the cross- 
head, if so, tighten the key, or file off the edges of the boxes if they 
are t<:)o tight. Should IcnockLng arise from shoulders becoming woru 
on tlie ends of the guides from any cause, replace the guidcr?. 
Knockmg may be caused by msufficieut couuterboring in the cylin- 
der, causing derangement in the movements of the piston. The 
remedy for this is to re-counterhore the cylinder to the jjroper depth. 

Keep a close watch over the journals of the crank and cross-head, 
if the^' are loose in the boxes, or too tight, thej' will run badly, if 
tightened too much, they will heat and wear out the brass shoes, if 
not tight enough there is danger of the keys flying out and breaking 
the engine. 

]?e sure that your steam gauge indicates truthfully. It onght to 
tell accurately the pressure of steam in the boiler when the water is 
hotter than 212° Fahr., and indicate the variation m tlie pressure of 
bteam from time to time; but many gauges are much worse tlian tho 
contrivance used by the colored engineer, avIio, disdainfully dispens- 
ing witli a gauge altogether, used to ascertain the critical moment 
wiicn steam was up, or danger at hand, by clapx)iug his open hand 
on the outside of the boiler. 

Steam Packikg. — ^lany varieties of i)acking are used, such as 
metallic packuig, packing com^Dosed of a mixture of duck, paper 
and tallow m proper proportions, soapstone and loose twisted cotton 
coils, asbestos, jute, &:c. An excellent packing is composed of liemp 
iu long loosel}"" twisted coils, well saturated Avith melted grease or 
tillow, with as much piilverized black lead as it will absorb. I'ack- 
iug is always applied with the best effect when tho parts of tlie engine 
are cold, and its efficiency is promoted by soakiug it in beeswax and 
tallow previous to use. 

To Work Steam Expaxsiyelt. — Tlie volume of steam at 15 lbs. 
pressiTre to the square inch or atmospheric pressure is 1700 times 
greater than that of any given quantity of water from which it may 
be derived. When confined under pressure, as in the cylinder of a 
steam engine, it is always in the effort to exjDand itself to the fullest 
extent, and a vast saving of fuel is effected by cutting off the supply 
of steam from the iiiston by means of the main valve, before it 
reaches the end of its stroke, instead of allowing it to flow during 
the f idl length of its stroke. 

The most available points at which to cut off steam is ^, h and f of 
the full travel or stroke of tlie piston. If steam at 75 lbs. pressure 
to the square inch is applied to the piston and cut off at lialf stroke, 
the average pressure, during the whole stroke, owuig to the cx|)au- 
sive quabty of the steam, would be G3^ lbs., or only llh lbs. less than 
the full pressure, although but half the quantity of steam is used, 
requiring fully ^ less fuel. 

Imagine the diagram to be a cylinder of 3 ft. in length, with steam 
at GO lbs. in-essure, entering the open port. Durmg the first 4 inches 
of the travel of the piston the steam port is open, permitting the 
full pressure of the steam to operate on the piston ; but at the twelfth 
inch marked C, the steam lap on the valve V closes the port. The 



160 



MACHINISTS, ENGINEERS , &C., RECEIPTS. 



imprisoned steam ■will now propel the piston to the end of the 
stroke, driving out the liberated steam through the port A into the 
exhaust ca\dty B, but by the time the piston reaches D, 12 inches 




from C, the original pressure of GO lbs. per square inch will have 
decreased one-half, or to 30 lbs., and when it reaches E, 24 inches 
from C, it will have still further decreased to 20 lbs. Average pres- 
sure 39 lbs. Two-thirds of the stroke have thus been made without 
any supply of steam from the boiler, and forms the saving due to 
working the steam expansivelj'. The lack of this contrivance is the 
true reason why some engines use more fuel and steam, than others 
of the same capacity and power. It has been stated that the economy 
of the Corliss cut-off is such that it requires only 2 tons of coal 
instead of 6f tons used by other enguies of the same jjower, but the 
great trouble with that engine is the liability of the complex and 
costly valve-gear to get out of order, entailing difficult and expensive 
repairs. 

Table. — Showinri the averac/e Pi'esswx of Steam on the a/Under 
when cut off at ^, ^ and f of the stroke or travel of the Piston, coni- 
mencuig with 25 lbs, advancing by 5 lbs. and endiag at 100 lbs. 





25 


30 


35 


40 


45 


50 


65 


60 [65 |70 


75 


80 85 90 95 100 


i 


15 


m 


20^ 


23^ 


26f 


29f 


32S 


35f|38f:41| 
50f 55 \59^ 


44f 


47| 50 |53| 56| 59f 
671 72! 76|!80i!84| 
77^82j 87 J91||96* 


^ 


21 


25i: 


29.V 


385 


38 


42i 


m 


'A 


24 


28i 


^^^ 


m 


48^ 


53 


57|,62i675 


T2i 



To realize the best results from steam, keep the cylinders, pipes, 
&:c. , well covered with good non-conductors. Various materials are 
used, such as common felting, asbestos felting, hair, old wool, tow or 
hemp carpets cut up mto strips of the proper size and smeared over 
with a substantial composition of mortar, teased hair, &c. before 
, applying to the pipes. Cover the whole with coarse canvas, finish- 



iiAcnixiSTS, engineers', &c., receipts. 361 

ing witJi several coats of -^liite lead over the canvas. Some cover 
b<)ilei-s with a thickisli composition of clay, intermixed -with gTcy or 
bro'?\Ti paper for a bind, to prevent cracking, &c., the paper Lehig 
worked up into shreds along "with the water and clay. Others use a 
mixture of mortar, teased hair, «S:c. Some use asbestos, wood ashes, 
&:c., see "composition for covermg boilers." Cylinders shoukl bo 
well clothed and jacketed, and cased with wood or polished metal, 
the latter when kept constantly bright bemg a most powerful i)rotcc- 
lion against loss of heat by radiation. Among metals, silver is the 
best absorbent and conductor of heat. If we call its power of con- 
duction 100, tnat of copper is 74, gold 53, iron 12, lead 9, bismuth 2. 

To Set the valve of an Exgi>-e. — Place the crank at the end 
of its stroke, and give the valve the proper amount of lead ; reverse 
the crank to the other end of its stroke, and if the valve has the cor- 
icsponding amounx of lead it is correctly set. The i)repondcrance at 
cither end. if any exists, must be equally divided. Be careful in ad- 
justmg tlic nuts atti\cliing the valve to the rod, that they do not 
impinge against the valves, preventing it froin seating true. In ad- 
justing the slide valve to cut off at any point of the travel of the 
piston, the eccentric should be moved forward in proportion to the 
amount of lap given to the valve, without any reference to the ex- 
2>ansive working of steam, the valve must open at the same point of 
travel of the piston. 

To Fi>nD THE Stroke of the Yalve. — Place tlie crank on the 
dead centre, and make a mark on the valve-rod, then reverse the 
movement to the opposite end and make another mark. The distance 
between the two marks constitutes the stroke of the valve. The 
stroke of the valve maybe increased as the bearing in the rocker-arm 
tliat carries the eccentric hook is lengthened ; shoiten the same and 
the stroke is lessened. 

To Fi>'D THE Throw of the Ecce>tktc. — ^Sleasnre tlie eccen- 
tric on the heaviest side, then measure on tlie opposite or light side. 
Tlie difference between the two measurements will be the throw of 
the eccentric. 

Lead ox the Slide Valve. — The lead of a valve is the width 
of opening which the valve allows to the steam port when the piston 
is at the end of its stroke, as shown on the diagram at A, which re- 
presents outside lead, inside lead, bemg shown into the exliaust at 1), 
which ought to be double the amoruit of outside lead in order to liberate 
the exhaust easily, and thus reduce or prevent back pressure. Care 
should be taken not to liberate the exhaust too soon, as it will greatly 
curtail the power of the engine, especially if the labor is heavy anil 
the speed slow, as in engines witli heavy trains on up grades, &:c. To 
ascertain whether the exhaust opens at the right time or not, uncover 
the steam chest ; then uncoui^le the valve from the valve rod, place a 
short batten of Avood lengthways on the exhaust port ; then with a 
scratch awl lay off lines on the valve seat, on each side of the exhaust 
port, that wiU appear above the valve. Next Iny the batten on the 
lace of the valve and lay off corresponding lines on the exhaust 
chamber that will show on the edges of the valve, now replace tlio 
valve on its seat, and give 1-32 of an inch lead, and if the lines de- 
scribed on the face of the valve are past the lines described on the 
valve seat 1-lG of an inch, the exhaust opens r.t the proper time, if iX 



362 .^lACHINISTS, engineers', «tC., KECEIPTS. 

does not the exliaust chamber in the valve should be enlarged to tlio 
fi'iht size. 




Lead is given to a valve to enable the steam to act as a cushion on 
the piston, by admitting the steam to it previous to the end of its 
ftroke, in order to cause it to reverse its motion easily, without jar or 
noise, for it is not allowed to touch the top and bottom of cylinder for 
fear of knocking them out. The space between the top and bottom 
of the cylinder and the piston, when the latter is at the end of its 
stroke, is called the clearance, shown at C C on diagram. The term 
clearance is also used to designate the capacity of the connecting 
eteam ix)rts and passages. It is necessary to guard against too much 
cushion as it greatly impairs the powers of the engine, causing violent 
thumping or knocking, and sometimes a serious breakdown. One- 
eighth of an inch lead is sufficient for an ordinary freight and 1-16 is 
sufficient for passenger locomotives, the difference being on accomit 
of the greater speed of the latter. 

Lap on the Slide Valve. — The steam lap on the slide valve is 
the amount by Avhicli it extends over the extreme width of tho 




c rlinder ports, as illustrated in the diagram, the distance between tho 
clotted lines B B LL, and the sides of the ports P P, being in each 
case the lap, the Imes B B indicating the outside lap, and L L denot- 
ing the inside lap, E P exhaust port, E exhaust cavity in valve. V S 
Salvo seat, C C valve face. The emission of steam into the cylinder 



MACHINISTS, ENGINEERS , &C., RECEIPTS. 



363 



is regulated by the outer and hiuer edges of the valve and of the 
steam ports. When the valve is so contrived that at ^ stroke the 
laces of the valve do not cover the steam ports internally, the space 
by which each face comes short of tlie inner edges of the poits is 
Ivuown as inside clearance. Jiy means of the steam laj) given to the 
"\alve the engine is enabled to use its steam expansively, as elsewheio 
explained. 

Table. — Showing the amount of Lap on the Slide valve at 
various points of cut off; also, the travel of the valve in inches. 

Travel or strolie of the Piston ichere steam is cut off. 



Travel 
of the 


1 

4 


I- 


i\ 


i 


7 
12 


.2 


3 

4 


-10 
12 


Valve in 
inches. 






















Thee 


3rrect a 


mount 


of Lap 




2 


7 


3. 


1.1 


5 


_o_ 


JL 


7 


3 




8 


4 




§„ 


16 


2„ 


16 


8 


h 


hh 


1 


.13. 


li 


r 


i 


7 
16 


3 


11- 


1-3- 


li 


1 


15 


1 


_y_ 


^4 


-^16 


-^8 




-16 


^ 4 


8 


16 


3^ 


^. 


lA 


f 16 


n 


li^a 


1 


i 


_8 
4 


4 


H 


ii\ 


^16 


lA 


li 


iiV 




1_3. 
16 


4^ 


2 


i'-« 


1-9- 


4 


?^ 


H 


11 


7 
8 


5 


01 

"8 


2 


11-3- 
-^16 


lA 


H 


If 


H 


1 


5^ 


9.5_ 
^16 


2JL 


2 


lit 


}^ 


H 


i| 


H 


G 


2^ 


2i\ 


2^ 


2 


i'« 


If 


1^ 


ii^ 


61 


2| 


¥^ 


b'^ 


9 ^ 


2 


i'^ 


i| 


H 


7 


3 


?'« 


2A 


2i 

*^8 


2 3 





I4" 


11 

4 


71 


2^ 


3 


?H 


*'2 


03 

^8 


2t^ 


ii 


8 


b'- 


b'^ 


3 


2t 


21 

2" 


n 


2 


If 


Si 


H 


h"^ 


^'« 


013 
"IG 


n'-« 


^J 


21 


J* 


9 


31-1 


?« 


^^ 


3 


21-1 


?^« 


2I 


H 


H 


4 


fd 


3-1 


H^ 


3 


211 


21 


2 


10 


9 


4 


h\ 


3l^6 


3 


24 


2tV 


lOi 


^^ 


!^ 


4 


H 


b'-^ 


H 


2| 


2f\ 


11 


ft^6 


9^ 


!^ 


H 


b 


3t% 


23 


2| 


IH 


413 

Itj 


9-^ 


!i'« 


H 


?t 


3f 


2| 


2| 


12 


5 


H^ 


^iV 


41 


4 


3f 


3 


2i 



Giffard's Injector, as made by Wm. Sellers & Co., is a novel 
and reliable Invention for feeding boilers, economizing the heat and 
dispensing with pumps. By a simple and Avell known combinatiox 
of 2 ijipes, the one convening steam, the other water, both terminat- 
ing in a third pipe or tube, a jet of steam from the boiler escaping 
through v.u orifice, of say, 1 inch in diameter, ^Ith GO lbs. pressure, 



364: MACHINISTS, ENGINEERS', AC. RECEirXS 

is condensed in perhaps 12 times its weight of -water, which it drives 
through the third tube, causing it to enter the boiler througli au 
orifice much smaller than the one by which it escaped. The momen- 
tum of the steam impels the water with great force and imparts all 
its heat to the water during transmission. The following table shows 
the maximum temperature of the feed-water admissible during 
different pressures of steam. 

Pressure per square inch. 10 ' 20 30 40 50 100 
Temperature of feed, Fahr. 148° 130° 130° 12^° 120° 110° 

Ojt the Form, Strength &c. op Steam Boilers. — Regard- 
ing the form of boilers, it is now an ascertained fact that the maxi- 
mum strength is obtained by adopting the cjdmdrical or circular form, 
the haycock, hemispherical, and wagon-shaped boilers, so general at 
one time, have now deservedly gone almost out of use. Good boilec 
plate is capable of withstanding a tensile strain of 50,000 lbs. or 
(50,000 lbs. on every square inch of section : but it will only bear a 
third of this strain without permanent derangement of structure, 
and 40,000 lbs., or 30,000 lbs. even, upon the square inch, is a prefer- 
able proportion. It has been found that the tenacity of boiler-plato 
increases with the temperature uj) to 570°, at Avhich point the ten- 
acity commences to diminish. At 32° cohesive force of a square inch 
of section was 5G,000 lbs. ; at 570° it was 66,500 lbs. : at 720°, 55,000 
lbs. ; at 1050°, 32,000 lbs. ; at 1240°, 22,000 lbs. ; and at 1317°, 9,000 
lbs. Strips of iron, wlien cut in the direction of the fibre, were found 
by experiment to be 6 per cent, stronger than when cut across the 
grain. The strength of riveted joints has also been demonstrated by 
tearing them directly asunder. In two different kinds of joints, 
double and single riveted, the strength was found to be, in the ratio 
of the plate, as the numbers 100, 70, and 56. 

Assuming the strength of the plate to be 100 

The strength of a double riveted joint would be, after 

allowing for the adhesion of the surfaces of the i^late 70 

And the strength of a single riveted joint 50 

These figures, representing the relative strengths of plates and 
joints in vessels required to be steam and water tight, may be safely 
relied on as perfectly correct. The accidental overheating of a boiler 
has been found to reduce the ultimate or maximum strength of the 
plates from 65,000 to 45,000 lbs. per square inch of section. Every 
description of boiler used ui manufactories or on board of steamers 
should be constructed to a bursting pressure of 400 to 500 lbs. on the 
square inch ; and locomotive engine boilers, which are subject to 
much harder duty, to a bursting pressure of 600 to 700 lbs. Such 
boilers are usually worked at 90 to 110 lbs, on the inch, but are fre- 
quently worked up to a pressure of 120, and, when rising steep grades 
sometimes even as high as 200 lbs. to the square inch. In a boiler 
subject to such an enormous working pressure, it requires the utmost 
care and attention on the part of the engineer to satisfy himself that 
Ihe flat surfaces of the fire box are capable of resisting that pressure, 
and that every part of the boiler is so nearly balanced in its jDowers 
of resistance as that, when one part is at the point of rupture, every 
other part is at the point of yielding to the same uniform force : for 
WQ find that, taking ft locomotive boUer of the usual size, even with 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 365 

a pressure of 100 lbs. on tlie square inch, it retains an expanding 
force within its interior of nearly 00,000 tons, which is rather in- 
creased than diminished at a high speed. To show the strain upon 
a high-pressure boiler, 30 feet long, 6 feet diameter, having 2 centre 
Hues, each 2 feet 3 inches diameter, working at a pressure of 50 lbs. 
on the square inch, we have only to multiply the number of the 
square feet of surface, 1030, exposed to pressure, by 321, and wo 
have the force of 3319 tons, which such a boiler has to sustain. To 
go farther, and estimate the pressure at 450 lbs. on the square in .;li, 
Avhich a well-constructed boiler of this size will bear before it bursts, 
and we have the enormous force of 29,871, or nearly 30,000 tons, bot 
tied lip within a cylinder 30 feet long and 6 feet diameter. Boilers in 
actual use should be tested a,t least once a year, by forcmg water into 
them bv the hand feed-pump, imtil the safety-valve is lifted, wliich 
should he loaded with at leiu"t twice the working pressure for the occa- 
sion. If a boiler will not stand tliis pressure it is not safe, and either 
its strength sliould be increased or the workhig pressure should be di- 
minished. Internal flues, such as contain the furnace in the interior 
of the boiler, should be kept as near as iwssible to the cylindrical 
form ; and, as wrought iron will yield to a force tending to crnsli it 
about one-half of what would tear it asunder, the flues should in no 
case exceed one-half the diameter of the boiler, with the same thick- 
ness of plates they may be considered equally safe with the other parts. 
The force of compression being so different from that of tension, 
greater safety would be ensured rf the diameter of the internal flues 
Avere in the ratio 1 to 2^ instead of 1 to 3 of the diameter of the boiler. 
As regards the relative size and strength of flues, it may be stated 
that a circular flue 18 inches in diameter will resist double the pres- 
sure of one 3 feet in diameter. Mill owners, with plenty of room 
and a limited experience with steam power, would do well to dispense 
with boilers containing many flues, the expense is greater and the 
durability less than where there is one or two only. The foam 
caused by a large number of flues is apt to deceive an inexijerienced 
engineer, causing him to believe that there is plenty of water ui the 
boiler wheii he tries the gauge cock Avhen there is but very little, 
often causing an exiilosion> Some mill-owners insert a fusible plug 
in the crown of the furnace to indicate danger from low water. As 
common lead melts at 020°, a rivet of this metal, 1 inch in diametei-. 
inserted immediately over the fire place, will give due notice, so that 
relief may be obtained before the internal pressure of the steam ex- 
ceeds that of the resistmg joower of the heated plates. In France, an 
extensive use is made of fusible metal plates, generally covered by a 
perforated metallic disc, which protects tlie alloy of which the plate 
is composed, and allows it to ooze through as soon as the steam lia.s 
attained the temperature necessary to insure the fusion of the plate, 
which varies from 280° to 350°. The reader wiU find a number of 
' such alloys under the tabular view of alloys and their melting heats, 
further oil. Another method is the bursting plate, fixed in a frame and 
attiiched to some convenient part of the upper side of the boiler, of 
such thiclcness and ductility . as to cause rupture when the pressure 
exceeds that on the safety valve. But, beyond all question, constant 
use should be made on all boilers of a good and reliable system of 
steam gauges, glass tubes, gauge cocks, safety valves, &c. liy means 



866 MACUIXISTS, EXGIXEEKS', &C., RECEIPTS 

of the glass tubes affixed to the fronts of the boilers, the lieight of the 
water vrithin the boiler is indicated at once, for the water will stand at 
the same lieight in the tube that it stands in the boiler, communication 
being estabhshed with the water below and the steam above, by 
means of stop cocks. 

"When dry steam is an object, the use of the steam dome on boilers 
is strongly recommended ; opinions are divided as to the real value of 
mud drums, some reason strongly in their favor while others discard 
them entirely ; but there can be no question as to the true economy of 
heating the feed water previous to emission into the boiler ; it should 
always be done when practicable to do so, by means of some one of 
tlie many contrivances for that purpose which are now in the market. 
Regarding the x>oioer of boilers, it may be stated that a boiler 30 feet 
long and 3 feet in diameter, will afford 30x3x3.14x2 — 141.30 square 
feet of surface, or steam for 14 horse-power, if 10 feet are assumed 
for one horse-power. Two short boilers are preferable to one long 
one, on account of having more fire surface, — it beuig always necessa- 
ry to have as much fire surface as possible to make the best use of the 
fuel — as the hotter the surface is kept, the less fuel it takes to do the 
same amount of work. When there is a large furnace it gives the 
fireman a better chance to keep the steam regular, for when clearing 
out one part of the furnace, he can keep a hot tire m the other. For 
each liorse-power of the engine there ought to bo at least one square 
foot of grate, and three feet would be better. In setting a boiler, 
arrangement should be made to carry on combustion with the great- 
est possible heat. This requires good non-cond actors of heat, such as 
brick, with which to surromid the fire. If these bricks are of a white 
color, the combustion is more perfect than if of a dark color. The roof, 
as well as the sides, of the furnace should be of white fire-brick. The 
bars of the furnace should be 18 or 20 inches below the boiler or 
crown of the furnace. They should slope downward toward the back 
l^rt, about half an inch to the foot. A crack in a boiler plate may 
be closed by boring holes in the direction of the crack and inserting 
rivets with large heads, so as to cover up the imperfection. If the top 
of the furnace be bent down, from the boiler having been accidentally 
allowed to get short of water, it may be set up again by a screw-jack, 
a fire of wood having been previously made beneath the injured 
plate ; but it will m general be nearly as expeditious a course to 
remove the plate and introduce a new one, and the result will be moro 
satisfactory. There is one object that requires very particular atten- 
tion, and which must be of a certaui size to produce the best effect, 
and that is the flue leading from the boiler to the chimney, as well as 
the size and elevation of the chimney itself. Every chimney should 
be built several feet above the mill house, so that there is no obstruc- 
tion to break the air from the top of the chimney. In England a 
factory chimney suitable for a 20 horse-power boiler is commonly 
made about 20 inches square inside, and 80 feet high, and these di- 
mensions are correct for consumption of 15 lbs. coal per horse-j)owcr 
per hour, a common consumption for factory engines. In the Do- 
minion of Canada and the United States, chimneys of sheet iron, 
from 30 to 50 feet high, are in quite common use by owners of saw, 
and other mills, and they seem to answer every requirement. 

riid'OKTioN OF Stea^i BoiLEiis.— Cy^incic?* Boilers. The length 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &c., keceipts. 307 

should never exceed 7 times its diameter ; the unit for it is 12 sq. ft. 
of heating surface, and i^ of a square foot of grate surface for each 
horse-power ; a lair e\ aporation is 6 lbs. of water for 1 lb of coal. 

Tubular Boiler. 




Cylinder Boiler. 

Very long cylinder- boilers should have a central support. All boilers 
should have an mclination of 1 inch in every 20 ft. towards the blow- 
oH end. Tubular Boilers — Length 4 times the diameter. Evapora- 




Lancashire Boiler. Cornish Boiler. 

tion about 9 lbs. of water to 1 lb. of coal. Heating surface 15 square 
ft. and grate snrface, ^ sqnare ft. per horse-power. Flue Boiler.'^ 
require from 14 to 15 square ft. of heating surface, and h pquare ft. 
of grate per horse-power. Evaporation 7 lbs. water to every lb. of 



;:)68 MACHINISTS, engineers', &c., receipts. 

coal. Length of flue boilers should not exceed 5 times their diameter, 
diameter ol fluas not more than 12 to 14 in. ; if made larger, use heavier 
iron than that used in the shell of holier, and construct with butt 
joints. Cornish and Lancashire Boilers. In England, Cornish boilers 
are known as those furnished Avitli one internal flue, and are usually 
of great capacity and power, havmg plenty of steam room. Lanca- 
shire boilers have 2 flues. lieUirn Flue Boiler. AVlien a boiler is 
f.tted with a flue curving round at the rear, and rctuniuig to tho 
front, it is called a return flue boiler. Sec diagrams of boilers. 

Boiler Shells. — 1 or a boiler of 48 in. in diameter, to carry 00 lbs. 
per square in. pressure, use ^ in. to g in. good plates. Wrought iron 
heads for ditto, f to 5 inch. Tube Sheets and Croicn Sheets for ditto. 
g to f inch. Rivets on boilers up to 42 in. diam. and § in. iron, 
should be § in. for curvihnear, and § in. for longitudinal rivets 
for single Hveted icork. On double riveted work, § in. rivets 
will answer for both kinds of scams. For 5-lG iron down to 3-lG 
in. smaller rivets will answer. Drilled rivet holes are jireferablo 
to punched. It is highly beneficial to Jicat tho boiler plates before 
rolling to form the shell of the boiler. The fibre of the iron should 
always run around the boiler, never across it. A steel shell boiler 
4 ft. in diam. and j in. thick, is as strong as an iron boiler of same 
diam. and § in. thick, and will evaporate 25 per cent, more water, 
besides being more free from incrustiition and corrosion. The worlc- 
iug pressure of boilers should be 5 times less than tho bursting 
pressure. 

CoMrosiTiox FOR Covering Boilers, &:c. — Hoad scrapings, free 
from stones, 2 parts ; cow manure, gathered from the pasture, 1 
part ; mix thoroughly, and add to each barrowf ul of the mixturo 
G lbs of fire clay ; ^ lb. of flax shoves or chopped liay, and 4 ozs. 
teased hair. It must be well mixed and chopped ; then add as 
much water as will bring it to the consistency of mortar, — the more 
it is worked the tougher it is. It may cither be put on Avith tho 
trowel or daubed on with tho hand, the first coat .about 1 inch 
thick. When thoroughly dry, another the same thickness, and so 
on, three inches is quite enough, but tho more the better. Let each 
coat be scored like plaster, to prevent cracks, the last coat light 
and smooth, so as to receive paint, whitewash, (Src. The boiler, or 
pipes, must first be brushed with a thin wash of the mixture to 
insure a catch. 

To PREVE>rT IxcRUSTATiox IN BoiLERS. — 1. Charcoal has a great 
affinity for any thuig that causes scale or incrustation in boilers. 
That made from hard wood is the best, broken in lumps of ^ to ^ 
inch ill size, and the dust sifted out. Two bushels of this will 
generally protect a boiler of 30 horse-power for 3 weeks when 
rumiing, after which the old coal should be removed and fresh coal 
used. 2. Throw into the tank or reservoir irom Avliich your boiler 
is fed, a quantity of rough bark, in the piece, such as tinners use, 
sufficient to turn the water of a brown color ; if you have no tank, 
put into the boiler from a half to a bushel of ground bark when 
you blow off, repeat every month, usuig only half the quantity 
after the first time. 3. Add a very small quantity of muriate of 
ammonia, about 1 lb. for every 1,500 or 2,000 gals, of water evapo- 
rated. It will have tho effect of softening and disintegrating the 



MACIIIXISTS, engineers', ifcC, RECEirXS. 369 

c<arbonate of lime and other impurities deposited by the -svater dur- 
ing the evaporation. 4. Potiitoes and some other vegetable substances 
introduced into the boiler are most effectual in preventing incrus- 
tation, and animal substances, such as refuse ski us, are still more 
so. 5. An English firm put oak sawdust into their boiler in order 
to stop a leak, and to their surprise it also resulted in preventing 
incrustation. I should say if oak sawdust could prevent scale in 
boilers, that there is no visible reason Avhy hemlock and various 
other kmds of sawdust will not do the same thing. G. Cows' feet, 
Avith the shanks attached, are strongly recommended as a preven- 
tive of scale. Two in a large boiler is amply sufficient, and those 
who wish to do business economically, can get their oil for lubri- 
catmg purposes cheaply by boiling the feet and shanks for a few 
hours in a large kettle, setting it aside to cool, and then slcimming 
off the oil from the surface of the water, using the feet for the boiler 
afterwards. If you wish to get rid of the hair on the shanks, you 
can get rid of that by using lime, &c., as done by tanners. 7. 
Sal soda, 40 lbs., gum catechu, 5 lbs., sal ammoniac, 5 lbs., is strongly 
recommended by an experienced person, for removing boiler scale ; 1 
lb. of the mixture being added to each barrel of water in the tank ; 
after scale is removed use sal soda alone. By the use of 10 lbs. soda 
]ier week, a boiler 2u feet long, and 40 inches in diameter was cleaned 
from scale equal to a new boiler. 8. A rapid and effectual but not very 
good plan to scale boilers is to throw in a few wood shavings along 
tlie bottom of the boiler and set them on fire ; the heat expands the 
scale more than the shell of the boiler, as the heat cannot reach the 
latter, the scale is loosened; what remains after this must be removed 
with a hammer and chisel. 9. Calcareous deposits may be entirely 
jirevented by the use of crude pyroligneous acid combined with tar. 
It may bo either introduced into the boiler or mixed with the feed 
Avater in very small quantity ; just enough to redden litmous paper ; 
consequently it will never injure the boiler. 10. It is on record that the 
engineer of the French ocean steamer St. Laurent, omitted to remove 
a bar of zinc when repairmg or cleaning out his boilers. On opening 
them at the end of the voyage, to his great surprise he found that the 
zinc had disappeared, that his boilers were entirely free from scale, 
and the boiler plates uninjured. 

Ayer.^ge Pkoportiox of various Parts of Engi>t:s. — Steam 
Pipe should be ^ the diameter of cylinder, but varies on large engines. 
Zxhaiist Pipe should be ^ the diameter of cylinder. Pis'on Bod 
ehoiild be ^ the diameter of cylinder, if of iron, and smaller, if of 
steel. For high speeds, steel piston rods are tJie best. Steam Ports 
vary according to speed, fro 1-lG to 1-10 the area of piston. Safety/ 
Valves should possess an area of h square in. of surface for every 
foot of grate surface, and should be constructed Avith loose vibratory 
stems, for the reason that they are not so liable to get out of order as 
those with rigid stems. 

Rule for'Size of Cylinder. — The requisite diameter of cylinder 
for a 25-liorse beam engine is 28 inches, and about 5 feet stroke. 
The nominal horse-poAver of any sized cylinder can be found by 
the following formulro : — For Ioav pressure or beam engines, 
divide the area of cylinder by 25, which Avill give the number of 
Jiorsc-power. For high pressure horizontal engines, di^ido the 

24 



370 MACniXISTS, engineers', &C., RECEirTS. 

area of cylinder's diameter by 12*5, which -win give the number of 
horse-power, including all f : iction. 

Stroke of Engines. — The stroke of an engine varies according 
to circumstances, which the designer must talre into consideration; 
hiit the general rule is to make the stroke about twice the diameter 
of the cylinder. The diameter of the flj-^wlieel should be about 4 
times the stroke of the engine, and the rim should weigh about 
3 cwt. per horse-i)Ower. 

Rule to find the Horse-Power of Stationary Engines. — 
Multiply the area of the piston by the average pressure in lbs. per 
square inch. Multiply this product by the travel of tlie piston in feet 
Ijer minute; divide by 33,000, this will give tlie horsc-powcr. — JCoper. 

Example : 

Diameter of cylinder 12 

13 

144 

7854 



Area of 3)iston . 113,0970 

Pressure, 70 ; Average pressure, 50 50 

5(354.880 
Travel of piston in feet per min. 300 



33,000)1096464.000 

51. horse-power. 

Balance "Wiieels. — Every balance wheel should be speeded u]> 
so as to run twice or three times as fast as the crank shaft it is in- 
tended to balance. When a balance wheel is applied in this way it 
makes the machine rim a great deal more steadily, for, when the 
balance wheel is geared into the crank shaft, and riuis two ox three 
times faster than the crank shaft, it forms a power of itself 
when going over the centre, wliich propels the crank shaft mitil it 
reaches the quarter, where it again takes its power from the 
machine. Although it takes an additional shaft and gears to apply 
a balance wheel in this way, the saving of metal in the balance 
wheel fully compensates for the extra labor; for, when a balance 
wheel is speeded three times as fast as the crank shaft, it needs 
only one third of the metal in it that it would were it not speeded 
up at all, and if balance wheels were applied in this way generally 
it would make all engines run far more steadily. 

To Reverse an Engine. — Make a legible mark on the eccentric 
near the shaft, make a similar mark on the shaft at the same place. 
Now place one point of the callipers on the mark made on the shaft, 
and with the other point ascertain the centre of the shaft on the op- 
posite side, making another mark there also. Next unscrew the 
eccentric and move it mthe direction in which you wish the engine to 
run, until the mark on the eccentric comes into line with the second 
mark on the shaft, then screw the eccentric fast and the engine will 
run the reverse way. 



MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS* DEPARTMENT. 371 




MAPaNE Beam Engixe.— The above cut represents a marine beam 
engine, bemg the kind so frequently seen on river, lake, and coasting 
steamers. The Working-beam, W, is a massive casting in the form 
of a cross, surrounded, strengthened, and stayed, in every direction 
by a powerful wrought^iron strap, forged in one piece, and shaped to 
Qonform to the casting, which contains sockets at each extremity fit- 
ted to receive the end journals, besides containing intermediate sock- 
ets for the mam centre and air pump journal, &c., the whole mass 
resting on the //-awe coroposed of 4 stout beams of wood, forming 2 



872 MA.CHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPAETMENT. 



triangles as shown at DD in cut. These again rest on massive beams 
styled keelsons, shown at KK, and are braced and rigidly secured to 
the vessel and machinery by other powerful timbers, knees, straps, 
and iron fastenings. The guides are shown at B. 

The main link is shown at A, tlie connecting rod at C, the valve 
stem at V, and the cylinder at F, in a vertical position over the con- 
denser. 

The steam cylinder F, is usually a massive casting, annular in 
form, bored and finished very true for the easy movements of the 
piston. It rests on a round flanged casting coutaming the lower steam 
port, called the cylinder bottom, which intervenes between it and the 
condenser S, and is securely attached to each, by bolts and steam 
tight rust joints. The elevated end of the cylinder is immovably- 
braced to the framing above. The valve chest is shown at EE, the 
air pump at I, the hot well at G, the boiler feed pump at R, and the 
delivery pipe at P. 

The condenser S, in which the exhaust steam is reduced to a liquid 
form, is of the same shape and diameter as the cylhider, flauged at 
both ends, and its contents should be 13-30ths of the space through 
which the piston moves during one stroke. The wooden frame 
which sustains the main beam is attached by stout bolts and keys to 
strong flanges which project from the condenser, the upper part is 
cast close and the lower end is open and fitted accurately on the bed 
plate to which it is attached by a rust joint and bolts. 

In the method known as " surface condeusmg" the process is ef- 
fected by causmg the steam to pass through an arrangement of tubes 
submerged in running cold water ; the other method, known as "jet 
condensing," and by far the cheapest arraugement, consists in bring- 
ing the steam in contact with a jet of cold water as shown in the fol- 
lowing diagram, where J represents the jet; E, the exhaust pipe, P, 




the injection pipe; H, air-pump cylinder; AA, air-pump valves, V, 
air-pump rod; D, delivery valve ; H, hot well, 

The next cut represents Se wall's surface condenser, in which the 
exhaust steam enters at B and is liquefied bj^ contact with the exterior 
surfaces of the tubes ; the injection water is admitted at the opening 
K, passes through the foot valves L L L and is driven through the de- 
livery valves S.The water of condensation passes through the delivery 
valves N, 0, P, and is driven through the delivery valves I and 



MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 373 



the outboard J, into a cistern from which the boilers are supplied 
by the feed pumps with tlieir water. The apertures D F, are the 
ends of a pipe connecting the fresh and salt water cisterns, so that 
any shortage in the feed water may be furnished from the latter 
cistern. H represents the end of a pipe thro: gh which the auxiliary- 
pump draws water, and A is an air chamber for the salt water 
cistern. The jet condenser is the lightest, simplest and cheapest of 
the two, onlv it has the fault of supplying salt water to the boilers, as 
the condensed steam and the sea water jet intermingle ; on the con- 




trary, the surface condenser preserves the water of condensation so 
that it may be used in the boilers many times in succession, and in 
this way maintains its freshness, dispensftig with the necessity of 
frequent blowing off in order to avert the danger of salt deposits on 
the plates of the boilers. Care should be usedto keep the steam and 
exliaust valves steam tight in order to prevent the leakage of steam 
into the condenser while the engme is at rest, thereby heating the 
former to such an extent that the injection water cannot find admit- 
tance owing to the pressure. In such cases the trouble may be recti- 
fied by applying cold Avater to the exterior of the condenser, or by 
starting the engine and moving it a few strokes. 

The piston of the marine engine possesses the usual form of spring 
packing, and Is powerfully braced by diverging arms cast on the up- 
per and lower flanges, the cylinder head is similarly strengthened 



374 MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 

internally, while the exterior or outside is turned and usually kept 
highly polished. The steam chests confciin the usual apphances of 
the receiving and exhaust steam passages, valves and valve seats ; 
the lower chest contains the outlet or exhaust port communicating 
with the condenser, while the higher chest embraces the throttle 
valve pipe connected with the supply pipe, communicating with the 
boilers. The steam chests are very accurately fitted and strongly 
secured to the cylinder, and the valve bonnets and piston rod glands 
are turned and kept bright. The valves which control the flow of the 
.steam are of the description styled double-balance valves, because 
the downward pressure on one valve is almost balanced by an oppo- 
site pressure on the other, the two being connected in pairs, and 
. being retained in their seats, by the highest valve in the pairs on the 
induction side and the lowest valve of each pair on the exhaust side 
being somewhat larger than the others, thus inducing a very slight 
imbalanced pressure. The valve gear embraces the lifter rods, and 
lifters, the rock-shafts and their levers. The lifter rods, four in num- 
ber, have a vertical movement up and down on guides attached to the 
steam chests and side pipes, and to these rods, eight projectmg arms, 
called lifters, are attached by keys. Four of the lifters connect with 
the extremities of the valve spindles, screwed, and fitted with double 
jam nuts, the other four are set vertically over the levers on the rock- 
shaft, which imparts their motion to them. The rock-shafts, two in 
number, one for the induction and the other for the exhaust valves, 
are operated by distinct eccentrics. There are four levers on the 
shafts, operating and raising the rods and lifters, and to induce a 
smooth movement, they are bent or inflected on their working faces. 
Cast iron SifZe pipes polished, turned," and ornamented, connect the 
steam chests, and are fitted with expansion rings of sheet copper to 
accommodate or compensate for the unequal expansion or contraction 
of the metal. 

The lifter rods with the valves, are alternately elevated and de- 
pressed, by the rocking or reciprocating movement of the shafts. 
The length of the exhaust levers is so adjusted as to impart the exact 
amount of lift and lead, and are so regulated on their rock-shaft that 
the elevation of one rod commences at the very mstant the other is 
completely depressed. The induction or steam levers are longer than 
the last noted, and are placed on thin rock-shafts so as to incline to 
each other, so that a space intervenes between the elevation of one 
rod and the depression of the other, during which time both valves 
are do'wn, and the steam connection stopped. This mechanism forms 
the expansive cut off gear, and may be partially changed by varying 
the fixture or position of the eccentrics on the shaft, the pin in the 
eccentric lever, and the levers on the rock-shaft ; the required lift of 
the valves may be adjusted by changing the position of the eccentric 
pin. 

The trip, or rock-shaft is a wrouglit iron shaft moving in solid bear- 
ings on the lower steam chest, and is fitted with substantial projec- 
tions commensurate with similar ones on the lifter rods, which when 
in motion elevate and depress the valves, operating in the same way 
as the large rock-shafts. The rock-shaft is fitted with apertures for 
the insertion of the starting bar, which in starting 1ms to overcome 
the weight of the valves, lifter-rods and their connections. 

Duties to Marine anp other t;>'gjxes.— Among the varied 



MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 375 

tasks that devolve on tlie engineer, none of them are of more impor- 
tance than the imperative watchf ubiess required to see that all the 
parts of the engine are properly adjusted, fitted, and regulated; that 
everything is kept in efficient order; that there is neither dangerous 
looseness or extreme tightness about the keys, nuts, bearings, etc. In 
the event of the crank-pin heating, apply a mixture of tallow, lead- 
filings, and black lead, or sulphur, black lead, and oil. In steam 
vessels, the crank-pin and the pillow-blocks are the points most liable 
to heat. The latter may be treated with the coolimj compomid else- 
Avhere mentioned, or water mixed with Bath brick dust, or pulverized 
pumice stome, may be poured in through the holes in the bearings. 
In trouble caused by grit, the application of concentrated potash lye, 
and subsequent lubrication, has good effect. 

If delayed in port, the piston should be removed and examined, and 
the faces of the rings, where they compose the joints with the flange 
of the piston-head and follower-plate, tried, and accuratel.y fitted, 
by regrinding, etc., and the spring-packing properly adjusted. The 
tightness of the repairs may be tested by the admission of steam, the 
use of the indicator, and a i'ew turns of the engine. The steam chest 
should be uncovered, the valves, seats, etc., examined, and any varia- 
tions from truth corrected bj^ careful fitting and scraping, and the 
proper amount of lead imparted to the valves, by placing the crank 
on the top and bottom centres, adjusting the go-ahead gear in i)roper 
place, in order to determine whether or not the valves open and close 
at the proper time. 

The link-motion should be inspected and all derangements adjusted, 
repaired and corrected. The valves of the air-pump should be exam- 
ined as opportunity offers, and all necessary repairs effected; the 
cover must be taken off and the bucket elevated for this express pur- 
pose. The screio-shaft should be kept true, and great care taken to 
guard against the glands or any other parts becoming damaged or 
seriously deranged in any way. Close and frequent inspection should 
be made of the condenser, which should be tested by removing the 
openings and pouring in cold water; and should any ooze out, the de- 
ficient tubes should be either repaired or renewed. The condition of 
the vacuum may be ascertained by the vacuum guage connected with 
the condenser. If derangement exists, search out and rectify the 
cause. If the temperature of the hot-well exceeds 100°, add more in- 
jection water. Test the joinings of the parts connected with the con- 
denser with a lighted lamp or candle; if the union is imperfect, the 
flame will be inhaled by the internal suction. Make thorough work 
ni searching out leaks, and repair them Avell whenever they are dis- 
covered. The entrance of air into the condenser and its connections, 
can, when ascertained, be stopped for a while, by entering in thin 
wedges, or using some of the numerous impervious compositions 
noted in this work. In the event of leakage into the condenser, it is 
useful occasionally to admit water through the aperture. Instances 
have hapi^ened where water-tight tanks have been fabricated (during 
long voyages at sea) between the side keelsons, in cases where the 
condenser had become inadequate to perform its use through corro- 
sion, or otherwise, thereby submerging the air-pumps and condenser 
in a reservoir of water supplied by the ocean, excluding the air, and 
finding its way into the leaks, assisting the injection Avater in condens- 
ing the steam, the aperture of the injection-cock being partly shut, to 



376 MACHINISTS AND engineers' DEPARTMENT. 

conform to the amount of internal leakage. In the event of a violent 
storm imparting a rolling motion to the vessel, and consequent irregu- 
larity in the movement of the engines, owing to the alternate elevation 
and depression of the wheels or propeller, the machinery is liable to 
be stopped by a surplus of water in the condenser, and in all such 
cases the supply of injection water should be curtailed. As oppor- 
tunity offers daring occasional detentions, search out and close all 
leaks connected with the injection-cock or air-pump, which may cause 
the condenser to fill with water, causing much delay and annoj^auce 
in starting the engine. Whenever this is anticipated, the sea-cock 
should be shut at the same time the injection-cock is closed. When 
the indications of the steam gauge exhibit any excess of pressure over 
the atmosphere, raise the valves and permit the steam to flow through 
the pipes into the cj'linder, to expel the air, heat the cylinder, and 
prevent the liquefaction of the steam on the starting of the engine. 
During temporary stoppage, the cyliuder drip-cocks on. stationary en- 
gines should be instantly opened, in order to iDermit the water of con- 
densation to flow out, and they should not be closed until alter starting 
up. Previous to starting an engine which has been stopped for some 
time, you should, as a precaution against danger, work tlie engine a 
few turns with the starting bar, and warm the cylinder b}' letting in 
steam. Lubricants should not be applied to the cylinder or valves 
until after the engine is started up and the drip-cocks closed, other- 
wise waste is sure to result from the expulsion of a portion of the oil or tal- 
low through the drip-cocks. On the production of steam equivalent to 
produce a vacuum, and Avork the air-pumps, the injection-cock should 
be slightly opened, the eccentric-hook disconnected, and the valves 
moved alternately hither and thither, with the starting-bar, or the 
link, as either is convenient, in order to effect an interchanging move- 
ment in the j^iston. The engine should then be finally tested by 
" turning over" three or four times for the purpose of making sure 
that all is right, and everything trim for the anticipated voyage ; after 
which, if everything is correct, the engine is brought to a stand, and 
all the parts lubricated in readiness for the start. 

Previous to getting under way, the boilers should be filled with 
water to the upper gauge-cock. This can be easilv effected, when the 
boilers are in the hold, by simply opening the blow-cock, and the 
water will flow into the boilers by gravitation, through the vessel's 
bottom, from the sea. In boilers otherAvise situated, the filling may 
be performed by the hand-force pump, or a pump worked by a donkey- 
engine, etc. On starting the fires, sUc/Jitly elevate the safeiif valve, in 
order to permit the air to escape from the boilers; but onthe emission 
of steam, which indicates the complete expulsion of the air. close them 
at once. In stopping an engine, shut off the steam, open the furnace 
doors, close the damper in the chimney, curtail the supply of injec- 
tion-water, work the valves by hand, and unship the eccentric. To 
hack or reverse an engine fitted with the'link-motion, all that is requisite 
is to change it to the reverse-motion; but where onlv one eccentric is 
available, shut off the steam, throw the eccentric hook out of gear, 
and, with the starting-bar, apply the steam to the other end of the 
piston. 

On Marine and othkr Bottlers. — In steam vessels, it is neces- 
sary, in order to maintain a proper equilibrium, that the boilers 
should be placed equidistant from the keelsons on either side ; any 



MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 377 




378 3IACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 

deflection from perfect truth in tliis arrangement entails much trou- 
ble in ad justhig the proper balance of the ship. To this end they 
ought to be secured by rigid fastenings to the hull, with the lower 
face of the boilers and the extension of the flues ranging or conform- 
ing with the load line in each direction. In some places it is usual to 
place them on a substautial platform composed of 3 inch plank over 
the keelsons, on which the boilers are placed, the planks being pre- 
viously coated to a depth of 1^ inches or more, with a tenacious mixture 
composed of drying oil and whiting, which affords a hard impervious 
protection to the boiler against water and rust. Another w\ay, which 
has the advantage of presenting an opportunitj'^ for making incidental 
repairs, consists in placing the boilers on cast iron saddles attached to 
the boiler supporters. Boilers should be properly protected by a 
proper clothing of non conductors, such as asbestos, hair felt, &c., cov- 
ered with a lagging of wood ; or some of the other materials elsewhere 
noted in this work, may be used instead. Marine boilers demand the 
greatest attention and care in repairing, testing, cleaning, blowing off, 




GANG OF STEAM BOILERS PROPERLY SET. 

and water supply. Especial care should be used at all times to keep 
the brine at a low degree of strength wheli sea water is used, by blow- 
ing off every two hours at least, frequently testing the strength of 
the brine by the saline hydrometer, an instrument constructed to 
indicate by gradations the number of ounces of salt held in solution in 
each gallon of water. Sea water contains 3.03 parts of its weight in 
saline matter, or nearly 1 lb. in every 33 lbs. of water, and saturation 
is complete when it contains 36.37 parts. When by evaporation the 
proportion of salt increases to 4 lbs. in 33 lbs. of water, the formation 
of scale is imminent, and should be guarded against by blowing off, 
and the repletion of the supply by additional fresher Avater. While in 
port, as opportunity offers, tlie hand-hole plates above the furnaces 
ought to be removed in order to permit the removal of any saline 
deposits on the crown sheet, and as dampness is inimical to the inte- 
rior of the boiler, the bottom hand hole plates should also be removed 
when a long detention is anticipated, in order to permit the water to 
drain off, and air to circulate, so as to dissipate any dampness, whirh 
otherwise might result in the rapid oxidation of the boiler plates. If 



MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 379 

this cannot be done, it is better to keep the boilers f nil, rather than 
have them partially so. 

S^'-aie is not the only danger to be guarded against, for it is attested 
by the reports of the Hartford Steam Boiler Inspection and Insurance 
Company that almost half of the sum tofcil of imperfect boilers 
became such by reason of the deposit of sediment, there being no less 
than 40 per cent, more hazardous cases resulting from the deposit of 
sediment causing the plates to be burned, or overheated, than from 
sca,le when hard water is used, the lime, etc., held in solution is pre- 
cipitated, and the deposit becomes concreted, forming a terrible 
obstacle to t .e transmission of the heat to the water, and rendering 
the plates exposed to the action of the fire liable to be burnt through 
or seriously weakened. 

In setting stationary boilers, it would be well to have an air space 
of 2 or 3 inches intervene between the boiler and the surrounding 
brick work, and tire-clay is every way preferable to mortar for the 
entire surroundings. Arrangements should be made to have con- 
venient apertures at suitable places in order to permit access for the 
removal of dust, soot, ashes, and other impediments interferhig with 
the effective action of the fire on the lower parts of the boiler. A 
good waj' of settmg long stationary boilers is to attach cast-iron knees 
to tneir middle and at each end, having them about 12 feet apart, and 
placed on brick foundations; these kne^s, if placed on substantial rolls 
on a solid seat, would ensure ample provision for the contractioii and 
expansion of the boilers, as well as prevent all strains resulting from 
unequal settling. 

As to the attachments called mud drums, past experience, has 
sho^^'n, when their great cost and short duration are taken into account, 
that the benefits to be derived from their use, are, to say the least, 
very equivocal, as they impart but a slight amount of heat to the feed 
water, retain none of the ruinous carbonates which induce scale on 
the boiler, but only the muddy matter held in suspension in the water, 
while the cost of renewal consequent on their raj)id decaj", is very 
heavy. 

Cleaning Bomber Tubes. — ^Weinlig recommends a copper pipe, 5 
millimetres in diameter, tapering at one end, and fitted at the other 
with a flexible india-rubber tube, by which it can be connected with 
the steam-cock of the boiler when required. The pipe is mounted on 
a 3ft. wooden handle, and should be long enough to reach through 
the fire-box. In use, the wooden handle is held firmly mider the 
right arm, and the nozzle of the pipe introduced an inch or so within 
the tube to be cleaned. Steam is then turned on through the india- 
rubber tubing. 

Steam-Pipe Jacketing.— The Stettin Vulcan Works make use of 
wool for clothing steam-i)ipes. A lead cylinder is laid around the 
pipe, and the space between, which is about 1^ inches, is filled up 
firmly with wool. The lead cylinder behig drawn back, the wool as 
exposed is tied down with wire, and finally linen is sewed over the 
whole. 

Cement. — Sifted peroxide of manganese and zinc-white, equal parts ; 
and sufficient soluble glass (commercial) to form a thin paste. Apply 
immediately. This cement will resist a red-heat, water, and oils. 

Flanges to Stand Brazing.— Copper 1 lb., zinc i oz., lead |- oz. 

GEiXiE's Metal.— Copper (50, zinc 38.2, iron 1.8. 



380 MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 




Engineers' Tools. — The meclianical appliances represented above, 
sliould be kept within easy reach, and, if arranged on a vertical table 
of thick plank, fitted with recesses conformed and adapted for the re- 
ception of each tool, it would not only prove a great convenience, but 
also a striking ornament to the engine room. 



MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 381 

Fire akd Waterproof Cement.— Pulverized litharge 5 lbs., fiue 
Paris white 2 lbs., yellow ochre 4 ozs., hemp cut into shreds |oz., 
mix to tlie deusity of thick putty Avith boUed Imseed oil, and it is 
ready for use. 




Marine Engine Counter, Clock, Yacucivi Gauge, ant) Stea3I 
Gauges. — The Gauge A, B, represents an adaptation applica- 
r.LE TO Locomotives . — A, shows the point of connection with 
Boiler, B, the Spiral Spring and Graduated Scale. — The above 
cuts, together with the following ones, represent a Marine engine 
counter and clock, together with steam and vacuum gauges of vari- 
ous kinds. The counter, inclosed in an annular box of cast-iron, con- 
tains a mechanism connected by suitable attachments to the engine, 
which impart such a correct mechanical movement to a regular series 
of figures or numbers displayed through the narrow apertures in the 
dial, as to exhibit at a glance the exact number of revolutions per- 
formed by the engine. The steam gauges used to determine the 
pressure of steam, operate either by the use of mercury, thin metallic 
tiibes, or springs, and several of these adaptations are shown in the 
cuts we present. As used on stationary boilers, for it cannot be used 
on locomotives, the mercurial gauge is formed of an upright glass 
tube connected with a cistern of mercury, resting on a round piece of 
steel or gutta percha; on marine engines it consists of an inverted si- 
phon or tube bent in the form of a U, with one end exposed to the 
pressure of the steam, and the other oi:)en to the atmosphere. When 
not pressed by steam, the mercury will remain level in both arms of 



382 MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 



the syphon, but as the pressure rises, it will act with increasing force 
on the mercury exposed to the action of the steam, and forces it to 
rise in the limb exposed to the air, and will determine the amount of 
the steam pressure over and above that of the atmosphere, the indi- 
cations being exhibited on the gauge, the gradations on which are one 
inch in length, consequently every inch that the mercury rises in the 
tube shows a change of 2 inches in the level of the mercury contained 
in the tube, and each inch of mercury on the scale represents 1 lb. 
pressure of steam. 




Many excellent gauges, nearly thirty in all, are in use in the United 
States and Canada, among others, that of the American Steam Gauge 
Co. and Bourdon's, or, as it is better known in the United States, 
Ashcroft's gauge, from the name of the 
manufacturer, the interior of which is 
shown in the cut. It is composed of a 
thin circular metallic tube, a, closed at one 
end ; the steam from the boiler is intro- 
duced at b. The result of the steam pres- 
sure on the interior of the circular tube is 
to enlarge the circle more or less in i)ro- 
portion to the pressure, the elastic proper- 
ties of the metal operating to contract the 
circle to its original position on the re- 
moval of the pressure. The sealed or 
closed end of the tube is united by the link 
c, to the lever d, which operates a seg- 
mental gear or rack placed at the upper 
end in gear with a pinion, which imparts 
movement to a hand on a graduated circular scale as shown in the 
cuts above. 

The same invention, when fitted to a condenser by the pipe A, see 
cut above, will indicate the state of the vacuum in a condensing en- 




Interior of Ashcroft's 
Gauge. 



MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS* DEPARTMENT. 383 

gine. lu this case the mdications are caused by exterior atmospheric 
pressure, the gauge is graduated to exteud ouly from 1 lb. up to 15 
lbs., aud the eutire actiou is reverse from that of steam, as described 
above. On the opeuiug of the tap C, as the vacuum enlarges, the 
band will be flattened aud the hand on the dial will move in au oppo- 
site direction from that caused bj^ the action of steam. 

Care of Steam Gauges. — A little glycerine, or sulphuric acid, 
placed on the surface of the mercury will keep a mercurial steam 
gauge in good order, by lubricating both glass and metals, preventing 
their adhesion. 

Stea3I Pipes. — Ruptured steam pipes may be repaired by heating 
and then soldering them. The condensation of steam in siibterranean 
pipes may be prevented by enclosing the pipe inside a larger one, and 
filling the vacant space between the two with a mixture of clay and 
teased hair, or lilaster-of-Paris. 

Substitute for Eire Clay for Boiler Furnaces. — To common 
earth well mixed with water, add a small quantity of rock salt and 
allow it to stand until the salt dissolves, then use as fire claj^ It an- 
swers very well. 

Watch the Leaks. — Engineers should keep a yigilant eye for 
leaks, weak spots, &c., and apply a prompt remedy by repairing all 
defects without delay. See that all the seams and rivets are tight, 
and the tubes and tube sheets in good order. Leaky tubes should be 
replaced or stopped, by driving a tightly fitting wooden plug at each 
end and binding them by means of an iron-rod passing through the 
tube fitted with broad washers at each end, aud screwed up tight with 
the ^' Strong cement foi- Steam Joints' {see page 422) plentifully 
smeared on under each washer. A mirror or bright tin plate may be 
used advantageously to reflect light into obscure places while repair- 
ing boilers. To apply a hard jKitch, describe the proper size on the 
plate to be patched, allowing from 1^ to 1^ ins. of good iron beyond 
the wfak part or flaw. Now drill the rivet-holes through the patch, 
and chip its edges. Next, apply the patch to the boiler, and mark 
the places for corresponding holes by means of a small brush with 
white paint, drill the holes in the shell with a brace and ratchet drill, 
remove the deficient part of the sheU, rivet on the patch, or secure 
well with tap bolts. A soft patch, is applied over the weak part of the 
shell (after being previously coated with an intermediate layer of 
good cement), being fitted in the same manner as above described, 
and secured to its place by means of nuts, bolts, and washers, with a 
twist of hemp under the washers and bolt heads to ensure security, 
and prevent leakage. The first method is decidedly the best for parts 
of the boiler exposed to the direct action of the fire. 

Dimensions and Capacity op First Class Amoskeag Steam 
Fire-Engine. {See Cut.) Height from floor to top of smoke 
stack, 8 ft. 10 ins. Length over all, including tongue, 22, it. 8ins. 
Diameter of boiler, 2 ft. Sins. Diameter of j^umps, 4^ ins. Stroke of 
same, 8 ins. Diameter of steam 'cylinders 7§ ins. Number oj dis- 
charge gates, 2. Capacity in gals, per minute, 900 gals. Weight, 
6,500 lbs. The boiler is an upright tubular, very simple in its com- 
bination, and for strength, safety, durability, and capacity for genera- 
ting steam, 'unsurpassed. Starting with cold water in the boiler, a 
working head of steam can be generated in less than five minutes 
from the time of kindling the fire. The engine " Amoskeag, " owned 



384 MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS^ DEPARTMENT. 

bj'' the city of IVfaiichester, has played two streams m three minittes 
and forty seconds a.itev tonchmg the match ; at the same time diaw- 
iug iier own water. The following instructions to engineers, given 
by the Amoskeag Co., for running their engine, may be easily adaj ted 
to efficient use in the case of steam fire-engines constructed by otlier 
builders. 

1. In laying your fuel in the fire-box, first lay plenty of shavings, 
then light, drj' kindling wood ; filling your furnace full, whicli in 
most cases will give you steam enough. By the time you arrive at a 
fire to commence work, provided you light your fire when you leave 
the house, which, as a general rule, is advisable. 2. If you use coal, 
be careful to keep a thin fire, and not clog it. Use the coal in ;is 
large lumps as possible, and do not break it np unnecessarily in the 
furnace. The best coal for this purpose is a clean Cannel, in lumps, 
free from dirt and dust. 3. Be careful not to let so much fire collect 
under your engine as to burn the wheels ; — when working for a long 
tim.e at fires there is a danger of doing so. 4. The Amoskeag boiler 
is an upright tubular body, with a submerged smoke-box and fire-box 
surrounded with water. When the enghie is running, the water in 
the boiler should be carried so as to stand at the third gauge-cock, 
which is placed near the top of the tubes, and it should never be car- 
ried below the centre of the tubes at which point the first gauge-cock 
is located. 5. Avoid using an unnecessary^ amount of steam. The 
tendency is to use more than is required. From sixty to eighty 
pounds is as much as you will generally require to do good fire duty. 
6 The engme nas two suitable feed pumps for supplying the boiler 
v/ith water. One of these pumps should be worked nearly aU the 
time, m order to keep the water m the boiler at the proper height, 
and to preserve an even pressure of steam. 7. If brackish water is 
used for supplying the boiler, or if the boiler becomes foul from long 
use without being blown off, it is likely to foam or prime. If foam- 
ing occurs while the engine is working at a fire, it may be pre^nted 
or diminished by opening the surface blow-off cock, which is located 
between the third and fourth gauge-cocks, and blowing off from tlie 
surface of the water the scum and oily matter which usually causes 
foaming. In this way the difficulty can generally be prevented with- 
out any serious interruption in the working of the engine. While 
doing tills the water in the boiler should be carried as high as the 
surface bloAv-of¥ cock. After the engine is returned to the house, the 
water should be blown entirely out of the boiler through the blow-off 
cock near the bottom of the boiler, wdth a steam pressure of about 
twenty pounds, and the boiler refilled with fresk water. This pro- 
cess may be repeated until the boiler becomes clean. 8. The pump 
upon the Amoskeag Engine is a vertical double-acting pump, with the 
cylmder surrounded by a circular chamber, divided vertically outside 
the cylinder, so as to answer both for the suction and discharge cham- 
bers of the pump. It has a separate valve-plate at the top and bottom 
of the pump, carrying both the suction and discharge valves ; the suc- 
tion valve upon one side of the plate, and the discharge valve upon 
the other. Each of these valve plates can be reached lay taking off 
the top and bottom of the pump, which is so constructed as to be 
readily removed. The discharge and suction parts of the water- 
chamber, surrounding the cylinder, are connected by a valve m the 
vertical partition, which is called a relief valve. 9. With a- single 



MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 385 




386 MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 

long line of hose, it maybe necessarj^ to open your relief- valve a little, 
but at all other times be particular to have it closed, except Avhen 
you want to feed your boiler without forcing any Avater through the 
hose, 10. In the smoke-pipe, directly over the upper flue-sheet, a 
valve is placed, which is called the variable exhaust-valve. By oper- 
ating this valve the size of the aperture for the escape of the steam 
from the steam-cylinder is increased or diminished, thus regulating 
the draft of the chimney and the heat of the fire. This valve should be 
closed, when the engine is started, until a f a,ir working pressure of steam 
is obtained, after which it may be opened. 11. Care should be taken to 
have the suction hose and its connections air-tight. 12. Open your 
discharge-gate and cj'linder drain-cock before starting your engine. 
13. Don't let the flues of your engine get filled up. 11. lie particular 
to take your engine off the springs before joix work it, and to place it 
on the springs again when done working. 15. With a long line of 
hose on, be particular to open your throttle gradually. If you open 
it too suddenly you are liable to burst your hose. IG. The pumps of 
the engine should be examined at least once in six months, to see that 
all the valves and parts are in good condition. 17. The pump-valves 
should have a lift of about three-eighths of an inch, and the suction 
valves the same lift. 18. The inside of the steam-cylinders and tlie 
steam-valves should be oiled or tallowed always after the engine has 
worked at a fire, and as often as may be necessary to keep them Avell 
lubricated ; and all the parts of the engine, where liable to friction, 
should be kept well oiled. Be particular to use an abundance of oil 
on the " link-block," where there is more friction than in any other 
part. 18. The running-gear and every part of the engine liable to dis- 
arrangement or accident, should be thoroughly examined everj'^ time 
after the engine has been out of the house, whether it has been 
worked at a fire or not. 19. "Whenever your engine is repaired, try 
to help to do it yourself, as by so doing you get a familiarity with it 
that you can in no other way obtain. 




Besides the above noted, the Amoskeag Co. manufacture self pro- 
pelling steam fire engines capable of attaining a continuous speed of 
16 miles per hour. Steam fire engines of perfect workmanship and 
immense power, are also made at Seneca Falls, N. Y. , Portland, Maine, 
Pawtucket, R. I., Boston, Mass. and many other places throughout 
the United States. 

A Fireman's Respirator,— Consistmg of an iron cylinder attached 
to a mask, and packed with cotton wool, gl3-ceriue", and charcoal, 



MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 387 



has been exhibited m Loudon, by Prof. Tyndall; the wearer is enabled 
to remain in an atmosphere of smoke, wliich lie could not otherwise 
bear, for a quarter or half an hour. 

An Impkoved Fike Escape, — called the Jeuks-Richard's fire- 
ladder has been adopted in many places. It is a permanent fixture to 
the building, and is attached to the cornice of the house, and comes 
down when the alarm is sounded, giving the inmates a chance to 
escape when other exits are cut off, and the firemen a i)lan to ascend 
with the hose, and fight the fire at the greatest possible advantage. 

Cast Ikox fok Steam C vijxders — venj hard. — Scrap iron, 300 lbs. 
Scotch pig, 40 lbs., charcoal pig. No. 5, 40 lbs. Another, very strong 
and close grained. Scrap iron, 100 lbs., Scotch pig, 100 lbs., charcoal pig 
No. 5, 80 lbs. 

Cylinders should be bored in a vertical position whenever possible, 
removing a heavy cut at first and gradually cutting to within 1-32 of 
an inch of the fiuished size, and finally brought down to the proper 
dimensions bj' removing the balance with a cutter embodying in its 
form a combination of the circular and diamond pointed shapes. 
Some manufacturers used a mass of lead (cast in the cylinder to give 
it the proper shape) together with emery and oil between the abrading 
surfaces, for finishing their cylinders, the latter revolving slowly, while 
the operation continues. 

Rule for Thickness of Steam Cylinder. — Divide the diameter 
of cylinder plus 2 by 16, and deduct a 1-100 part of the diameter from 
the quotient ; the remainder avlU be the proper thickness. The depth 
of the piston rings should be equal to ^ the diameter of the cylinder, 
and the follower plate should be equal in thickness to the cylinder. 
The following table gives very good results. 



Diameter of 
Cylinder. 


Thickness. 


DiAlMETER OF 

Cylinder. 


Thickness. 


6 


5-8 


14 


1 


8 


11-16 


15 


11-16 


9 


3-4 


17 


11-8 


10 


13-16 


18 


13-16 


11 


7-8 


19 


11-4 


12 


15-16 


21 


13-8 



Add to the foregoing dimensions 1-16 of an inch, when the piston 
speed exceeds 300 feet per minute. 

Piston Rings. — To prevent rapid wear in the cylinder, the piston 
rings should be formed of some material softer than the latter ; cast 
iron is much used for this purpose, as it soon attains a fine smooth 
surface, has great endurance, and generates little friction. They 
should he fitted with judgment so as to move easily between the flange 
of the piston-head and the follower plate, in order that they may 
adjust or conform themselves to any slight unevenness in the cylinder. 
To open piston rings, hammer them lightly with a round pene ham- 
mer all round their inside faces, and, as they become leaky and 
corrode around the edges, remove them from the cylinder and true 
them up in a lathe, grind, and refit them to the flange and follower 
^ plate. Piston sprinr/s are in the^reat majority of cases, too stiff and 



388 MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 

rigid to render them in every way satisfactory, as in many instances 
they entail great loss of power by nnnecessary pressnre against the 
cylinder. Steam pistons possess the merit of low first cost, very little 
friction, simplicity, and after a i^roper adjustment by a competent 
person, give very little trouble. Solid pistons produce scarcely any 
friction, and when the cylinder is bored perfectly true through its 
whole length, produce excellent results, if they are properly fitted, but 
are irreparable when they become worn out, as they cannot be re-ad- 
justed. The piston speed of small stationary engines ranges from 200 
to 250 feet per minute; average speed 225 feet, that of large stationary 
engines, 275 to 350 feet; average speed 312 feet; that of C'oV/i.s5 Engines 
400 to 500 feet per minute ; average speed 400 feet ; that of locomotives 
and Allen engines 600 to 800 feet per minute, average 700 ; that of 
engines of river steamers 400 to 500 feet, average 450 feet; that of 
ocean steamers 400 to 600 feet, average 500 feet. If the piston rod 
glands become tight, ease by revolving and sliding the gland back and 
forth on the rod, applying a little oil to the rod at the same time. In 
trueiiig up a gland, it should be chucked in the lathe by the flange, to 
ensure the turning of the bore and outside diameter at one chucking, 
without depending on the accuracy of a mandrel. Piston rods should 
be secured to the cross head by means of a well fitted key instead of 
b}^ the screw and jam nut arrangement used in many cases. Piston 
rods are usually made of wrought iron, but steel is to be preferred on 
account of its great endurance, small friction, and extreme hardness, 
which render it less liable to be fluted by grit in the packing, &c. The 
cross-heads should, in every case, possess the essential element of 
strength, to resist strains of every kind, and also capacious anti- 
friction bearings on the guides, to resist the wear and tear of protracted 
running. 

The guides should be powerful enough to withstand any degree of 
speed without springing or flinching from duty in the slightest degree, 
and, on horizontal engines they should be made moveable, so that 
they may be easily replaced by others when they become worn out. 

Crank pins are usually made of wrouglrt iron, although for obvi- 
ous reasons, steel is the best material. Owing to excessive friction the 
crank pins are liable to become hot, and for this reason they should 
receive close attention from the engineer. A mixture of a little sul- 
phur in oil, or plumbago and oil, forms a good coolhig lubricant in . 
such emergencies. The diameter of the crank pin should be from .2 
to .25 that of the cylinder, and the length from .275 to .35 the diameter 
of the cylinder, or for a cylinder 12 ins. in diameter and 30 ins. stroke, 
the length of crank pin should be 3.3 to 4 ins., and the diameter 2.4 
to 3 ins. 

The Steam chest should be capacious enough to furnish sufficient 
room for the valve gear arrangement, the transmission of steam to 
the piston, &c., but not ftnnecessarily large to induce Aveakness in the 
parts, loss of heat by radiation, &c. 

Valve rods should be constructed of substantial material to with- 
stand the varied strains to which they are liable ; they are usually of 
wrought iron, but steel is to be preferred for various reasons. The 
length of valve rods may be correctly ascertained by placing the valve 
in a central position over the steam ports, and the rocker or interme- 
diate bearings in a vertical position, and measuring from the centre 
of the rocker stud to the centre of the valve. 



MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 389 

The dimensions of the rock shaft-bear imj, should be, if subjected to 
{I twisting movement, or torsion, ^ or ^ the diameter of tlie engine 
shaft, if not so subjected, | the diameter of the engine sliaft will an- 
swer. The diameter of the rock shaft pin ought to be no less than 
the valve stem; but if it is an overhanging pin, it ought to be from ^ 
to 1^ the diameter of valve stem. 

Eccentric rods should be substantially made of good stock, and suf- 
ficiently stiff and rigid to withstand tlie mtaiifold strains to which 
they are liable, Avithout being subjected to extreme vibration, so that 
a steady movement may be imparted by the eccentric to the valve, 
and they are all the better for being long. 

To adjust an eccentric rod, place the crank at the end of its stroke, 
and the eccentric at right angles with the crank. Now reg'ulate the 
eccentric-straps and adjust tlie rocker in a vertical position. Tlie 
proper length of the eccentric may now be determined if the eccen- 
tric-catch conforms itself to the rocker pin, Avithout moving the latter 
to either side. The length of the eccentric rod is the space between 
tlie centre of the crank shaft and that of the rocker pin, when the lat- 
ter is vertical. 

The eccentric rod may he attached by turning the end of the rod ta- 
j)ering, to adapt it to a suitable hole in a sleeve cast on the forward 
straps of the eccentric, to which it may be secured by a proper '^gj \ 
another way is to insert the rod into the sleeve and fasten with jam 
nuts. The diameter of the eccentric rod, should, at the neck, equal 
tliat of the valve rod, and should mcrease J inch to the foot of the 
eccentric. 

The pillow blocks or main bearings of an enc/ine should be tlie ob- 
jects of close attention on the part of the engineer, as, owing to the 
excessive friction and wear and tear at tliis vital point, they are liable 
to become hot and cause much trouble. In such emergencies make 
use of the following 

Cooling Compound for Heavy Bearings. — Tallow, 2 lbs ; 
plumbago, 6 ozs ; sugar of lead, 4 ozs ; melt the tallow with gentle 
heat, aiid add the other ingredients, stirring until cold. For lubricat- 
ing gearing, wooden cogs, &c. , nothing better need be used than a 
thin mixture of soft soap and black lead. Tlie following processes 
will prove useful to engineers and machinists in many cases : 

To Prevent Sperm Oil Gujveming.— The addition of kerosene oil 
will greatly assist in preventing gumming ; rummage 100 parts oil 
witli 4 parts chloride of lime, and 12 of water ; now add a small quan- 
tity of the decoction of oak-bark to destroy all traces of gelatinous mat- 
ter still remaining, and allow the impurities to settle. Next, agitate the 
clear part Avith a little sulphuric acid, settle once more, and'AA-ash to 
remove the acid, Avhich should never be permitted to exist in any oil 
used on machinery. If oil becomes rancid, boil it along Avitli Avater 
and a little bi-carbonate of magnesia for 15 minutes or so, until it 
loses its power to redden litmus paper. 

Machinerv Lubricants. — A patent has been taken out in France 
for lubricants compounded as folIoAvs : First, graphite, 35 p;iits ; 
talc, 25 ; sulphur, 20 ; wax or paraffin, 20. 6'eco7?rf, s^raphite ;iO parts ; 
bone-glue, 15 ; water, 32 ; sulphur, 12 ; Avax or paraffin, 11. 

The Crank shaft being the primary agent for the transmission of 
poAver, should, in all cases be Avell pi-oportioned in order to perform 
effective duty aud resist the shearing and twisting strains to which 



390 MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 

it is subjected. They are often made of cast iron smoothly tunied, 
and should be 5-10 the diameter of the cylinder for eflicient use, or 
the diameter of the shaft may be 4-10 that of the cylinder when 
wrought iron is used, and the leiif/th of the crank shaft bearnif/ should 
be equal to 1^ times its diameter, or, for massive machinery, twice 
the diameter "will be required. 

The area of the crank at the central part should be exactly that of 
the shaft ; the thickness should be equivalent to that of the shaft 
journal multiplied by 6 : the thickness of the iceb of the crank 
should be equivalent to 3 times the diameter of sliaft journal. The 
boss of the crank, if of wrought iron, should be equivalent to the di- 
ameter of the shaft journal or pin multiplied by 4, and if of cast iron, 
should equal double that of the shaft journal, and tlie depth should 
equal that of the crank journal multiplied by 7. The diameter of 
crank at the pin should equal twice the diameter of pin, and its depth 
at tlie same part should be equivalent to the diameter of the pin mul- 
tiplied by 12. 

The (xovernor should be kept perfectly clean and free from all 
gummy deposits, or old dry packing; which may retard, or impede its 
movements in any way whatever. The best of oil only should be used, 
and thorough duty should be performed when the governor spindle 
•worlds through stuffing boxes, to have the boxes carefully packed at 
regular intervals. 

To FIND THE Diameter of Governor-Shaft Pulley. — Multi- 
ply the number of revolutions of the engine by the diameter of the 
engine shaft pulley and divide the product by the number of revolu- 
tions of the governor. 

To FIND THE Diameter of the Engine Shaft Pltlley. — Multi- 
ply the revolutions of the governor by the diameter of the governor 
shaft pulley, and divide the i)roduct by the number of the revolutions 
of the engine. 

Facts, for Steam Users. — A fair horse-power in a steam boiler 
is an evaporation of 30 lbs. of water per hour, from a temperature of 
212°. Ten pounds of water, evaporated from a temperature of 212° 
for each pound of coal, is high economy. Six pounds is fair work, 
and above the average. I''^ncier the best conditions, a horse-power can 
be had from an evaporation of less than 20 lbs. of M^ater. Every 
owner of steam power should weigh the water evaporated in his 
boiler, and also the coal used to j)roduce such evaporation. A meas- 
ure of some kind that will show the weight of feed water, passing 
into a boiler with accuracy, should be used with all boilers when 
economy is an object. It should be the duty of a fireman to laiow 
the weight of the fuel used as well as the weight of water. No man 
has any right to find fault with the economy of his boiler until he 
knows the" amount of water evaporated per hour and the amount of 
coal required to produce the same. In getting the evaporative power 
of a steam boiler, it is necessary that the steam should be dry to get 
a fair result. A boiler that carries out water with its steam may show 
a large apparent evaporation, but the steam, being wet, is of less valiu? 
in the engine. A boiler should give dry steam in all cases. Suj^er- 
lieating is beneficial. Boilers that are overworked, necessarily waste 
fuel. A boiler taxed to its full evaporative power, evaporates, say, 
5 lbs. of Avater to 1 lb. of coal : double the size of the boiler, and you 
will get the same amount of steam, with probably 30 to 50 per cent. 



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392 MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS* DEPART3IENT. 

less fuel. A boiler may generate steam with great economy, and, 
owing to the steam being wasted by improper application to the work, 
through the engine, the result in work be very unsatisfactory, and 
the boiler blamed unjustly. When steam is used expansively, under 
the best conditions, it will give double the power for the same amount 
of steam that can be got from it worked at full stroke, or without 
expansion. When steam is used in non-condensing engines at low 
pressure, the loss is great, owing to the pressure of the atmosphere 
(15 lbs.) being a greater percentage of a low than of a liigh pressure. 
The loss iov inston — not boiler — i)ressures is as follows : — 
Atmosphere. Pressure steam. Total pressure on piston. Loss. 

15 5 :. 20 3-4 

15 10 25 3-5 

15 15 30 1-2 

15 20 35 3-7 

15 25 40 3-8 

15 30 45 3-9 

15 35 50 3-10 

15 45 GO... 1-4 

15 GO 75 1-5 

15 75 00 1-G 

15 90 105 1-7 

The steam, made from a certain weight of water, used through a 
non-condensing engine, at 10 lbs. per square inch ijressure above the 
atmosphere, without eximnsion, Avould give only about one quarter 
tlie power that would be got from the same steam if used at 75 above 
the atmosphere, and with the best expansion. Boilers can scarcely 
be too large ; 20-horse power can be obtained in a 40-horse power 
boiler more economically than in a 20-horse pov,^er. JoJui B. Root. 

A prominent authority verifies the astounding statement, that a 
record of Boiler Explosions that have occurred in the United Stiites 
extending over about five years, shows the appalling results of nearly 
GOO explosions, about 3,000 killed, over 1,000 wounded, besides an im- 
mense loss of property'. Fire insurance does not cover the loss by 
explosion, unless fire occurs, and, even then, litigation often ensues." 
The infliction of this terrible aggregation of suffering, loss of life and 
property, might have been averted by the exercise of common sense 
in the selection of boilers Avhich possess the elements of strength and 
endurance in such a degree as to put the question of safety bevond a 
peradverxtar 3. Setting aside the beclouded theories of self-styled ex- 
perts, regarding certain explosive gases, mvsterious chemical changes, 
electricity, etc., in the boiler, the simple truth is reached when we 
come down to the solid basis of cause and effect; and in everv case 
of boiler explosion we will find that the true cause is simply imperfect 
strength in the boiler. The deficiency may arise from defective 
material, or faulty workmanship, overheating, overpressure, over- 
firing, burning of the boiler-plates, caused by shortness of water, or 
the tolerance of scale or deposits in the boiler, or by criminal negli- 
gence.^ These are only different forms or phases of expressing the 
truth just noted, and whoever constructs a boiler absolutely free from 
liability to destructive explosion, has achieved an engineering triumnh 
which entitles him to recognition as a public benefactor. As one who 
is cognizant of much suifering arising from the causes enumerated 
above, the writer can truthfully aver that he is moved by no motives 



3IACHINISTS AND EXGIXKKRS' DEPARTMENT. 303 
ot'.ier than those of humanity in niakiM-^ favorable mention of 




The Root Wrought Ikon Safety Boiler. 

Tliese boilers, made by the Abendroth & Root Manufacturing Com- 
pany of New York, are constructed on correct scientific principles, on 
what is known as the sectional system, being composed entirely of 
wrought iron lap-welded tubes, which are tested to a pressure of 500 
lbs. per square inch, and are said to be capable of withstanding two 
or three times that pressure. These tubes, 4 inches in diameter, and 
10 feet in length, are lap-welded, consequently they have no rivetted 
joints, thereby enhancing their strength. The boiler is constructed 
entirely of these uniform and interchangeable parts, perfectly free 
from explosion, easily enlarged or diminished in size, all parts being 
easily accessible for cleaning, repairs, or removal ; also economical, 
durable, and a rapid generator of steam. Of these boilers, nearly 
50,000 horse-power have been sold, and are giving good satisfaction to 
the purchasers. 

The next cut represents the Renshaw Cai^t Iron Sectional Boiler, 
constructed by Dougherty & Broome, New York, Avhich embodies the 
possession of a perfect constellation of most excellent requirements 
as a generator of steam power, among otliers, complete immunity 
from explosion. As to the capacity, etc., of this boiler, limited space 
will only permit the insertion of the following valuable testimony, by 
Dr. P. H. Van der Weyde, the able editor of the Manufacturer and 
Bidlder : " We have had the pleasure of witnessing the rapidity 
with which steam may be raised in a boiler of this kind, in one rated 
at 25 horse-power, at the establishment of jVIessrs. Dougherty & 
Broome, 143-147 Bank street, New York. The fire was started while 



394 MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 



cold, and in half an hour there was a pressure of 70 pounds, and the 
engine started. As the water used was for the purjiose of measure- 
]nent inclosed in a tank of 2 by 4 feet, and 3 feet higli,we could easily 
measure the evaporating' capacit3% and found it to be 600 pounds per 
hour, for wliicli duty the furnace consumed 50 pounds of coal. This 




The Renshaw Cast Iron Sectional Boiler. 



agreed with the testimony of the engineer, that ^ ton of coal was used 
l>er day of ten hours, while it showed the capacity of the boiler and 
furnace to be the evaporation of 12 pounds of water with 1 pound of 
coal. This is a very high ratio, when we consider that theoretical 
maximum, when no heat whatsoever is lost, is 14 pounds of water for 
1 of coal, (see "Theory of Steam -Engineering," on page 26 of our 
February number for this year)." 

Proportion of Land Boilers — For each nominal horse power a 
land boiler requires : 1 cubic foot of water i)er hour; 1 square yard of 
heating surface ; 1 square foot of fire grate surface ; 1 cubic yard 
capacity; 28 square inches of flue area; 18 square inches of area over 
bridge Avail. 

For Ci/lindrical Douhle-flxied ^oz7e?'.s— Length multiplied by diam- 
eter divided by 6 = nominal horse power. 

Tubular Boilers require for each Horse Forcer — 1 cubic foot of 
water per hour; 10 square feet of heating surface; \ square foot fire 
gi-ate; 10 square inches sectional area of tube; 13 square inches flue 
;trea; 7 square inches chimney area; 8 cubic feet total boiler capa- 
city; 2 cubic feet of steam room. Diameter of tubes l-30th of their 
length. 

The number of square feet of heating or flue surface required to 
evaporate a cubic foot of water per hour, which is equivalent to an 
actual horse power, is in different boilers as follows: Cornish Boilers, 
70 square feet ; Land and Marine Boilers, 8 to 11 square feet; LocO' 
motive Boilers, 5 to 6 square feet. 



MACHIKIbTS, ENGINEERS , liC, RECEIPTS. 



395 



Rule to fixd the TTeight >'ecessaiiy to put o>' a Lever 
■VVHEN" the area OF Vaeve, Lever, &c. ARE KNOWN. — Multiply 
the area of valve by the pressure in pounds per square inch ; multiply 
this product by the distance of the lever from the fulcrum ; multiply 
the weight of lever by one-half its length (or its centre of gravity) ; 
then multiply the weight of valve and stem by their distiince from 
the fulcrum ; add these last two products together, and subtract their 
eum from the first product, and divide the remainder by the length 
of lever ; the quotient will be the weight of the ball, — Roper. 

Example : 



Area of valve 7 sq. in. 
Pressure . . GO lbs. 


. 60 lbs. 
Tin. 


9 lbs. 6 lbs 
12 m. 3 in 


Fulcrum 3 in. . , . 


420 lbs. 
Sin. 


108 lbs. 181b 
18 lbs. 


Length of lever 2i in. 


1260 
. 12G lbs. 


12Glbs. 


24) 1134 lbs. 
"Weight of lever lbs. 

47.25 lbs. 
"Weight of valve and stem G lbs. 


weight of ball. 




Marine Engines. — Duties to machinery icJien in Harbor before 
getting binder Steam, 6?/ a Practical Engineer. When an engineer 
takes charge of the machiuej*y of a boat his first attention ought to be 
directed to his boilers; for, being the source of power, they may be- 
come the source of great danger if not properly looked alter. In in- 
specting the boilers, three things require special attention. 1. Tho 
thiclvness of the plates above the fires and other places of importance. 
2, The state of the stays. 3. The position of the gauges, viz. : tho 
water gauge, cocks, and glass water gauges. Respecting the first, a 
general plan is to drill a small hole through the plate, and thus find 
its real thickness, for it Is often the case that a boiler plate may ba 
far thicker at the seams than in the middle. At the seams the proper 
thickness cannot always be correctly ascertained on account of tho 
way in whicU they are caulked, by which a i^late may appear con- 



396 MAcniNiSTS, engineers', &C., RECEirXS. 

siderably thicker than it really is. After the hole has served its pur- 
pose, it is tapped and plugged tightly up again. 

As regards the stays, they require a great amount of attention ; fo ' 
they are very apt to get eaten through, near the plates by oxidation. 
The gauge cocks are often placed just above the highest row of tubes. 
Now this is a very dangerous practice, for it is possible for an engmeer 
to lose his water, let him be ever so careful, when great danger fol- 
lows ; while if the cocks were placed a little higher, the loss of water 
would not be attended by so much danger. 

Duties to Machinenj when Steam is getting vp. The water in tho 
boiler when the fires are lighted ought to be just above the bottom of 
the glass. In a large or even moderate sized boiler, the water will 
expand, and there is also not so much water to heat at first; and we 
know, by reason of conduction and radiation, that small bodies of 
water are heated comparatively more rapidly than larger. On first 
lighting the fires they should not be kept too large, but just sufficient 
to cover the bars. A large thin surface of fire is found to be the most 
effective in getting under way. When the fires are lighted, and tho 
steamer is going on a long voyage, it is the practice to rub the polished 
parts of the engine over with a composition of tallow and white lead. 
This prevents any rust forming on the rods, etc., from water dropping 
on them which may have been used for keeping the bearings cool. 

The discharge valve is also oi^ened now, or else on starting tho 
engine something will give way. Several accidents have occurred by 
neglecting to do this. 

The safety valves are now to be inspected to find whether they arc 
fast or corroded to their seatings. If so, they must be freed and made 
ready to act before startmg. 

It is a good plan and one much practised, to give the engines a good 
blowing through Avhilst the steam is getting up. This warms the 
cylinder and tries any joints that may have been made suice the 
engines were worked last. It also saves the steam, for if not done now 
(when the engine is starting) a great amount of steam is wasted in 
lieating the cylinder, instead of imxmrting its elastic force to the 
piston. 

Starting the Engines. — All steamships are now fitted with tho 
double eccentrics or " Stephenson's Linlc JNIotion," by which tlie 
engmes are started, or rather by this the slide valves are under the 
control of the engineer, and can be worked back or forward as 
command is given, by either a bar, lever, or generally, in large 
engines, by a wheel. 

The handles, by which steam is turned on and off, with the injec- 
tion cock handles, are placed beside the wheel, so tliat one man can 
now generally start the engine. 

Some large ships have a steam piston so fitted that it rises and falls 
by steam admitted above or below, thus raising or lowering the link ii> 
its motion. This is what is called steam starting gear, and is very 
handy when the link is of great weight. There is always hand gear 
fitted as well, which can be used in caseg of emergency. In giving in- 
jection to a common condenser, it should be opened just alter tho 
tteam is turned on to the cylinders, or else if going slowly the con- 
denser may become too full of water, and the air immji iiot able to 
perform its work properly. 



aiAcniNiSTS, engineers', &c., receipts. 397 

lu starting an engine tliat is fitted with surface condensers, the only 
filing requiring attention before going on, is to open botii valves 
communicating -with the sea above or below the condenser, vi;s, : 
suction to the circulating pumps and delivery from them. 

Duties token under Steam. — Always keep looking at the water 
level. This is sometimes a source of great anxiety, for some boilers 
require the water to be kept at a certain fixed level. If water be too 
high they will not keep steam, and if too low the steam will generate 
too fast. Some boilers require a high water level : nothing but i^ractico 
can determine it. A safe rule is to keep the glass gauge about 
two thirds full. Blowing out marine boilers should be practised every 
two or three hours. Practice has proved this to be a good rule, on 
account of not so much water being required to be blown out at a time, 
and therefore the steam pressure is not reduced to a very great 
extent. 

In steamers fitted with surface condensers, a little sea water is 
supphed to the boiler to make up for the loss in the steam pipes, 
jackets, caps, in the condensers, etc. This in time may injure iho 
boiler if not counterbalanced some way or other. The general rule in 
to blow out about two or three inches every twelve hours. The water 
in these boilers is never allowed to reach more than 2-30 of saltnos.s. 

The fires require much consideration. A furnace is best worked 
with a heavy fire, but not too heavy, thicker towards the back tha'.i 
front. The fresh fuel should be placed in front, and then i)ushed 
back after being thoroughly heated. Every four hours (at the least) 
the fires should be cleaned out, as large clhikers or refuse of the coals 
adhere to the fire bars and prevent the draught, making the firos 
burn dead, especially towards the back of the furnace. Sometimes 
the sla^ Avill stick fast to a furnace bar, and cannot be removed from 
it. This causes a great amount of trouble, as in trying to remove it, 
the fire bars are occasionally jiulled out of tlieir places, and tlio 
greater part of the fire fiills through causing much waste and often 
danger. 

The principal thing to pay attention to when the engines are under 
steam, is to keep the bearings cool and the glands steam tight. Oil 
is generally used for keeping bearings cool, but when larger ones are 
working hard, a jet of water is kept playing on them. This is 
found to answer very well Avhen the water is turned on before they 
have had time to heat. It should Mot be used after they have been 
allowed to get heated, for it may crack them by too sudden contraction. 
A good stream of water should be kept running on the thrus t bloclc 
from the time of starting, this with the tallow, which is always put 
into it before starting, keeps this all important bearing cool. The cap 
of the thrust block requires great care in adjusting. If screwed on too 
tightly it is almost sure to heat, or fire as it is termed, and if not 
screwed down sufficiently tight the unpleasant jumping shake so often 
experienced in our screw ships is sure to follow. The packing of the 
gland at the stem tube should be Avell looked after, and kept quite 
tight and well tallowed. 

In paddle-wheel steamers there is frequently not sufficient care 
taken about the outer bearings of the shafts. In very few ships are 
proper means provided for lubricating these important parts. At the 
commencement of a voyage, the outer bearings 'are well tallowed, and 



898 iiAcnrxisTs, engineers', &c., receipts. 

often put do-vm, screwed up, and left to look after tliemselvts as best 
they may. Very few ships, indeed, being provided with tubes lead- 
ing down from the paddle boxes to the oil holes of the blocks, or in 
which means are provided for their lubrication. 

The coals in the bunkers must be carefully watched, to prevent 
spontaneous combustion. The stoppers over the holes should be 
kept open as much as possible, and care taken not to keep damp coals 
longer in the bunkers than can be avoided; for it is only damp coal 
that is liable to spontaneous combustion. 

In new fast rmining engines, castor oil is a very good thing to use on 
first starting. When new brasses have been fitted into the bearings, 
till they form a good bearing for themselves, the same shoold be 
used. It appears to have a much finer body in it to lubricate than 
other oils have. The difference in the cost of the oil is not very much, 
coarse caytor oil being very little dearer than good machine oil. 

Duties to Machinery when the Ship has arrived in Port. — ^The white 
lead and tallow should be rubbed off with a piece of oily waste, and 
then ttie bright work of the engines will give no trouble by rusting. 
The enguies should have a good blowing through to drive out all 
water in the condensers, then the Kingston's valves communicating 
with the sea, should be shut, next oi^en the condenser drain cocks, 
which let out all water left in them. This is allowed to run into the 
bilges, which can be pumped out by the donkey pump, or tho hand 
pump if no steam is left in the boilers. 

Some engineers always blow out their boilers after steamhig, others 
io not, the latter only let the fires out and shut the valves in the 
steam pipes; both plans have their advantages and disadvantages. 
Perhaps the majority keeps the water in the boilers, only blowing out 
when repairs or an examination of the boiler is required. An engineer 
should always examine for himself, whether all the fires are properly 
out, and not'^take the word of the stokers for it. A great amount of 
damage may be done by the fire not being properly put out in the 
ash i)its. A frequent practice is to get a heap of hot ashes together 
and dash some water over it. This makes it black outside and leaves 
it burning inside. The ashes should rather be spread out evenly, and 
the water thrown over gradually and gently, to put out the firo 
effectually, and to create as little dirt and diist as possible. 

To find the amount of Lap on the Slide Valves (before setting the 
slides). Take a batten of wood, and place it on the cylinder slide 
face at right angles to and over the ports. Mark off on it the edges 
of the steam and exhaust ports witli a square and scriber. By placing 
this on the face of the slide valve, the amount of lap can at once be 
found. 

To Set the Slides. — Put the piston at the top or bottom of its stroke. 
If the eccentric is rightly fixed on the shaft, simply fasten the slide 
valve on the spindle with the required "amount of lead. Then turn 
tlie engine to the other end of its stroke, and see if the lead is tho 
same ; or in some engines more lead is given at the bottom than at the 
top (as in vertical engines). If the engine is fitted with the link 
motion, the reversing eccentric is then comiected and the valve tested 
in like manner. Also with the link motion, the slide rod is placed in 
the centre of the luik; and although the position of the eccentrics on 
the shaft ought to destroy any motion of the valve, yet there is a littio 



MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 399 

witli a short link. Tliis is tested to see that the steam ports are always 
closed and thus the eudnes can be stopped, even if the full pressure 
of steam be admitted to the back of the slide by tlie stop or throttle 
valves. 




PORTABLE CONDENSEXG STEAM ENGINE. 

The above cut represents a portable condensing steam engine of a 
pattern quite common in Europe. A, Working-beam ; b, Steam pis- 
ton; C, Cylinder; n, Upper Steam port; d. Lower Steam port; E, 
Throttle valve; F, Fly-wheel; i, Crank; K, k, Eccentric and eccentric 
rod for working the steam valves; I, Steam valve and valve casing; n, 
Condenser; o, Injection cock; g, Hot well; ?', Shifting valve to cause 
a vacuum in the condenser previous to starting the engine; S. S, Feed 
pump; t, Cold water pump for supplying the condenser cistern; it, 
Governor; V, Conuectmg rod ; ic, Air pump; X. X, The parallel mo- 
tion; ?/, Condenser. 

Sterro Metal. — Copper, 55 to 60 parts, zinc, 34 to 44 parts, iron 2 
to 4 parts, tin, 2 to 4 parts. Sterro !Metal is used for the pumps of 
hydraulic presses, &c. It is capable of Avithstanding a pressure of 
from 43,000 to 85,000 per square iuch. 

Steam Fire Engines are or should be constructed with steel 
boilers and bl.ast tubes, copper tubes and large water spaces, together 
with a good fit out of gauges, safety valves, injectors, &c., with facility 
of getting up steam in from 6 to iO minutes from cold water, and iu 



400 MACHINISTS, EXGIXEERS', &C., IlECEIPTS. 

ubout 5 minutes from water at 130°. These machines as now con- 
structed are of great elegance and power, some of them liaving pro- 
jected a continuous, soUd stream of water over 300 feet, tlirougli 100 
feet of hose, fitted Avith 1^ inch nozzle. Steam pressure about 80 lbs. 
per square inch. The principle is that of a steam pump, being 
iitted with the usual air chamber to iuduce a continual steam. See 
diagram of fire engine with horses attached. 

I'ORTABLE ExGiXES are constructed as light as possible, consistent 
with proper strength of parts, in order to render them available for 
easy transportation. Sometimes they are momited on wheels, and 
are in quite extensive use for driving light saw-miUs,. threshing, 
brick-making, pumj)ing, chaff-cutting, &c. 

Cornish Exgixes. -Are usually single acting beam engines which use 
the steam at a very early "cut off," and only on one side of the pis- 
ton, making great use of its expansive property, and are used entirely 
for pumping water in mines and cities. Steam is used in effecting 
the downward movement of the jjiston, being the stroke which lifts 
the water, the upward movement is caused by the weight of the plun- 
gers, rods &c., at the pump end of the beam. Cornish engines are 
usually very massive and powerful, but the first cost is enormous, 
and there is quite an outcry against them ui some places. 

In the line of pumpmg machinery, possibly the largest engines in 
the world are those doing duty at Haarlem Lake, Holland. Tlie en- 
gines, three in number, drain a surface of 45.230 acres, an average 
lilt of the water, depending on the state of the tides, bemg 16 feet. 
Each engine lifts G6 tons of water per stroke to a height of 10 feet ; 
when pressed, each lifts 109 tons to that height. Running economic- 
aUy, each lifts 75,000,000 lbs. of water 1 foot high for 94 lbs. of AVelsh 
coal. Diameter of cylinders (annular iu form), 12 feet, with inner 
cylinders 7 ft. diameter. 

Instructions to Engt]st:ers akd FiREaiEX on Locomotives. — 
Keep the fire evenly and uniformly spread over the grate without 
elevations or depressions. Eire from large coal, as it leaves wider 
opeuings between the lumps for tlie admission of .air, may be deeper 
than when the coal is small and lies close together. Remove all 
iucombustible material and clinkers from the furnace as soon as pos- 
idble, they prevent the draught from producing proper results. The 
bulk of fuel on the grate should alwaj's be in proportion to the 
quantity of fuel consumed. The dampers in the front and rear of 
the ash-pan regulate the draught admitted to the furnace, and require 
very careful attention, as the stream of air issues with a velocity of 
72 it. per second Avhen the dampers are open and train under full 
lieadway. At a speed of GO miles per hour the i^ressure of the cur- 
1 cut of air amounts to 9 lbs. on every square foot. One ton of bitumi- 
nous coal requires 300,000 cubic feet of air for its combustion, of 
wliich 100,000 is required to consume the gases evolved from it. 
Anthracite coal requires 310.480 cubic feet of air per ton for its com- 
bustion. It burns without smoke, requires a good supply of oxygen 
and intense heat to burn it, but makes a very fierce fire. Good 
l)ractice requires complete combustion of the carbon and hydrogen 
available in the fuel ; insufficent air causes a dense black smoke to 
issue from the chiumey, and the loss of lieating effect, and too ranch 
air, lowers the temperature of the flame and dissipates the heat 01 



MACniXISTS, EXGIXEERS', &C., TwECEirXS. 401 

good coal, G2.2 per cent, go to form steam, and 1 lb. Trill in good 
practice evaporate 7^ lbs. of water. In practice the greatest evapora- 
tive power of 1 lb. of colie is 9.^ lbs. of Avater, in common practice it 
is 8^ lbs. and 78 per cent of its products go to form steam, 22 per cent, 
being lost by products of combustion, ashes, etc. Tlic heating power 
of coke as compared witli that of coal is in the proportion of about 
li : 12. Tlie temperature produced by the combustion of coke in the 
liottest part of the fire box, may be estimated at 1GGG° Centigrade. 
The temperature produced by wood is usually less than 1111° Centi- 
grade, (100° Centigrade is equivalent to 212° Fahr). Tlie proper com- 
bustion of coal requires the admission of air both through and above 
the grate, the right proportion dej)ending upon the percentage of tlio 
gaseous components in the coal : In the combustion of coke the air 
ma;y be admitted tlirough the grate only, 1 lb. of coke requiring about 
200 cubic feet of air. "lor receiving the best effects from tlie fuel, 
the emission of the gases from the furnace should be retarded, in 
order to promote complete combustion imder high temperature, for 
this reason the grate surface should be as large as possible to induce 
a slower current, and the Aveight of the steam exhausted and the air 
inlialed should bo in every case, the same. For the prevention of 
smoke, engineers usually rely on the damper, the ash pan and the 
fire door, with careful stoking. They endeavor to prevent the 
formation of smoke by controlling the admission of air through the 
grate, adjusting it exactly to the demands of the fuel, also by the fire 
door for the admission of air above the fuel, by firing witli largo 
pieces of coal, and deep fires for heavy duty, and smaller coals with 
shallow fires for lighter duty, by firing more frequently to lighten 
the duty, and at all times by keeping the bars covered with fuel to 
])revent excessive local draughts through the grate. Fresh coal should 
1)0 thrown on under the fire door directly inside, and, when partly 
burned, pushed forward towards the tubes; but when the grates are 
inclined, it will work downwards by gravitation. Never fill a hot 
boiler with cold water, and always allow it to cool off before running 
the water out ; never blow out a boiler Avliilo hot, under any circum- 
stances, as the heated plates will bo sure to bake the deposits of mud 
into a compact scale of great tenacity ; if allowed to cool, these 
deposits will settle down in a soft mass easily swept out with a hose 
and water. Frequent duty should bo made of washing out all 
deposits of foreign matter from the barrel of the boiler, the tubes, 
and from the crown sheets between the crown bars, especially while 
using bad water, and after heavy rams ; and screw-plugs, made of 
hard brass, should be fitted to every boiler near the sides of the firo 
box, to permit the use of a hose with water for this purix)se. 

To avert danger from intense heat, to save fuel, and keep up a 
free circulation, engineers should adjust the injector so that the 
boiler will lose a little water while running between- stations, if tho 
iinjector is kept at work during stoppages, this loss will be compen- 
sated, and a full supply always kept up, absorbing the surplus heat 
and preventing explosion, incessant Avatchfulness is necessary to 
loolc out for impending danger in every possible direction, and no 
engine driver, while on duty, should relax his energy, care, caution, 
watchfulness, decision, and presence of mind for a single moment. If 
vigilance and endurance Avcre ever necessary in any business or call- 

26 



402 MACHINISTS, engineers', «tC., liECEIPTS. 



in<?, most certainly they are of paramount importance in this abo^ e aK 
others. See that the safety valves are properly acting, and that 







r-( rH I— ( Q 



^.2 ^ 









aj a; o 



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O^^ c3 0) « 2 

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H 5 2^^-31 g"^ 



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o 
P 
o 

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O += cS 



-<-i^ 02 S «3 2 

fj S HO il> "^ 

^ V <1 r-1 r- P >i 

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r.rco ,^tm^ 

t?=t-l. 
t^ c^ _, oil— 1 

W •'-' o © K w 



J::; o CO rH 



the indications of the steam gauge are correct. In experiments made 
with a locomotive boiler, the fire being kept regular, and the engine 



JIACIIINISTS, ENGINEERS , JcC, RECEIPTS. 



40y 



nt rest, in 9 minutes the j^ressure increased from 32 lbs. to 74| lbs. per 
cquarc inch, being much more than double, a most sui-prisiug increase, 
and one which A\-ill enable us to account for many exiDlosious which 
have happened while engines were at rest. 

Paj' the closest attention to the cylinder and piston rod packing, 
and exercise judgment and care in selecting the best kinds and al.so 
in applying them when selected. Use due precautitm agaiii^t making 
mistalces either in jjacking too tight or too loose, as each extreme in 
its degree is productive of much mischief, waste, and loss of power. 
It requires the exercise of considerable intelligence and care to luako 
the best possible adjustment of either spring or steam packing. 

Equal vigilance is necessary in guarding against incrustation and 
scale in boilers. In order to raise steam to a pressure of 120 lbs. to 
the square inch, a very common i^ressure in locomotive boilers, the 
water must be heated to a temperature of 345°. This involves a 
high temperature in the furnace plates and other parts of the boiler, 
imposing a very severe dut3'^ at any time, but doubly destructive iu 
the event of the" existence of incrustation or scale. 

The annexed figures are inserted with a view to render assistance iu 
adjusting the valves of locomotives. The first diagram repreyentd tho 




position of the valve as it should be when at half stroke. The second 
figure indicates the proper position of the valve when at the end of its 
stroke "vvith the crank at the dead centre. A represents exhaust cavity 




jn valve. F ditto in valve seat. P P steam ports. E lead. The third 

cut represents the position of the valve when the link is exactly under 
the saddle-pin and the reverse la,tch in the outer notch in the quadrant 
or sector. V V chows the lap. Full steam is the position of the valvo 
when fully open, and the engine in motion, Cut-off is the position of 
the valve when it has ju^t closed the port against the admission of 
steam, Angular Advance is the augular wQasuf emeut of the arc d©^ 



404 MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 

scribed by the centre of the eccentric while passing from the place it oc- 
cupies when the valve is at half stroke, to that which it occu])ies at tho 
commencement of the stroke of the piston. Linear Advance is the dis- 
tance which the valve moves while the centre of the eccentric in describ- 
ing the above angle. See diagram of Eccentnc, Link and valv2 motion 




A majority of railways allow for the travel of valves, on Express Pas- 
senger Engines, 5 inches, for outside lap, ^ inches, for inside lap, ^ 
inch, for lead in full gear 1-10 inch. On Express Accommodation 
Engines, for travel of value, 5 inches, for outside lap, f inch, for in- 
side lap, ^ inch, for lead in full gear, 1-10 inch. On Heavy Freight 
Engines, for travel of valve, 5 inches, for outside lap, § inch, for in- 
side lap 1-16 inch, for lead in full gear 1-16 inch. 

Power of Eistgikes. — Horse-power iu.steam engines is calculated 
as the power which would raise 33,000 lbs. a foot high in a minute, 
or 90 lbs. at the rate of 4 miles an hour. One-horse power is equal 
to the lifting, by a pump, of 250 hogsheads of water ten feet in an 
hour. Or it would drive 100 spindles of cotton yarn twist, or SCO 
spindles of No. 48 mule yam, or 1000 of Xo. 110, or 12 power looms. 
One horse power is produced by 19 lbs. of Newcastle coals, 50 ibr.. 
of wood, or 34 lbs. of culm. Coals 1, wood 3, and culm 2, give 
equal heats in the production of steam. 

Sixteen lbs. of Newcastle coal converts 100 lbs. of water into steam, 
A bushel of coal per hour raises steam to 15 lbs. the square inch, 
whose velocity is 1350 feet per second, and 2 bushels raise it to 1£0 
lbs., or velocity of 3800 feet per second. A horse-power require:} 
from 5 to 7 gallons of water per minute for condensation of steam, 
A steam engine whose cylinder is 31 inches, with 17 double gtrokea 
per minute, jjerforms the constant work of 40 horses with 5 tons of 
coal per day. One of 19 inches and 25 strokes, of 12 horses, with 1^ 
tons per day. They raise 20,000 cubic feet of water 24 feet for every 
hmidred weight of coals. One bushel of good coals raised from 24 
to 32,000,000 lbs. one foot per minute. Four bushels of coal per hour 
with cylinder of 31^ inches and 17^ strokes of 7 feet per minute, is a 
force equal to 40 horses constantly. A rotative double engine, with a 
cj-linder of 23.75 inches, making 21.5 strokes of 5 feet per minute, is 
a 20 horse-power ; and a cylinder of 17.5, making 25 strokes of 4 feet, 
is a 10 horse -power ; the consumption of coals being proportional. 

Pkoportion of Locomotwe Boilers, &c,— Boiler sheets, best cold 
blast charcoal iron § in, thick, or best cast steel 5-16 in., double rivet:; 
along horizontal seams and junction of fire box to be double riveted. 
Waist formed of 2 sheets rolled in the direction of the fibre of tho 
iron or eteel, One longitudinal seam iu each, jibovc the water lino 



MACHINISTS, EXGIXEERS 



EECEIPTS. 



405 



to be double riveted. All iron sheets § in. thick, riveted with ^ inch 
rivets placed 2 inches from centre to centre. Steel plates 5-16 in. thick 
riveted with f inch rivets, placed 1^ inch, from centre to centre. 
Extra "welt pieces, riveted to side of side sheets, fjiviiig double thick- 




406 MACHINISTS, engineers', &.C., RECEIPTS. 

ncss of metal for stud bolts and expansion braces. Furnace Plates, 
if of iron, 5-lG inch, if of copper ^ in., if of steel, crown sheets, g in., 
f'.ide and back sheets (steely 5-lG in., flue sheets (steel) ^in., waterspace 
3 ins., sides and back, 4 ins. front. Stay Bolts, § in. "diam. screwed 
and riveted to sheets, 4^ in. from centre to centre. Crown Bars, made 
of 2 i)ieces of wrought iron 4^ in. by § in. set 1^ in. from centre to 
centre, and secured by bolts fitted to taper lioles in crown-sheets, with 
head on under side of bolt and nut on top, bearing on crowu bar. 
Croivn Sheets braced to dome, and outside shell. Furnace Door 
opcnmg formed by hanging and riveting together the outer and muer 
sheets. Tubes, 11 feet long, and 2 in. diam. set in vertical rows | of 
an inch apart, give the best results. Grate Bars, for bummg wood 
or soft coal, should have ^ in. openings. Smoke Stack for wood 
burning engmes should have the "bonnet stiick," from 5 to 5. V ft. 
diam. at top, with wire netting ; for engines burnuig soft coal, a niiich 
smaller area of cone is required; but for engine.s burning antliracite 
coal, use a plain open stack without cone or netting. Safety Valves. 
Every locomotive should be provided with two safety valves fitted to 
brass seats, and secured by springs of sufficient elasticity to allow a 
lift of the valve adequate to permit the emission of all the steam the 
boiler will generate after it exceeds the maximum pressure. The 
bearing or mitre on the valve face should not exceed f in. Mud Plufjs 
should be provided on the side of the shell on a level with the crown 
sheet. To avoid weakening the boiler, rivet a welt on the inside of 
the sheU in the line of the holes. Steam Room, G to 7 cubic feet per 
square It. of growtli surface. Good work has been obtained from 
boilers possessing 1 cubic foot of steam room to 1 square foot of water 
surface, and a water surface 1-13 that of heating surface. 

Average Peoportiox of the Various Paiits of Locomo- 
tives.— Cylinders of locomotives vary in size, ranging all the way 
from 8 in. np to 20 in. diam. Crank Pin should be ^ the diam. of 
cylinder. Valve Steins should be 1-10 the diam. of cylinder, l^iston 
Bods should be ^tlie diam. of cylinder. Pump Phuu/er should be 1-0 
the diam. of cylinder. 3fain Steam Pipe, Area should be from \ 
to ^ the diam, of cylinder. Steam Ports, Area should be 1-12 the area 
of cylinder. Exhaust Port, Area should be equal to J the area 
of cylinder. The icidth of bridf/es for different sized cylinders of 
locomotives vary from f to IJ inches. Chimney. Height should not 
exceed 14 ft., diameter a little less than the diam. of cylmdor. Diam. 
of Boilers vary from 3 ft. to 4 ft. 3 in, Tubes vary in number fnom 
100 to 220, top row should be 8 inches imder water. Jleatinfj surface. 
Total should be from 1000 to 1500 square ft. Fire Grate Surface ranges 
from 12 to 30 sq. ft., usual rule 15 sq. ft., with about 90 sq. ft. of 
heating surface in fire box. Evaporative Power should range fi-om 
100 to 200 cubic ft. of water per hour. Proportion of Jieatinr/ surface 
to each sq. foot of grate, should be from C8 to 80 feet Petticoat Pipe 
should be § the diam. of the inside pipe of the stack. Ash Pans, 
should be 9 inches below bottom of grate for wood bumhig engines, 
10 in. for soft coal, and 12 to 14 in. for anthracite coal burners, and 
should be as nearly air tight as possible when dampers are glmt. 
Dampers, should when shut stand at an angle of 35° from perpendicu- 
lar. Sinoke Box, diam, should equal diam. of boiler, length from fhie 
sheet to inside of front door 1^ times tho length of the stroke of iho 



MACUIXISTS, ENGINEEKS', &C., KECEIPTS. 407 

engine. Tires, ■when uevr 2^ to 2-y- in. tliick, must not be worn down 
to less than 1^ to 1^ in. AVroiight iron tires wear about 1-12 of an inch 
per annum. {For further details see jKif/e 413. ) 

KULE TO ri>T> THE IIORSE-rOWEll OP A LOCOMOTrS'E. — ]\rultip]y 

the area of the piston by the pressure per square incli, which should 
be tiiken as § of the boiler pressure ; multiply this product by the 
number of revolutions per minute. Multiply this by twice the lenj^h 
of the stroke in feet or ruches ; if in inclies they must be divided by 
12), multiply this product by 2 and divide by 33,000 ; the result will 
be the power of the locomotive. — Roper. 
Example : 

Cylinder 19 inches 

Stroke 24 ,, 

Diameter of Drivers ... 54 ,, 

Ilumiing Speed, 20 miles per hour. 

Area of piston, 283.5 square inches. 

Boiler jiressure, 130 lbs. per square inch. 

Maximum pressure in cylinders, 80 lbs. 

283.5X80X4X124X2 ^ cgix, horse-power. 
33,000 

Stephexson's "Rocket." — The annexed figure represents tho 
"llocket" as it appeared when it ran in the memorable liainhill 
competition, in 1829, and gauied the prize of £500 offered by the 
directors of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. Tho stipulations 
were: (1.) That the engine should consume its own smoke; (2.) If the 
engine weigh 6 tons, it must draw after it 20 tons, 10 miles an hour ; 
the pressure on the gauge not to exceed 50 lbs. ; (3.) There must be 2 
.'safety valves, the engine and boiler must be supported on springs and 
rest on G wheels, the height of the whole not to exceed 15 ft. to the 
top of the chimney; (4.) It must not weigh more than 6 tons, less 
weight preferred, which may draw a less weight behind it, then it 
may have 4 wheels; (5.) The price not to exceed £550. 

Dimensions — Boiler. Cylindrical in form, length, G ft., diam. 3 ft. 
4 in. Cylinders, two, diam. 8 in., stroke 16^ ui. Weight of Engine, 
4 tons, 5 cwt. with water in the boiler, with loaded tender 7 tons, 9 
cwt. Chimney, diam. 12 in. Heating surface, 117f square ft. The 
boiler contained 25 copper tubes, 3 mches in diameter; the use of those 
tubes with coke for fuel, gained Stephenson his victory, and estabhshed 
his fame. The cylinders were set inclining to the rails at an angle of 
45°, this proved a poor arrangement, as the jolting motion slightly 
lifted the boiler up and doAvn on the springs. Driving Wheels, diam. 
4 J t. 8 in. Highest Speed during trial, 24 miles per hour, for a dis- 
t;incc of 1^ miles. The " Rocket" with all its defects, was a great im- 
]iovemeut on Stephenson's first engine constructed at Killingworth, 
in 1814, and used to "lead coals" from the pit, the motion bemg 
transmitted to the wheels by the intervention of cranks and toothed 
gearing. 

There is a vast contrast between the " Rocket" and locomotives of 
recent construction. Some freight engines are now in use, which 
weigh Q)Q tons, having 4 cylinders and 12 coupled driving wheels. 
Some have cylinders 20 in. diam., with 2G inches stroke, others have 
driving wheels 9 ft. diam., cylinders 18 in. diam., and 24 inches rstroko. 



i08 



MACHINISTS, EKGIXEERS', &C., ni:CEIPT&. 



English express engines have attained a speed of 73 miles per hour, 
between Holyhead and Loudon. 




The illustrious Stephenson is ^vell deserving of doiible honor as tho 
"worthy champion of the loftiest description of mechanical progress, 
at a time "vvhen it might truly be said that he was opposed by almost 
the entire nation. In interference with the old state of affairs nearly 
every one, high and low, seemed to see visions of b'ankrnpt coach 
companies, deserted hotels, riuned landlords, roads overgrown with 
grass, buildings and mansions burned to the ground by flying sparks 
from the engine, commerce ruined, and man and beast everywhere 
run over and crushed under the car Avheels. During Stephenson's 
memorable examination before the committee of the House of Com- 
mons, one of the questions put to him was — "Would it not be an 
awkward thing for an engine to run over a cow?" The honest 
Northumbrian's reply is well known, " Yes, it would be awkward for 
the coo." 

Tire Cemext.— Fire clay, wet, 100 parts, white lead, 3 parts, pow- 
dered asbestos, h part, mix all together and use as mortar. 

Railway TK^A.I^'^ Speed Table.— A train going 1 mile an hour 
travels one and seven-fifteenths — say one and a half foot per sec- 
ond. To form a table of speed from these data is a mere matter of 
multiplication. Example:— A train going 70 miles an hour travels 
per second 1 and 7-15 ft. multiplied by 70=102 and two thirds feet 



MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS* DEPARTMENT. 40? 




The locomotive, with its entire connections and surronndhifj^s, 
should, while on the road, he the object of a care and vijrilauce 
which knows no weariness. Before starting from a station, the en- 
gine should be closely inspected to be sure that all is right; the boiler 
should be well replenished with water, and a good surplus stored in 
the tank. The injector should be closed before starting, and while 
ascending grades, but should be opened to admit feed water during 
stoppage, or while descending a down grade if required, and fuel 
may be added at the same time. In descending down grades, the 
steam should be either partially or entirely shut off, and the engineer 
should, like a trusty sentinel, be always at his post, with his hand on 
the lever, and with all the faculties of his body and mind on the 
alert, ready to act in response to signals, or on the first intimation of 
danger in any of its varied forms. jNIodern improvements have ren- 
dered it an easy matter to stop an engine at very short notice, al- 
though it sometimes happens, on critical occasions, that some of the 
most powerful patent bi^akes have proved inoperative, owing to com- 
plicated or imperfect mechanical adjustment. Broken rails, more cp- 
pecially during winter, in cold climates, like that of Canada and Rus- 
sia, are a fertile cause of numerous disasters^. severe loss, and much 
solicitude and anxiety to the engineer. The frequency of these break- 
ages always increases iu proportion with the rigor of the climate. 



410 MACHINISTS AXD p:ngineers' di:paktmi:nt. 




The Talve gear and eccentrics should be frequently examined, and 
if found defective in any way, no time should be lost in adjusting 
them by following the directions given elsewhere. Use clean water ; 
by so doing much trouble and danger will be averted. Keep the 
tubes well swept, and if one should burst, plug both ends of it with 
as little delay as possible ; if impeded by the emission of steam or 
water, an ample supply of cold feed water will decrease the pressure 
and permit work . If the leak is very serious, it would be the best 
plan to quench the fire in order to secure proper access to repair the 
defective tube. Every engineer should make a point of having on 
liand all those appliances which experience has shown to be neces- 
sary for use during xDOssible emergencies, such as plu^s for the tubes, 
screw jack, wrecking tools, wrenches, hammers, signals, wedges, 
files, rope, buckets, chisels, waste, oil, tallow, &c. 

Railway Signals. — A red flag by day, or red light by night, is a 
signal of danger. Hoisted at a station it is a signal for a train " to 
stop." Hoisted by the road side, it is a signal of danger on the train 
ahead. Carried unfurled on an engine, it is a warning that another 
engine or train is on its way. One short sound of the whistle is the 
signal to apply brakes; two, to let them go; three, to back up; 
four, to call in the flagmen ; five, for road crossings. 

A sweeping parting of the hands on a level with the eye is a signrJ 
to go ahead. A downward motion of one hand, with extended nriu, 
to stop. A beckoning motion of one hand, to back. 

A lantern raised and lowered verticallj', is a signal for starting ; 
when swung at right angles, or across the track, to stop; when swung 
in a circle, to back the train. 

One stroke of the alarm-bell signifies stop; two, to go ahead; three, 
to back. 

Speed of Passenger Trains. — In the United States, the News- 
paper Express train, between New York and Philadelphia makes the 
daily trip of 93 miles in 1^2 hours, inclusive of foin- rtoppagcs. 



MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 411 

The most remarkable fent of railway travel on record, was accom- 
plished June 4, 1870, by a fast special train, which made the jouniey 
from New York to San FranciscOvfi distance of 2900 miles in 26 min- 
utes less than 84 hours, being at the rate of 40 miles per hour. 

Regarding English railways, the following table embraces an enu- 
meration of trains Avhich run over GO miles without stopping, shows 
the distance run, and the average speed per hour. It will be seen 
that the London and Northwestern run the longest distance without 
stopping, as their engines suck up water on the way while running at 
full speed. The fastest is the 11.45 a. m from Paddington over the 
Great Western, which runs from London to Exeter, liiJ miles in 4:^ 
hours on the "broad gauge." The Great Northern, though running on 
the "narrow gauge," maintains an average speed of more than 50 miles 
per liour, and the 10 a. m. Express from London to Edinburgh, called 
by some of the country people the "Flying Scotchman," travels 188^ 
miles in 4^ hours, from London to York. The (treat Northern R." 
with their new engines, having 8 ft. driving wheels, sometimes at- 
tains 51 miles per hour. 



London to Swindon (Broad Gauge Express) 

London to Peterborough 

York to Newcastle 

Grantham to York 

Newcastle to Berwick 

New Cross to Canterbury 

Carstairs to Carlisle 

Oxford to London 

London to Dover 

Rugby to Crewe 

London to Rugby 

Kentish Tn. to Wellingboro' 

Holyhead to Chester 

Wigston to Luton 

Carlisle to Preston 



G. W. 

G. N. 

N. E. 

G.N. 

N. E. 

S. E. 
Caledonian 

G. W. 

S. E. 
L. & N. W. 
L. & N. ^V. 

M. 
L & N. W. 

M. 
L. & N.W.I 89" 



_Q_ 

m 

7C| 

87 

83 

GGf 

77 

74f 

63* 

78" 

751 

821 

62 

85 

6U 



a <v O 



531 

50| 

49l 

47i 

47 

46§ 

45;l 

44l 
44^ 
435 
43| 
4(i 
40.V 



Besides the above, there are well attested cases of passenger trains 
running 78 miles per hour with 16 coaches attached, and even as high 
as Similes per hour have been attained. 

THE FOLLOWING TABLE EXHIBITS THE EFFECTIVE ADHESION OF 
LOCOMOTIVES PER TON DURING DIFFERENT WEATHERS, ON THE 
RAILS : 



Lbs. 



Lbs. 
.400 
.760 



During frost or snow 200 During damp weather 

During misty Aveather 350 During fine dry weather. . 

During wet ramy weather. .600 

The adhesion of a locomotive Avith 4 Avlieels, compared with one 
having 6 Avheels, is in the proportion of 5 to 8. 



412 MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 



Experiments have demonstrated that trains (properly fitted with 
good brakes), moving at the rate of 33 miles j)er liour, can be stopped 
■within a distance of 57 j-ards, and within 273 yards if moving at tho 
rate of 60 miles an hour, the resisting power "of brakes being about 
129 lbs. per ton of train. Resistance caused by defects of roads vary 
from 5 to 40 per cent., and strong side Avinds resist to the extent of 
20 per cent. Resistance increases Avith the speed in about the follow- 
ing ratios : — 
Speed of Trains in miles per hour. . 



10 



15 



20 



30 



1414 



101/2 
1534 



131/4 

2014 



40 1 50 



171/2 I 22% 
2014 I 3414 



Resistance on level railway in lbs. per 

ton i 8% 

Resistance on irregular or curved road 

and high winds | I314 

Effective Pressuke of Stea:m ox Pistox, with different de- 
grees of expansion, boiler pressure being assumed at 100 lbs. per 
square inch. 

Steam cut off at | .of stroke ^= 90 effective pressure. 

(( (( (( ^<( << :=^ QA '< (' 

l( (( H !.«< '« ;-- (in " <« 

(( (i (i X li It =■'50 " " 

it il li i << <« :^= Af) «< <« 



In experiments with Locomotive Xo. 47, North London Railway, it 
was found that in two 17 inch cylinders, 24 ins. stroke, lap of valve, 
I in., lead, h in., position of gear, 4th notch from middle gear, drivers, 
5 ft. () ins. diam., w'ith boiler pressure IGO lbs. per square inch, the 
actual horse-power of both cylinders was 840.552 

That the friction of both valves was 54.952 

" " " eccentrics 74.326 



Total friction of valves and eccentrics 12f).251 

or 15 per cent, of the power of the engine required to move them . 
Rea'olutioxs of Drivixo ^Vheels per IMlI.E. 



Diam. 
in ins. 



42 
43 
46 
48 
50 



Rev. per mile. 



Diam. 
in ins. 



480.4 

469 

439 

420 

403.5 



54 
55 
60 
62 
63 



Rev. per mile. 



373.5 

367 

336 

325.4 

320 



Diam. 
in ins. 



66 

72 
78 
81 
84 



Rev. i)ermile. 



306 

280 
258.6 
249 
240 



The average life of a car wheel under a load of 3^ tons, is 45,000 
miles. The weight of iron rails per mile varies from 78 tons, 11 cwt., 
48 lbs,, to 1.57 tons, 3 cwt., 84 lbs., according as the rails range from 
50 lbs. to 100 lbs. weight to the yard. 

No. of 15 ft. rails per mile, 704 I Xo. of 18 ft. rails per mile, 587 
16 ft. " " 660 " 20 ft. " " 528 



A rise of 60'' in the tempernture of a 25 ft. rail lengthens it to 25 ft 
^ iu. The last table refers to No. of rails required for single track. 



MACHINISTS, ENGINEERS , &C., RECEIPTS. 



413 



Tablk Shoavixg Proportions of the Various Parts of Loco- 
motive E^'GI^"ES, FROM THE BEST AUTHORITIES. 







6 








ti 

.5 

'V, 

g 
















Pa 










p 















f^ 




u 




c 




l-s 


































•a 

B 


d 


S 
p 


S 


M 

B 




2 

OH 



> 



< 




1 


Tcptli of J 
Rods. 


Iain 


VH 


<tH 


C, ( 




«rt 







<M 


e._, 







p 





o 


o 




O 





u 


A 







.s 


W 


p 


c 


B 


F 


S 


G 


a 


E 


w 


£ 


F 


to 


^< 


R 


"o 

























































Q 


« 


« 


H 


W 


« 


t-< 


n 


P 


^ 


P 


Ph 


H 


in. 


:u. 


in. 


ill. 


in. 


in. 


in. 


in. 


in 


in. 


in. 


in. 


in. 


8 


U 


a 




1 


93 
-I 


24 


^ 


4-d 


: 5 


2 


2^ 
24 


14 


9 


U 


1^ 


2f 


oil 


^k 


4^ 


f S 


2 


]i 


10 


1^ 


5 

5 
5 




It 


3 


3 


1^ 


4^ 


24 


2f 


11 
12 
13 
14 


2 
.2 
-k 

2:^ 


1 


1^ 

it 
l| 


3 
3 

3^ 


3 

3:' 
3I 


IS 
2 

2 
2 


5? 
G' 


, 54 


2i 

2| 

3 

3 


21 

2s 

3 

3 


^s 


15 


2i 


G 


1^ 


^ 


34 


2 


GJ 


. 6^ 


2^ 


3i 
34 


IG 


24 


G 


1| 


2| 
2| 


4 


3^- 


2 


7 


8 


3 


17 

18 


2| 
3 


G 
G 


I5 


31 
4 


4 
44 


2 
2 


6 

6J 


7 

t 7 


3 
3 


34 

^4. 


19 
20 


3i 

Si 


G 

G 


2 

2 


44 
4| 


44 
4-1:5 


2 
2 


G. 

gJ 


[ ?l 


3' 


4 

4i 


2 

2i 



Diameter of 


Steam 


Exhaust 


Bridges. 


Cylinder. 


Port. 


Port. 


8 


74X f 


74X1^ 


1 


9 

10 


74x 1 
74x 1 


74xU 
74xl| 


f 

5 


11 


10 XI 


10 X 2 


12 


10 xl 


10 X 2 


13 


12 Xli 


12 x2i 

13 x24 




14 


13 Xlr 




15 


14 Xli 


14 x24 




16 


15 Xli 


15 x24 




17 


16 xlr 


16 x24 




18 


17 xl- 


17 x2^ 




19 


17 xll 


18 x2j - 
18 x2| 




20 


18 xl| 


li 



414 machinists' axd engineers department. 




GEORGE STEPHEXS0:N^, 

THE FIRST LOCOMOTR'E ENGINEER, 

Born June 9, 1781. Died August 12, 1848. 

The iron energy, indomitable perseverance, sterling integrity, and 
thorough practical sagacity for which this Father of Railways was 
noted, have indelibly enrolled his honored name among the benefac- 
tors of the race. Of the first railway, that between Stockton and 
Darlington, George Stephenson was iDOth surveyor and contractor, 
laying'out every foot of the road, and taking the sights through the 
spirit level with his own hands and eyes. On his persistent recom- 
mendations, the intended plan of a wooden tramway was set aside 
and iron rails substituted, and reluctant permission given him to 
place upon the road, which had been intended only for horse-draught, 
a steam locomotive. The trial day was fixed for the 27tli of Septem- 
ber, 1825, which may be regarded as the natal day of railway travel. 
A great throng of people was present to witness the new-fangled and 
much ridiculed affair, the multitude being readj^ to applaud the sue- 



MACIIIXISTS AND EXGIXEIills' DEPARTMENT. 415 




ENGINE NO. 1.— STOCKTON & DARLINGTON R. R.— 1825. 

cess or deride the failure of the man -whom they were equally readj-- 
to canonize as the wisest, or condemn as the craziest man in England. 
The veteran was fully prepared to withstand the ordeal. A long pro- 
cession of vehicles was formed, consisting of 6 wagons, loaded with 
flour ; a covered coach, containing directors and pasf^^engers ; 21 coal 
w'agons, fitted up for and crowded with passengers. Locomotive en- 
gine No. 1, rejiresented in the cut, driven by our hero, headed the 
procession, which was preceded hy a precursor on horseback, who 
rode before to herald the coming of the train, the velocity of which 
was not expected to exceed 4 or 5 miles an hour. But different re- 
sults followed. An innnense multitude of people, both on horsebaclc 
and on foot, <accompanied the train, but not long ; they we} e soon 
distanced, the man on horseback who heralded was compelled to 
leave the track, and the first train that ever carried passengers fin- 
ished its jouniey at the rate of 12 to 15 miles an hour. The load 
carried amounted to 90 tons, including 450 passengers. The railway 
passenger coach which formed part' of the procession Avas totally 
unlike anything now in use, and was drawn by horse power. It was 
several years before passengers were drawn over the road by steam 
(the traffic being confined to freight only), as the terror inspired by 
the locomotive" was such that tiio Liverpool & Manchester R. R. 
Committee pledged themselves not to require any clause empower- 
ing its use, and as late as 1829 the Newcastle and Carlisle Act was 
conceded on the express condition that it should not be worked by 
locomotives, but by horses only. 

The ]i\ims of the Liverpool & INIanchester R. R. were fought 
through Parliament by the indefatignble Stephenson in the face of 
difficulties which would have anpalled any common man ; and when 
ut last the charter was obtained, and the work begun, he nerscnally 



4i£i MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 




rt "^ <- 

'"'I i 

to sL ^ OO+i "tM 

»j" £ , s c <» 

O) O^ C^ -StM 
©•S 03 i 2 «,S 

gl-llgl1 



MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 417 



supervised it from beginning to end, getting his breakfast of oatmeal 
with his own hands, living on horseback, personally inspecting the 
progress of the work, supervising the j)ay-rolls of the men, and per- 
fecting with his own hands the working drawings. In 1829, we find 
Kobert, the younger Stephenson, at a later day engineer of the famous 
Victoria Bridge, Montreal, treading in his father's footsteps, and 
coming off the victor at the noted contest at liainhill, when the 
Rocket, as shown on a i^revious page, eclipsed the performance of 
the Novelty, Sanspareil, and Perseverance. Soon the Liverpool & 
Manchester R. R. Avas opened with the Rocket, altered and im- 
proved, as locomotive, running at tlie rate of oO miles an hour. The 
illustration exhibits the Rocket, as remodelled after the trial and 
as now to be seen in the South Kiusiugtou Museum. 




Sparks from the Locomotive. — {HI. Cent. R.) Ft(el, etc.. 
Average number of miles run to 1 cord of wood, 43.98. Ditto to 1 
ton of "coal, 39.87. Ditto, to 1 pint of oil, 13.83. Cost of Eejxdrs, 
Mechanics' Avages, 62]ier cent. Materials — iron, steel, brass, etc., 31 
per cent. Superintendence, paints, tools, etc., 7 per cent. Average 
cost per mile, in cents, for passenger engines, 20.10, for freight, do, 
35.42. 

French Locomotives. — Average actual power exerted, 450 horses ; 
speed of passenger trains with 15 vehicles, is 24 miles per hour ; 
freight trains, 18 miles, mixed engines, 20 to 30 miles per hour. 

American Locomotive. — A 10 wheeled engine, 18 x 22 cylinder, 
total weight, 30 tons 9 cvvt. ; weight on drivers, 22 tons, on Reading 

27 



418 



MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS DEPARTMENT. 




EDSON'S TIME, PRESSURE, SPEED RECORDING, AND 
ALARM GAUGE. 

M. B. EDSON, 91 LIBERTY ST., NEW YORK, INVENTOR AND PATENTEE, 
ACCORDED EXCLUSIVE MENTION AT THE CENTENNIAL EXHIBITIOI 
OF 1876. 

RR. ; will haul 130 loaded cars ; weight of coal, 676 tons ; of cars, 3r 
tons ; total load, 1,085 tons ; on a down grade, maximum, 13-5 ft. pc 
mile ; minimum, 0.65 per mile. Same Engine will haul 70 loaded cars._ 
or 561 tons, over an ascending grade 35.3 ft. per mile. 

New York City Street Dummy Engines. — Cylinders, 6 ins. by 10 
ins. stroke ; can haul 2 cars, containing 100 passengers each, up a grade 
100 ft. per mile, at 5 miles per hour ; on a level and low grade, at 10 
miles per hour, runs 125 miles per day, burns 1,200 lbs. of coal ; steam 
pressure, 130 lbs. 

A Cramjiton locomotiv.e, drawing 12 carriages, consumes 35 lbs. 
of coke per mile in summer, and 37 lbs. in winter ; the weight with 
tender is 90,000 lbs. ; the cost of running a trip per mile, all items 
included, is 33 cents (gold). An engine is generally worn out ■^^•hen 



MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 419 



it lias travelled 180,000 miles, altliougli some have run more than 
twice that distance ; the usual performance is from 15, GOD to 25,000 
miles per amium. The lifetime of an engine may be taken at 10 years ; 
the cost, in England, $9,600 (gold), tender, $2,200, and the annual 
earnings about $25,000. 




GTFRmO-S ng I ECTOR,' 



1th SeDer's ImorovemenS 



GIFFARD'S IXJECTOR. 
A, steam-pipe connecting -with boiler. B, tube or cylinder, 
through which steam passes into the space h. C, screwed "rod for 
regulating the passage of steam through circular conical space c, and 
Avorked by the handle shown above. E, water supply pipe connect- 
ing the reservoir or hot-well with the small chamber m. C, I, circular 
conical opening or discharge pipe, the dimensions of ■which is ad- 
justed by the movement of the tulae or cylinder C. G, hand wheel 
for operating the cylinder C. H, opening, in connection -with the at- 
mos])here, intervening between discharge pipe and the receiving 
pi')e through which the water is forced. "l, tube through which the 



420 MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 

water is passed to the boiler. K, valve for preventiiij^: the return of 
tlie water from boiler when the injector is closed. L, overflow or 
Avaste-pipe. 

Method of Operation. — Turn the wheel so as to allow a little 
Avater to flow into the injector. Open the tap connectinjj the iufstru- 
ment with the boiler ; the admission of the steam will create a pjir- 
tial vacuum, into which the water will flow with rapidity. The steain 
condenses as it mingles with the water, and as it rushes forward it 
carries the water along in its course, driving it into the boiler v>-ith 
great force. The quantity may be increased or diminished by means 
of taps fitted to the steam and water supply-pipes, and any surplus 
Avater Avill escape at the overflow or waste-pipe. This invention 
effects great economj- in the transmission of hot water to the boiler, 
for not the slightest particle of heat is lost. 

Samuel Rue's injector, a most valuable invention, is well adapted 
to operate as a boiler feeder on laud or Avater ; but may be considered 
as indispensable on marine boilers, as from its peculiar construction, 
Avith steam of from 40 to 50 lbs. pressure, it is capable of forcing 
Avater against a pressure of over 200 lbs. per square inch. 

In 40 years the miles of railway in the United States have increased 
from 3 miles to GO, 000 miles. 

Railavay Cross Ties, No. per mile, 2 ft. centre to centre, 2.641 
" " 2^ " " 2.348 

( c II (( ( ( 9i II a 2 1 1 S 

(( It <( (( o^ (< II -I 091 

" " " " S^ " " L7G1 

The usual dimensions of raihvay ties are 9 feet long, 10 ins. Avide 
XSins., aA'crage life time, 7 years; best material, seasoned AA'hite 
oak. If ties are preserved by Burnettizing they AA'ill last 15 years. 

The test for new steel car axles, is 5 bloAvs of a ram, Aveighing 
1,650 lbs., falling 30 ft. on axle placed on supports 3 ft. apart. The 
test for new iron axles, is 5 blows of a ram, Aveighing 1,650 lbs., fall- 
ing 20 ft., on axle placed on supports 3 ft. apaii;. 

jSTox-Conductor for Steam Pipes and Cylinders. — Good clay, 
50 lbs., finely sifted coal ashes 50 lbs., hair for a bind 12 ozs., mix all 
thoroughly AAith water to the consistence of mortar, and allow it to 
rest for a few hours, but just preA-ious to use, add 50 lbs. plaster of 
Paris, AA'orking it in Avell. ISToav apply it to the pipes, &c. , while AA^arm, 
in a thin coat, and Avhen dry, add another, continuing until the proj)- 
er thickness is secured, whitewashing or painting OA'^er all. 
Ea^apokatiye Poavers of Fuel, etc. — 

1 lb. of coal evaporates 9 lbs of water. 
1 " coke " 7^ to 9 " 

1 " Avood " ^4i 
1 " turf (peat)" 6"^ " 
Stationary engines use from 3 to 7 lbs. of coal per horse power per 

hour. 
Locomotive passenger engines 25 to 30 lbs. coal per mile. 

" freight " 45 to 55 " " 

Wood-burning " 1 cord of wood to 42 miles. 

Bulk of coal is 6 times less than its equivalent in Avood. 
60 bush. Newcastle coal will make 92 bush, of coke. 
1 bush, anthracite coal weighs 86 lbs ; bituminous coal = 80 lbs. ; 
charcoal (hardAvood) = 32 lbs. ; coke = 32 lbs. 



MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 421 




THE FIRST RAILWAY PASSENGER COACH. 
The nia.i;nif]cent caravan represented by the cut convey.s a good 
idea of railwaj^ passenger travel and acconiniodatious previous to 
tlie use of steam power for that purpose. 




M. W. BALDWIN'S LOCOMOTIVE " IRONSIDES" — 1B32. 

M. -W. BALDWIN'S LOCOMOTn''E " IRONSIDES " — 1852. 

Tlie engine j-ei^resented above, constructed by IM. W. Baldwin, 
founder of the Baldwin Locomotive Works, Philadelphia, Pa., U. S. 
A., was first run on the Philadelphia & Norristown R. R., in 1832, 
and proved to be the pioneer of successful railway locomotion in the 
United States. 

The average life of an iron rail is 15,000,000 of tons, or equal to 
100,000 trains of 150 tons each. On the Great Northern Railway at 
Barnet, tlie life of an iron rail was 5 years, with 13,484,601 tons of 
fast trains, and 38,303,028 tons of slow traffic. Steel rails vrerc only 
half worn out with 95,577,240 tons traffic. 



422 MACniXISTS, engineers', &C., KECEirTS. 

Latent Heat of Steam. — Take 2 small vessels connected at their 
to^is by a tube. Let one coiitain 1 lb. of water at 32° Fahr., the other 
C^ lbs. at the same temperature. Apply a spirit lamp below the ves- 
sel containing the 1 lb. of water until it is all boiled away and its vapor 
condensed by passing through the tube and mingling with tlie oj lbs. 
of water in the other vessel. At this point the iieat absorbed by the 
H^ lbs of water will raise the temperature to 212° Fahr. or boiling 
heat, and tlic combined weight will be 0^ lbs. instead of 5^ lbs., as 
l)laced in the vessel at first. The whole of this heat has been trans- 
ferred from the 1 lb. of water held over the spirit lamp, altliough nt 
no time has its heat exceeded 212°. Inasmuch as this heat cannot bo 
measured by any laiown instrument, it is'called latent heat. The 1 
lb. of water made tlie 5^ lbs. to boil, and from this we laiow by cal- 
culation that the combiued latent and sensible heat of steam is about 
1200°. 

The pressure of steam is measured by atmospheres. Steam of 15 
lbs. pressure is steam of one atmosphere, of 30 lbs. pressure, of 3 
atmospheres, &c. It is frequently used as high as G or 7 atmospheres. 
Steam below 2 atmospheres is called loiv pressure steam, and all pres- 
sure above, hUjh 2'>^'cssitre steam. Heat, by expanding water, 
imparts motion to tlie gulf stream, when transformed into steam 
it evolves sufficient power to drive the rolling mill, cotton and other 
mills, the machine shop, the locomotive, and impel the steamship 
over the trackless ocean. As the temperature of water falls below 
100° Centigrade (212°,) the boiling point, it will contract or occupy a 
smaller space mitil it descends" to 3°. 8 Centrigrade, when it will con- 
tract no more, as its greatest density is then reached. From 5°. 8, a j 
the water becomes colder, it expands, till it reaches the freezing 
point 0°. Centigrade, so that is specifically lighter than Avater, and 
floats on the surface, being about 10 per cent, lighter. AVere it not 
for the interposition of this merciful law, and were ice to sink iii 
water, many of the lakes, rivers and streams Avithin the temi)crato 
zones would be rendered incapable of navigation during the greater 
part of the year by reason of the ice at the bottom. 

Application^ for Burxs and Scalds, The following lias been 
tested in the severest cases of burnmg and scalding from railway and 
steamboat accidents, Gij^cerine, 5 ozs. ; white of c^gg, 4 ozs. ; tinct, of 
arnica 3 ozs. ; mix the glycerine and white of egg thoroughly in a 
mortar and gradually add the arnica. Apply freely on linen rags 
night and morning, i^reAdously washing witli warm castile soap suds. 
In urgent cases, if nothing better can be had, clap on a mud poultice, 
a favorite and A'cry effectual remedy with school boys who are stung 
while makhig war on hornets' nests. 

Cement to mend Leaky Boilers. — Powdered litharge, 2 parts, 
very fine sand, 2 parts, slaked quick lime, 1 part. Mix all together. 
To use, mix the proper quantity with boiled linseed oil and apply 
quick. It gets hard very soon. 

Strong Cement for Steam Joints. — ^AVliite lead groimd in oil, 
10 iiarts, black oxide of manganese, 3 parts, litharge, 1 part, lleduce 
to the proper consistency M-ith boiled linseed oil and apply. 

Cement For Holes or Cracks. — Red lead ground in oil, G parts, 
wliite lead, 3 parts, oxide of manganese, 2 x>arts, silicate of soda, 1 
pjirt, litharge, h part, all mixed and used as putty. 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., KECEirTS. 423 

Rust Joint, Quick SETTCfG — Sal ammoniac pulverized, 1 lb., flour 
of sulpliur, 2 lbs. ; iron boriugs, 80 lbs. ; mix to a paste with water iii 
quantities as required for immediate use. 

Quick Settixg Joint better than the last, but requires 
MORE time to Set. — Sal ammonia, 2 lbs., sulphur 1 lb., iron fihngs 
20Glbs. 

Air antd TTater tight Cement for Casks and Cisterns.^ 
Melted glue, 8 parts, linseed oil, 4 parts, boiled mto a varnish witb 
litharge; hardens in 48 hours. 

Marine Glue.— India rubber 1 part, coal tar 12 parts, heat gently 
mix, aud<idd 20 parts of powdered shellac, jMjur out to cool, when used 
heat to about 250°. 

Another Ditto. — Glue 12 parts, water sufficient to dissolve, add 
yellow resin 3 ]parts; melt then add turpentiuo 4 i)arts, mix thor- 
oughly together. 

Ce^ient for External Use. — Ashes 2 partSj <:lay 3 parts, sand 
1 part; mix with a little oil, very durable. 

Cement to Resist Red Heat and Boiling "Water. — To 4 or 5 
]-;arts of clay, thoroughly dried and pulverized, add 2 parts of fine iron 
liUngs free from oxide, 1 part of peroxyde of manganese, 1 part of 
common salt, and ^ part of borax. Mingle thoroughly, render as fine 
as possible, then reduce to thick paste with the necessary quantity of 
Abater, mixing well ; use immediately, and apply heat, grsidually in- 
creasing almost to a Avhite heat. 

Cement to Join Sections of Cast-Iron Wheels, &c. — ^Malco 
a paste of jmre oxide of lead, litharge, and concentrated glycerine. 
Unrivalled for fastening stone to stone or iron to iroii. 

Varnish for Boilers. — Asphaltum dissolved in tnriientino. 

Soft Cement for Steam-boilers, Steoi -pipes, Hcv. — Red or 
white lead, in oil, 4 parts; iron borings, 2 to 3 j arts. 

Hard Cement. — Iron borings and salt water, and a small quantity 
of ?al-ammoniac, Avith fresh Avater. 

Gasfitters' Cement. — Mix together- rcsm, 4^ parts ; wax, 1 part ; 
and Venetian red, 3 parts. 

Plumbers' Cement. — Black resin, 1 part ; brick dust, 2 parts, 
well incorporated by a melting lieat. 

Coppersmiths' Cement.— Boiled linseed oil and red lead mixed 
together into a putty, are often used by coppersmiths and engineers 
to secure joints ; the vrashers of leather or cloth are smeared with 
th-s mixture in a pasty state. 

Coiii'OsiTiONs TO Fill Holes in Castings.- MLx 1 part of borax 
in solution with 4 parts dry clay. — Another : Pulverized binoxide of 
manganese, mixed Avith a strong solution of silicate of soda (water 
clay) to form a thick i)aste. 

■ Cast Iron Cement. — Clean borings, or turnings of cast iron, IG 
parts ; sal-ammoniac, 2 parts ; flour of sulphur, 1 part ; mix them 
Avell together in a mortar, and keep them drjt When required for 
use, take of the mixture, 1 part; clean borings, 20 parts ; mix thor- 
oughly, and add a sufficient quantity of Avater. A little grind-stouo 
dust added improves the cement. 

Cement for Steam-ph^e Joints, etc., with Faced Flanges. — 
White lead, mixed, 2 parts ; red lead, dry, 1 pa)t ; grhid, or other- 
wise mix them to a consistence of thin putt^y ; apply interposed layei-s 



424 MACU12SISTS, ENGINEEKS', &C., KECEIPTS. 

"With 1 or 2 thicknesses of canvas, or gauze -wire, as the necessity of 
the case may be. 

Cement for Joints of Iro^t PirES or Holes rs" Castings. — 
Take of iron borings, coarsely poAvdered, 5 lbs. ; of powdered sal- 
ammoniac, 2 oz. ; of sulphur, 1 oz. ; and \vater sufficient to moi.<teu 
it. This composition hardens rapidly, but, if time can be allowed it 
sets more firmly Avithout the sulphur. Use as soon as mixed, and 
ram tightly into the joints or lioles. 

Best Cement for Aquaria. — One part, by measure, say a gill of 
litharge ; 1 gill of plaster of Paris ; 1 gill of dry, Avhite sand ; ^ a gill 
of finely powdered resin. Sift, and Iceep corked tight until required 
for use, when it is to be made iuto a putty l)y mixing in boiled oil 
(linseed) Avith a little i^atent drier added. Never use it after it has 
been mixed (that is, Avith the oil) over fifteen hours. This cement 
can be used for marine as Avell as fresh Avater aquaria, as it resists 
the action of salt Avater, The tank ci.n be used immediatel}'^, but it 
is best to give it three or four hours to dry. 

Another. — Mix equal quantities of any AA^hite lead and red lead to 
a paste Avitli mastic varnish and use as soon as mixed. 

Cement for Belting. Wate7-p7vof. — Dissolve gutta percha in 
bisulphide of carbon to the consistence of molasses, slice down and 
thin the ends to be united, Avariu the parts, and apply the cement, 
then hammer lightly on a smooth anvil, or submit the parts to heavy 
l^ressure. 

To liErAiR Leakages in Fire Engine: ITose. — Pass a round bar 
of iron into the hose under the leak, then rivet on a patch of leather, 
previously coatcd*t\'ith marine glue. 

To Repair Rubber Hose. — Cut the liose apart A\-herc it is defec- 
tive ; obtain from any gaslitter a piece of iron pipe 2 or 3 inches long, 
t^vist the hose over it until the ends meet, Avrap Avitli strong twine, Avell 
AA-axed, and it Avill last a long time. 

Portable Glue for Draughtsmen. — Glue 5 ozs. ; sugar 2 ozs. ; 
■water 8 ozs. ; melt in a Avater bath, cast it in molds. Por use dissolve 
in Avarm Avater. 

Cementing Emery to "Wood. — Melt together equal parts of 
shellac, Avhite resin and carbolic acid in crystals ; add the last after 
the others are melted. 

To Coat Iron avith Emery. — Give the iron a good coat of oil 
and A\hite lead, Avhen this gets hard and dry, api^ly a mixture 
of glue and emery. 

To Clean Cotton Waste. — Pack the waste in a tin cylinder 
with a j)erf orated false bottom and tube with stop-cock at bottom. 
l*our on the Avaste bisulphide of carbon sufficient to cover, and 
alloAv to soak a feAV minutes, then add more bisulphide, and so on 
lor a time or two, and then squeeze out. By simple distillation 
the Avhole of the bisulphide, or nearly all, can easily be recoveiei 
and so be used over again. This Avill free the cotton comx)letcly 
from grease, 

French Putty. — Seven pounds linseed oil and 4 lbs. brown 
umber are boiled for two hours, and (32 grammes Avax stirred in. 
After removal from the five 5^ lbs. line chalk and 11 lbs. white lend 
are added and thoroughly incorporated ; said to be very hard and 
permaueut. 



MACniNISTS, ENGINEERS', &Cm KECEirTS. 425 

To Me>'^d Cracked Cast-Trots' Vessels. — Drill a hole at each ex- 
treme end of the crack, to prevent its further extension, pluc^ rivet 
the holes with copper, and, with fine iron filings saturated with 
urine, caulk the crack. Four parts of pulverized clay and one 
part of iron filings made into a paste with boiling linseed oil and 
applied hot is a good cement for the same purpose. 

To Prevent Iron Rustikg. — Give it a coat of linseed oil and 
wliiting, mixed together in the form of a paste. It is easily removed 
and will preserve iron from rusting for years. 

Glue for Labelling on Metals. — Boiling water, 1 qt. ; pulver- 
ized borax, 2 ozs. ; gum sheUac, 4 ozs. Boil till dissolved. Used for 
attaching labels to metals, or it will do to vn-ite inscriptions with, 
!ind dust or dab on a little bronze powder over it, varnishing over 
the bronze. 

Ce:\ient for Petroleum Lamts. — Boil 3 parts of resin with 1 
part of caustic soda and 5 of water. The composition is then mixed 
with half its weight of plaster of Paris, and sets firmly in ^ to 5 of an 
liour. It is of great adhesive power, not iDermeable to petroleum, a low 
conductor of heat, and but superficially attacked by hot water. 

For Lute, or cement for closing joints of apparatus, mix Paris 
plaster with water to a soft paste, and apply it at once. It bears nearly 
a red heat. To render it impervious, rub it over with wax and oil. 

Roman Cement. — Slaked hme, 1 bush., green copperas, 3^ lbs., 
fine gravel sand, | bush. Dissolve the copperas in hot water, and mix 
all together to the proper consistency for use ; use the day it is mixed 
and keep stirring it with a stick while in use. 

Vicat's Hydraulic Cement is prepared by stirring into water 
a mixture of 4 parts chalk and 1 part clay ; mix with a vertical wheel 
in a circular trough, lettmg it run out in a large receiver. A deposit 
foon takes place which is formed into small bricks, which alter be- 
ing dried in the sun, are moderately calcined. ■ It enlarges about § 
Aviien mixed with water. 

Glue to Resist Moisture. — Glue, 5 parts, resin, 4 parts, red 
ochre, 2 parts, mix with the smallest possible quantity of water. 

Ce.'Ment to Fasten Leather on Top Rollers. — Gum arable, 22 
ozs., isinglass 2f ozs., dissolve each sej)arately in water and mix. 

Parchment Glue. — Parchment shavings, 1 lb., water, G qts. 
Toil till dissolved, strain and enva])orate to right consistence. 

To attach Glass or JIetal Letters to Plate Glass. — Copal 
varnish, 15 parts; drying oil, 5 parts; turpentine, 3 parts; oil of tur- 
])entine, 2 parts; liquefied glue, 5 paits. Melt in a water bath and 
add 10 parts of slaked lime. 

Turners' Cement. — Beeswax, 1 oz. ; resin, ^ oz. ; x^iteh, A oz.; 
r.ielt, and stir in fine brick dust. 

Bank Note Glue. — Dissolve 1 lb. of fine glue or gelatine in water; 
evaporate it till most of the water is expelled; add ^ lb. of brown 
{uigar, and pour it into moulds. 

Cement for Electrical Macitines and Galvanic Troughs.— 
IVIelt together 5 lbs. of resin and 1 lb. of beeswax, and stir in 1 lb. of 
red oclu-e (highly dried and still warm) and 4 oz. of plaster of Paris, 
oontinuing the heat a little above 212°, and stirring constantly till aU 
frothing ceases, or (for troughs) rosin, 6 lbs. ; dried red ochre, 1 lU, 
calcined plaster of Paris, ^ lb. ; linseed oil, 4 lb. 



42G 3iAcnixiSTS axd exgixeers' department. 

Architectural Cement — 1. Reduce paper to a, smooth paste by boil- 
ing it in water; then add an equal weight of silted wliiting and good size; 
boil to a proper consistence. 2. Paper paste and size, equal parts; finely 
powdered plaster of Paris to make it of a proper consistence. Use it as 
soon as mixed. Can be nsed in making architectural busts, statues, 
columns, &c. It is light, receives a good polish, but will not stand water. 

Alabaster Cement. — 1. Finely powdered plaster of Paris, made into 
.1 paste with water. 2. Melt yellow rosin, or equal i)arts yellow rosin 
and beeswax, then stir in half as much finely poAvdered plaster of Paris. 
The first is nsed to join and fit together pieces of alabaster or marble, 
or to mend broken plaster figures. The second is to join alabaster, 
marble, and other similar substances that will bear being Jieated. 

French Cement for Rooms. — A coat of oxide of zinc, mixed witli 
size, made np like a wash, is first laid on the wall, ceiling, or wainscot, and 
over that a coat of chloride of zinc applied, prepared in the same way as 
the first wash. The oxide and chloride effect an immediate combina- 
tion, and form a kind of cement, smooth and polished as glass, and said 
to be superior to plaster of Paris for coating the walls of rooms. 

Cement for Cloth or Leather. — Take ale,l pt. ; best Russia isin- 
glass, 2 ozs. ; put them into a common glue kettle and boil until the isin- 
glass is dissolved; then add 4 ozs. of the best common glue, and dissolve 
it with the other ; then slowly add 1^ ozs. of boiled linseed oil, stirring all 
the time while adding, and until well mixed. When cold it appears like 
India rubber. To use, dissolve Avhat yon need in a suitable quantity of 
ale to have the consistence of thick glue. It is a]:)plicable for earthen- 
ware, china, glass, or leather ; for harness, belts for machinery, cloth 
belts for cracker machines for bakers, &c. If for leather, shave off as if 
for sewing, apjily the cement with a brush while hot, laying a weight to 
keep the joint firmly iiressed for G to 10 hours, or over night. 

Cutlers' Cement. — Black rosin, 4 lbs. ; beesAvax, 1 lb. ; melt together 
and add 1 lb. finely powdered and dried brick-dust. Used for fastening 
knives and forks in their handles when they become loosened by use. 

Cement for Fastening Fibrous Materials to Metals. — This 
can be effected by dissolving glue in vinegar by heat and adding one- 
third of its volume of white pine pitch, also Jiot. 

Good Paste that will Keep a Year. — Dissolve a teaspoonful of 
alum in a quart of warm Avater. When cold, stir in as much flour as will 
bring it to the consistence of cream, being particular to break up all the 
lumps ; next, place it on the fire and allow it to cook gently for a few 
minutes, stirring well meanwhile ; add 2 teaspoonf uis of corrosive sub- 
limate, a few drops of carbolic acid, and a teaspoonful of oil of rose- 
mary, or cloves, or lavender, or any other essential oil, stirring in well. 
This paste wiU keep for any length of time in prime condition. 

jMucilage. — Put 3 ozs. of gum arable in an earthen-Avare vessel con- 
taining ^ pt. of cold water. If the liquid is occasionally stirred, the 
gum in 24 hours will be dissolved and ready for use. 

Cement to Fasten Rubber to Wood or IMetal. — Soak pulverized 
gum shellac in 10 times its weight of ammonia ; in 3 or 4 weeks a slimy 
mass is obtained which will become liquid Avithout the use of hot AA-ater ; 
this softens the rubber, and becomes, after volatilization of the ammonia, 
hard and impermeable to gases and fluids Avhenever it is used on rubber 
connected to wood or metal, as in steam, or other apparatus. 

Imperishable Putty. — Linseed oil, 7 lbs. ; brown umber, 4 lbs. ; 
boil together two hours ; stir in 2 oz. beeswax, remove from the fire, 
and mix in 5^ lbs chalk and 11 lbs. Avliite lead, mixing thoroughly. 

Cheap Gold Varnish for Ornamental Tin-Ware. — turpentine 
varnish, 2 gals. ; turpenthie, 1 gal. ; asphaltum, 1 gill ; umber, 8 oz. ; 
yellow aniline, 4 oz. ; gamboge, 1 lb. Boil and mix for 10 liours. 



MACHINISTS AXD EXGINEEKS' DEPAPwTMEXT 427 



Temporary Repairs iii Locomotive Break-downs 
on the Roatl. 

That the locomotive, in its long and rapid trips, with continual oscilla- 
tion, jars, and heavj'- shocks, over uneven rails, passing around curves 
and sinuosities, twisting first one way and then another, should meet 
with frequent break-downs, is a matter of small wonder. The real 
wonder is that they do not occur more frequently. Much of this im- 
munity from accident is doubtless owing to the watchful care of the 
men to whom the}- are intrusted, whose perceptions and intuitions are 
quickened to a wonderful degree of activity by the peculiar dangers 
which beset them in their calling. Among the emergencies in which the 
locomotive engineer may be called to act, the following nuij^ be noted : 

1. Bursting of the Tubes or Flues. — The temporary remedy for this is 
to drive a tapering plug of pine wood into the ruptured tube by ram- 
ming it with the end of an iron bar. When a simple leak exists, the 
plug should be driven into the tube so as to cover the fractured part, 
where the action of the steam will swell the plug, causing it to fit tight 
and correct the trouble. The timber used should be well seasoned, and 
the plugs formed a trifle too small for the tube ; the expansion due to 
the moisture will do the rest. "With bursted tubes the wooden ]ilugs 
should be followed iip by tapering iron plugs driven tight into the flues. 
To do this comfortably it will be necessary to repress the heat in the 
furnace by covering the fire with fresh fuel from the tender. 

2. Throiving off a Driving WJieel. — When the break occurs, as is fre- 
quently the case, just outside the driving-axle box, remove the driving- 
box and substitute in its place a substantial piece of timber fitted to use 
as a journal bearing for the axle. Adjust this timber on the pedestal caj) 
so as to sustain the axle in the centre of the pedestal. By cautious 
management, disconnecting the valve gearing, securing the piston, and 
opening the cylinder cocks as before, the engine may be run slowly to- 
w^ards its destination. 

3. Where a Wheel Tire is TJiroicn Off, the best way is to elevate the 
dismantled wheel from the track by fitting a block of timber into the 
oil cistern of the driving-box; when this is done connect with another 
engiue and tow the disabled machine to the repair shop without allow- 
ing the tireless wheel to touch the rails. 

4. Heated Axle-Boxes. — This trouble is frequently detected by the 
odor of burning oil. In this case the speed should, if iwssible, be re- 
duced, and the box freely lubricated; but if this proves of no avail, a 
brisk jet of cold water from the tank should be directed on the hot box 
by means of a small rubber hose, which should always be kept on hand 
for such emergencies. To avert all danger from the fused lining metal 
of the brasses becoming brazed to the journal of the axle the engine 
should be kept moving veiy slowly, and not allowed to come to a full 
sto]) until the trouble is past. 

5. When the Piston-Rod becomes Heated, the remedy is to loosen the 
gland sufficiently to permit the free emission of steam from the engine cyl- 
inder through the packing. Lubricate freely and apjjly water with the 
hose as above noted, while running slowly, 

6. Broken Crank Pin. — Where only one crank-pin is broken remove 
the parallel or coupling rods on both sides of the engine, and if the 
broken crank-pin belongs to the driving-wheels, remove the connecting 
rod at the same time, open tlie cylinder waste-water cocks, and se- 
curely block the cross-head. If the parallel rods on botli sides of the 
engine are not removed, there is imminent danger, Avhile running, ol 
breaking the remaining crank-pins on the opposite side. 



428 MACHIXISTS AXD ENGIXEERs' DEPARTMENT. 

7. Drivmcf out the Front Cylinder-head. — RemoYe the connectiug-rod 
on the disabled side of the engine, and detach the valve motion, epithet 
by taking down the eccentric rod straps or at the rock-shaft arm. Next, 
set the valve in the centre of its travel, so as to overlap and cover both 
of the cj'linder steam ports, but Avith the exhaust port open. Then 
croAvd the back towards the tender as far as it will go and proceed with 
the sound cylinder. 

8. Breaking of the Piston-rcd. — The provisional remedy for this-, 
where the cylinder-head is not driven out, is to proceed as directed in the 
last noted emergencj-. Open the waste-water cocks 6T the disabled cyl- 
inder to check any leakage of steam past the slide valve from gaining 
admission to the cylinder and forcing the piston against the cylinder- 
head and driving it out. Block the piston securely by means of pieces 
of timber fitted between the guide-bars, so as to extend between the 
guide-yoke and cross-head. 

9. Broken Spring or Spring-Hanger. — Apply the jacks and raise the 
engine until the axle-box of the driving- wheeHs nearly in the centre of 
the pedestal, then place a suitable piece of iron crosswise of the upper 
part of the driving-axle box, but between it and the engine frame, so 
fls to rest the w^eight of the engine on the frame and relieve the spring. 
To prevent the movement of the equalizing bar, and to permit the opera- 
tion of the spring at the other end of the said bar without moving it, a 
piece of iron should be placed between the bar and the top of the engine 
frame. 

10. Breaking of Piston-Rod from the Cross-Head. — ^In this case the 
piston may be removed from the cylinder, or immovablj'- braced against 
the front cj'linder-head, as may be most convenient. It matters not if it 
does leak a little steam. - 

11. Breaking a Lifting Link or the Saddle Pin Connecting the Re- 
verse Shaft to the Slot-Link. — The temporary remedy for this accident is 
to fit a piece of wood and fasten it with stout twine "on the top of the die 
or link-block. It should be of sufficient length to keep the link in proper 
position for duty in running the train. Kext, secure another piece of 
wood (by the same means as the last noted) in the Imk-slot below the 
die or sliding-block, to fasten that block in the right position to allow 
the engine to run. As the engine cannot be reversed on the disabled 
side, the driver must exercise double caution in stopping. 

12. Slipping of the Eccentrics. — The provisional remedy for this ac- 
cident is as follows : Place the reverse lever in the end notch of the sector 
forward and place the driving crank-pin or engine-crank as nearly on a 
dead centre as possible, opening the waste- water cocks at both ends of 
the cylinder. Now detach the rocker-arm from the slide-valve spindle, and 
move the latter until the opening of the cylinder steam-port, corresponding 
to the end of the cylinder at which the piston stands, will be shown by 
the emission of steam through the waste-water cock at that end of the 
cylinder ; the throttle-valve being slightly opened to admit a small quan- 
tity of steam to the cylinder and steam-chest, for if a large supply en- 
tered it would be liable to pass through leaks in the piston and thence 
through both of the waste-water cj'liuder-cocks. The jjosition of the 
valve being now ascertained, the eccentric is next moved upon the 
driving-axle, and adjusted so tliat the valve-spindle will connect with the 
rocker-arm without being moved, or moving the valve at all. Still an- 
otiier temporary remedy is this : Set the reverse lever in the forward 
notch, place the crank on its forward dead centre, and slacken the set- 
screw of the eccentric Avhich connects to the upper cud of the 
link; the forward eccentric. This eccentric must now be moved round 
upon the axle until the slide-valve causes the steam-port at the front end 
of the cylinder to open sufficiently to afford . the required amount of 



MxVCIIINISTS AXD EXGINEEES' DEPART3IEXT. 429 

valve lead. To accomplish the desired results, the eccentric must be 
moved as it operates when the engine is going ahead. The eccentric 
being thus properly adjusted in position, it should be firmly secured by 
means of its set-screw. If the rear eccentric becomes loose, place the re- 
verse lever in the backward notch, and elevate the link so that the ec- 
centric connected to the lower end of the link may be properly adjusted, 
moving it around on the axle as it operates when the engine is running: 
backwards, until the rear cylinder-cock is open to the required amount 
of valve lead, when it must be secured as above noted. 

How TO Shape a Saii.ing Vessel or Steamer. — The model of a vepsel 
is in every case determined by the nature of the traffic lor which she is des- 
tined, the motive power by which she will be impelled, and the cliaracter of 
the waters she is intended to navigate. For shallow ports and rivers, she 
must be flat-bottomed and of light draught. If slie is to navigate northern 
seas, she must be constructed to encounter and outride the fearful gales and 
tremendous storms of frequent occurrence. If she is to visit tropical climates 
and follow the great marine highways of commerce in deep water fi'om 
ocean to ocean, she must be equally adapted for conflict Avith the tropical 
hurricane and the freezing gales of the north. It is a fact that the first-claFs 
iron steamers which ply between New York and the various European ports 
\m\e proved themselves abundantly capable, Avhere no serious derangement 
is sustained by the machiuerj^, of coming safely into port through the Avorst 
]iossible kind of weather. Even contrary winds have the beneficial effect of 
quickening the draught of the furnaces, and thus increasing the speed of the 
vessel. This wonderful endurance and nice adaptation to duty is no chance 
work ; it is the result of design — the careful adjustment of forces, and the 
closest calculation on the part of the designer. 

If a vessel is to be impelled by the Avhid, she will have one shape ; if by 
steam, and with paddles, quite another ; and still another if a propeller. 
Tliere is a vast discrepancy between the graceful curves and swelling lines 
of a first-class excursion steamer and the unwieldj^, cumbrous form of the 
collier, yet each vessel is specially designed for its particular vocation. 

The character, cost, length, width, depth, and capacity of the vessel being 
determined, the first step is to make the model. To do tliis a number of 
pieces of well-seasoned, select pieces of Avood, of a uniform thickness, aio 
chosen. The size may be from 4 to 7 ins. Avide, and from 18 ins. to 3 ft. in 
length. An equal number of pieces of veneer, of a corresponding size, aie 
next selected, of a color contrasting with that of the boards previously 
chosen. The boards are now carefully adjusted over each other, ^with a 
veneer between each, and the Avhole are glued together, and submitted to 
lu'essure, so as to make a solid, compact block of the Avhole. From this bloclc 
the designer forms the model of one side of the jmll of the projected vcsfcl, 
for as both sides Avill be exactly alilce, there is no use for representing moie 
than one-half of the hull. The greatest care and the nicest calculation nuut 
be used in order to render the form of the bloclc an exact counterpart of the 
hull of the future ship, as in building the latter every part must be con- 
structed to conform, in the minutest particulars, to the model. It will bo 
seen from this that every thing relating to the ship's capacity, speed, draught, 
safet}'-, &c., depends upon the ability, forethouglit, and prescience of the de- 
signer in calculating every possible contingency rehiting to the displacement 
of Avater, draught, buoyalicy, the force of the^vind and AvaA-es, &c. If the 
future vessel be intended for a steamer, the designer must be able to calcu- 
late the proper degree of immersion for the paddles or submersion for the 
propeller, as either of the two may be used for propulsion, with numerous 
other minor details. 



430 MACHINISTS AND ENGINEEKS' DEPARTMENT. 




JAMES AVATT. 

An illustrious and honored name. In 1764, "Watt constructed the 
first steam engine of real practical value ever made in England, and 
in 1786 he ijatented and introduced the first non-condensing engine. 
This improvement consisted in his discovery of the power of cold 
water to condense steam, and he applied this means in a separate 
vessel. Four ounces of water -will, in a second, condense 200 feet of 
gteam, and reduce their expansive force to one-fifth. 

The Waterous EnTtIne Works Co.'s Hioh Pressure Exgtxe, 
represented in the cut, is in very extensive use in Canada, audis credi- 
ted with first class performances. The improved governor used on 
this engine is superior to most of the best kinds now manufactured 
in its controlling and regulating action, combined with easy adjust- 
ment. Outer bearings are added to the valve spindles, and brass 
glands to the stuffing boxes, which are held to place with a cap 
screwed on, thus obviating any liability to get out of line. The piston 



MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT.* 431' 



,ililii:-i!q; 




432 MACHINISTS Axi) EXGixEERs' di-:paktmp:nt. 



rods and crank-pins arc of f^teel, and all valve spindles and engine 
bolts are made of Lownioor iron. 

The above noted engine mnst iiot be confounded with the 20 and 
25-liorse power direct action portable engines manufactured by the 
s;vme company, so Avell known and so extensively used in driving saw 
raills, and performing Avork connected with ship building in the 
]\Iaratime Provinces, and other parts of the Dominion of Canada. 
These engines and mills arc considered by many who use them as 
marvels of perfection, several ])ai-ties having sent in attestations of 
having performed nearly double the work guaranteed by the com- 
pany. 




• RICHARD'S INDICATOR, BY ELLIOT BROTHERS, LOXDOX. 

The above cut represents a Richards Steam Engine Indicator, 
consisting of a cylinder containing an accurately adjusted piston, the 
upper side of which is always exposed to the doAviaward pressure of 



MACniKISTS AND ENGINEERS* DEPARTMENT. 433 

the atmosphere, and fitted with a stii¥ spiral sprini? of kiiow}i strength 
to resist the upward movement of the steam when it operates lioni 
l)eneath. The indications of the instrument are exliibited In- means 
of a pencil connected with the piston and operated by the lluctuatin^c: 
pressure of the steam, whereby the pencil is compelled to move up or 
down in a vertical direction, and describe a line on a piece of pa]icr 
l)laced on the card barrel or drum shown in the cut, Avitli the jiiadu- 
ated scale, the drum in the meantime being compelled to move hitlier 
and thither on its axis by means of a cord c(jnntcting it with a suit- 
able part of the engine operating to di'aw it one Avay against the ten- 
sion of a spring during the forward stroke of tlie engine, the bacl\- 
ward movement of the drum towards its original position being 
effected by the operation of the spring while the cord is relaxed dur- 
ing the return stroke of the engine. The piston to Avhich the pencil 
is attached, is very light, has very little friction, small momentum, 
and very limited motion, the spring on the ii]iper part being quite 
stiff anci rigid, and so graduated in strength that a variation in tlie 
pressure of 1 lb. to the square inch Avill force the pencil up or doAvii a 
definite part of an inch. The indicator is intended to exhibit the 
pressure of steam in tlie cylinder at every part of the piston's travel, 
and thus show the actual or indicated horse-power. In applying the 
indicator to horizontal (Cylinders, the proper place for insertion is on 
the upper side, near the ends, but averted as much as possible from 
the steam ports, as the rushing steam has a tendency to derange the 
indications. Vertical cylinders should be tapped at the upper end, 
and the indicator cock screwed in, or the aperture in which the oil 
cup is hiserted maybe used for that purpose; for the lower end, drill 
through the side of the cylinder, and insert a tube with tlie end bent 
upwards for the reception of the indicator cock. The indicator be- 
ing in position, a cord (fine wire is preferable), from the paper barrel 
is Tittached to a " reducing wheel," which is secured to some part of 
the engine frame; another cord connects the reducing Avheel with the 
l>iston'head ; the intervention of this wheel is necessary in order to 
diminish or 'reduce the long movement of the piston to a. sufficient 
extent to conform to the small size of the instrument used. The 
connection bein^^ complete, «ncl the engine in motion, the paper bar- 
rel will commence to revolve ^ith the forward movement of the 
piston, in antao-onism to the tension of the coiled sprmg above noted, 
when the cord' is relaxed bv the return stroke of thepiston, the paper 
barrel, operated by the spring, will resnme its original position, and 
this motion will continue as long as may be desiiabie. ibe pencil, 
if now allowed to press upon the moving paper, w'lJl describe a 
strai'^ht horizontal line, called the atmospheric Ime. On tlie admis- 
sion of steam by turning the tap of the indicator, this horizontal 
motion will suddenly change into an npward or doAvnward move- 
ment, just as the piston in the indicator is driven npwards by the 
steam or dowiiAvards by the atmosphere, as either gains the ascend- 
ancy; and the pencil AAill describe, on the moving paper, a space or 
outline, compounded of the tAvo motions, called an indicator diagram, 
on eh point in the course of which Avill determine, by its elevation or 
dem-ession above the atmospheric line, the exact amount of pressure 
in that part of the cylinder during each part of the foi'Avard and re- 
turn stroke. Many prefer to trace the indicator diagram previous to 
tracing the atmospheric line. 

28 



434 MACHIN13TS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 

In diajjram E, the atmospheric line A B, described by the pencil 
without steam, is equivalent to the stroke of the piston, Avhich may 
be divided into as many aliquot parts as there are inches in the stroke 
of the ]iiston. Perpendiculars raised on this line will cut the diagram 
at points indicating the corresponding pressure. The curved Ime 
A B, traced by the pencil, exhibits the varyhig i)ressure of the steam 
during the steam stroke, in the direction A B, and during the return 
stroke B A; the continuation B C A represents sindlarly the back 
pressure due to incomplete exhaust. Tlie curve is thus arranged to 
begin and end in itself, and it plainly represents the pressure of tlie 
steam on one side of the piston during a double stroke. Divide the 
base line into inches of stroke, say 20, and at each division draw 
vertical lines; similarly draw lines parallel to the atmospheric line 
at equal distances, of say 10 lbs. pressure by the indicator scale ; the 
force of !::tcam at ail iwiuts of the stroke will be obvious. 



E 
J^xpaiiswn. -^ ^. Starting 

Corner Steam Stroke Comer 



-60Z6i. 
-5. 

-2a 

-10 

qA 

-10 
153} 





































jj 


^ 




























{ 


/ 


"^ 








< 




























1 














/ 


% 

n 






















^ 


y 
















j 


^ 














1— H 


^ 


> 


y 


















/ 


/ 




7 


J 


/ 


X 




























/( 




JB 


y 




_ 


^ 




^ 


_ 




_ 


, — : — 


1 
— t — 


c^ 


y_ 


(W 





Induction HecuL 

/; Cvrner 'Vacu-uml/ine Corner 



5©fee- 



JRetum Stroke. 



To Compute the Poxoer of the Diarp^am—Set down the length of 
the spaces formed by the vei-tical lines from the base, in measure- 
ments of a scale accompanying the indicator, and on which a 10th of 
an inch usually represents a pound of pressure; add up the total 
length of all the spaces, and divide by the number of spaces, which 
will give the mean length, or the mean pressure npon the piston in 
pounds per square inch; multiply the area of the piston in square 
inches by the pressure in pounds per sqnare inch, and bv the speed 
of the piston, in feet, per mhiute, and divide by 33,000, which gives 
the actual number of horses' power. 



MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 435 



At such times a register should be used to couut the number of 
revolutious per miuate, Note the size of tlie ports, the form and 
kiud of eugiue, the lap and lead of the valve, the exhaust lead, tlie 
pressure of steam in the boiler, diameter of cylinder, number of 
strokes per minute, the diameter and length of steam pipe, the poijit 
of cut-off, the heiglit of the barometer and temperature of the engine 
room; and the vacuum by gauge, the temperature of the hot-well, 
and that of the injection water, if the operation has been performed 
on a condensii>g engine. To take a diagram with absolute truth it 
is necessary to operate at each end of the cylinder. 

POAVER ReQUIRKD FOR VARIOUS PURPOSES. — 

To drive a 20 to 30 inch circular saw, 4 to G horse power. 
" 32 to 40 " " 12 " " 

" 48 to 50 " " 15 " " 

" 50toG2 " " 25 " " 



POWER NECESSARY TO 


GRIXD ORAIX WITH PORTABLE MILLS. 


Horse 
Power. 


Size of 
Stones. 


Revolutions 

per 

Minute. 


Bushels Corn 

Ground 

per Hour. 


Bushels of 

Wheat Ground 

per Hour. 


2 to 4 
4 to 6 
Gto 8 
8 to 12 
12 to 15 


12-inch. 

20 " 
30 " 
36 " 

48 '< 


800 to 900 
650 to 700 
550 to GOO 
450 to 500 
350 to 400 


Ito 4 

5 to 8 

10 to 15 

18 to 25 

25 to 35 


1 to 3 

4 to 6 

7 to 10 

12 to 15 

15 to 18 



Saw INIachine for Stones. — Soft Sand Stone : Breadth of saw- 
cut, I mch; time required to saw 10 square feet, 5 minutes 25 seconds; 
power expended, 4.54 horses, Hcaxl Sand Stone: breadth of cut,' 
^ inch; time employed to cut 10 square feet, 1 hour 37 minutes; pow- 
er required, 2 horses. In sawing stone the labor on calcareous stones 
is as 45 to 50; on granite, as 500 to 700; on porphyry 1,200. A mar- 
ble saw requires half a horse power. 

Water Vi'ojtKH.—i Moles worth.)—! gal. of water = 10 cubic ft. ap- 
proximately; 1 cubic foot of water = ey^ gallons approximately. 

Consumption ofioater in towns.— IG gallons per liead per day in non- 
maiiufacturing towns; 20 gallons per dav in manufacturing towns. Tlie 
mam should be large enough for double the usual quantity. Impounding 
reservoirs to contain about 120 days' supply in the less rainy districts \n 
fc^ngland Service reservoirs to contain 3 davs' supply. On the average. 
aDout 6-lOths. of the rainfall is available for storage. Loss from overflow 
ot storm- water, about 10 per cent. Evaporation is 50 per cent, less on 
flat country than on an undulating rocky counti-y. 

Infiltration, in England, in winter .«?3 per cent. 

,^ '* in spring , .35 " '< 

" in summer 2 *' " 

. " " in autumn 4.'^ «' *« 

Average of the year - 42 <« " 

Filters for' Water Works.— t square varVi' of' filter for everv 700 
gallons in 24 hours: formed of 2 ft. 6 ins. of fine sand, 6 in. of com- 
mon sand, 6 ins. of shells. 2 ft. 6 ins. of gravel. 

Perforated pipes to be laid in the lowest stratum. 

To Unite Water Pipes.— An excellent material for unitinir 
water pipes is prepared by combining 4 parts of Portland cement and 
1 part of unslacked lime, mixed together in small portions in a stout 
mortar, adding enougli water to permit it to be reduced to a soft paste. 



436 MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 




THE ALLEN" HIGH PRESSURE CUT-OFF ENGINE. 

The engine represented above is constructed in the best manner, and 
vahiabie improrements have been introduced with a view to attain a 
very higli speed and thus ensure immense po\A'er in a limited sjmce. 
The travel of the piston is from 600 to 800 ft. per minute, and the 
engine is constructed of the best material, and is of excellent design 
tliroughout. 

Hampsox and WHiTEHiLii's HioH Pkessure Exgin^e. — This 
massive and powerful engine (see cut) is in quite extensive use, and 
is noted for its substantial construction, its excellent valve arrange- 
ment, powerful governor, economical expansion gear, and many other 
valuable points. 

The following Table shows the DniExsioxs. Poweu. "Weight, 

&C., OF DIFFEREXT KIXDS OF PORTABLE STEAM EXGIXES AND 

Boilers. — Haswell, 



Power. 


Cj-linder. 


Driving or Fly^ 
Wheels. 


Weight of 

Engine and 

Boiler. 


Nom- 
inal. 


Act- 
ual.* 


Diam. 
Stroke. 


Diam. 
Fan. 


Revolu- 
tions. 


4 

5 

7 

8 

12 

15 

20 

25 

30 

40 


4.7 
7.3 
10.5 
14.3 
19.2 
24.3 
30.9 
36.3 
43.2 
58.8 


4x 10 
5X 10 
6X 10 
7X10 
8 X 12 
9X12 

10 X 16 

11 X 18 

12 X 18 
14X18 


ins. 
21/2 X 6 
3X7 
3V2X 7 
3%X 8 
4 X 8 
5X9 
6 X 10 
6 X 10 

6 X 12 

7 X 14 


175 

175 
175 
175 
150 
150 
116 
100 
100 
100 


lbs. 
2.800 
3,200 

4,200 

4,900 

■ 6,100 

6,900 

ir,200 

12,300 

13.800 

16,700 



* Compute:! at 60 lbs. pressure. All the Portable Engiueg have two fly 
wheels, or Driving pulleys, 



MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DErARTMENT. 437 




438 MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 

The Baxtek Portable Steaini Engine, as manufactured by 
the Colt Arms Co. of Hartford, Conn., is made of five sizes, embracing 
two, four, six, eight, and ten-horse power, respectively, is certainly 
one of the most complete, unique, simple, and economical portiiblo 
ero^ines ever constructed. It is too ^vell known to require a detailed 
descri on; but two illustrations are presented heieAvith, the fiibt 
showi c; a front view of the exterior pait, and the other exhibiting a 
sectional view of the plain boiler for the two-horse power engine. 




The laro-est size has a bursting strength correspondin.ff to BOO lbs. 
to the square inch, whereas the working pressure is about 70 lbs. ; the 
graallest size a bursting strength of 1000 lbs., and a w-crking pressure 
of about 90 lbs. All the heating surfaces are below the water line, 
which ensures safety to the boiler. The circulation of the water Avithin 
the boiler is perfect, thus holding the sediment in suspension, so that 
it may be expelled by blowing out. The cylinder and its parts are 
Ivept iiot bv immersion in the'steam, so that no caloric Is lost, and the 
piston has^i vertical movement, ro that there Is but little wear and 



MACHINISTS A.XD ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT, 4od 

tear resulting: from friction. It is hardly iwssible to explode the 
boiler in any contin.i^ency, and 100 lbs. of coal will run a four-horse 
cn.^^ine for 10 hours. The whole machine is composed of about loO 
component parts, all interchangeable, so that each article can be fur- 
nished by the manufactui-er, as it may be required to effect repairs 
rendered necessary by Avear or breakage. The engine has a piston 
f-peed of abont 200 feet per minute, tlie diameter of the pi.-ton is about 
the same as the length of the stroke, and the valve arrangement is 
most complete. 

Griffith axd Wkdoe's Vertical PoKTAnLE Engine. — The 
engine represented below in escnts a combination of many valuable 
features, among others, the mini- 
r.iiiui of friction, owing to the 
vertical position of tlie cylindei-, 
an iuiprovement which is c[uite a 
novelty on engines of this de- 
scription, and effectually i)rc- 
vents the nnequal wear of the 
cylinder and piston to which all 
horizontal engines are liable. 
The Avhole mechanical arrange- 
ments are most complete, and so 
efficient that it can be driven from 
275 revolutions, the proper speed 




GRIFFITH AXD WEDGE'S VERTICAL PORTABLE ENGINE. 



f >r saw mills, to 400 revolutions per minute, Avithout overtasking the 
bjiler. 



•440 MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 




ROBERT FULTOX, 



THE PIOXEER OF STEAM NAYIGATIOX IN A3IERICA, 

While Robert Fulton was in England, converting a speculation into 
a reality, he-was on friendly intercourse with Sir R. Phillips, to whom 
he wrote a triumphant letter on the evening of liis first voyage on the 
Hudson. This letter was shown to Earl Stanhope and four or five 
eminent engineers, but treated with scorn as descriptive of an impos- 
sibility. Sir R. Phillips then advertised for a company to repeat on 
the Thames what had been done on the Hudson, but he obtained 
only two ten-pound conditional subscribers, after expending some 
pounds in advertising! He then i:)rinted, with commendation, Ful- 
ton's letter in the Monthly Mar/azine and his credulity was general- 
ly reprobated. Then, for several years, the American accounts were 
treated as falsehoods, till a man ruined himself by launching a vessel 



MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 441 

ou the Clj'de. Three Scotchmen afterwtards made experiments. It 
was, however, a mere speculation until taken up by Fulton in 1806-7, 
and introduced on the x\merican rivers. Thence Bell introduced it to 
the Chde. At first every one derided the inventor as Avell as the in- 
vention, being- afraid to trust themselves on the boat. The ignoble 
treatment accorded by America to the memory of her noble son, the 
generous Fulton, is a blot most foul upon her banner. Hundreds of 
thousands now avail themselves of the great invention Avliich his 
genius brought to light, ou the Avaters and wharves Avhere 70 years 
ago, during his life time, the name of the poor unrequited inventor 
was a laughing stock and a bye-word. It is but a feAv days ago that 
a relation appeared in the New York Sun, giving an account of the 
accidental discover^^ of his bones in a vault, where, as we now learn, 
they had been granted a temporary resting place by the favor of the 
owner, and finally forgotten. 

Sugar Mill for Caxes. — A 3-cylinder mill, with rollers 5^ ft. 
long, 30 ins. diara., and making 2^ turns per minute, driven by an 
engine of 25 to 30 horse power, will express the juice out of 100 tons 
of canes in 12 to 15 hours. An acre of land produces from 10 to 20 
tons of canes, according to the age and locality of the canes. The 
juice stands from 8 to 12 of the sacchrometer, according to the locality. 
The product in sugar varies from (5 to 10 per cent, of the Aveight of 
the canes, according to the locality and mode of manufacture. Well 
constructed niills give in juice from 60 to 70 per cent, of the Aveight of 
the canes, and one main condition of efficiency is, that the rollers 
shall travel slowly, as Avith too great a speed the juice has not time 
to separate itself from the Avoody refuse of the cane, and much of.it 
is reabsorbed. To defecate 380 gals, of juice, 6 boiling pans or caul- 
drons are required, 4 scum presses, and 10 filters, and to granulate 
the sugar, 2 vacuum pans, 0^ feet diam., are required, Avith tAvo con- 
densers, and it is better alsoto have two air pumps. The steam for 
boiling tlie liquor in the vacuum pans is generated in 3 cylindrical 
boilers, each 6 ft. in diam. To Avhiten the sugar, there are 10 centri- 
fugal machmes, driven by a 12 h. p. engine, Avhich also drives a i^air 
of crushing rollers. — Bourne. 

Oil Mill.— Weight of edge runners, 6,000 lbs. ; number of turns 
of the A-ertical spindle per minute, 6; Aveight of seed introduced every 
10 minutes. 55 lbs. ; Aveight of seed crushed daily, 3,300 lbs. ; product 
in oil in 12 hours, 1,320 lbs. : power expended, 2-72 horses. 

HrDROSTATic Press.— 30 bales of cotton per Jiovr. Engine {high 
pressure cylinder), 10 ins. diam. ; stroke of jnston, 3 ft. ; Pressure of 
steam, 50 lbs. per square inch; full stroke; Ecvohdions, 45 to 60 per 
minute; Presses, 2, Avith 12-inch rams; stroke, 4-5 ft; Pumps, 2; 
diam., 2 ins. ; stroke, 6 ins. — Hasicell. 

FuLLixcj Mill.— In fulling the cloth called " Beauchamps," 
each piece beini? 220 yds. long and .66Avide, and Aveighing from 121 to 
127 lbs., the fuller makes 100 to 120 strokes per minute; each piece 
requires 2 hours to full it, and the expenditure of 2 horse power 
during that time. — Bourne. 

Indelible Red Ink for Cotton and Woollen Mills.- Use 
equal parts of copperas and chmabar, both in fine powder, sift, and rub 
up Avith linseed oil Avith a nmller; then squeeze through cloth. 
Used for Avriting or stamping on cotton or Avoollen goods, it cannot be 
bleached out. 



442 INIACIIINISTS AND ENGINEKUS' DErARTMKNT. 

"Wind Mills. — The length of an arm (whip) is divided into rcvcn 
parts, the sails extending over six parts. The force of wind at 10 miles 
an liour, is half a j)ound per sqnare foot ; at 14 miles is a pound ; at 
20 miles 2 lbs. ; at 25 miles 3 lbs. ; at 35 miles G lbs. ; at 45 miles 10 
lbs. ; at GO miles 17| lbs. ; and at 100 miles is nearly 50 lbs. The driv- 
ing shaft of a Avind mill should be set at an elevated angle with the 
horizon when set in low localities, and at a depressed angle when set 
on elevations. These angles may range from 3° to 35°. To give the 
fullest effect to the force of the wind, the sails are inclined to the axis 
from 72° to 75°. The tips of the sails often move 30 miles per hour, 
or 44 feet per second. From tip to tip is ahout W feet, and the 
breadth from 5 to G feet. The performance of such a mill is equiva- 
lent to the power of 34 men. 

Experiments prove, 1st, That in a vertical wind mill employed to 
grind corn, the mill stone usually makes 5 revolutions to 1 of the sail. 
2nd, When the wind is 19 feet per secord, the sails Avill make from 11 
to 12 revolutions per minute, and the mill will grind 883 to 990 lbs. in 
an hour, or about 22,000 lbs. in 24 houis. 3d, With the wind at 30 
feet per second, a mill will carry all sail, and make 22 revolutions per 
minute, grinding 1984 lbs. of flour in an hour, or 47,G9D lbs. in 24 hours. 

From the experiments of Smeaton, it appeals that the following 
positions are the best. Suppose the radius to be divided into 6 equal 
parts, and call the first part, beginning with the centre, 1, the second 
2, and so on, the extreme part being G : — 

ANGLE WITH THE 
AXIS PLANE OF MOTION. 

. ' 18 deg. 

19 " 
18 " 
16 " 

m " 

7"^ " 

French Flouk Mill. — Diameter of millstones, 70 inches; num- 
ber of revolutions per minute, 70; quantity of corn ground and sifted 
per hour, 2G0.71bs. ; power consumed, 3,34 horses, as tested by the 
dynamometer. 

English Flour Mill. — Diameter of millstones 51.18 inches; rev- 
olutions per minute, 110; corn ground per hour by each revolving 
millstone, 220 lbs. ; power required for two revolving stones, 5.G4 
horses. Power consumed by one winnowing machine and two bolt- 
mg machines, with brushes sifting 1,650 lbs. of flour per hour was 6^ 
horses. In another mill the number of turns of the millstone was 486 
per minute, the quantity of corn ground by each horse power was 120 
lbs., of which 72.7 per cent, was flour, 7.8 per cent, was meal, and 
19.5 per cent, was bran. In a portable flour mill, with machinery for 
cleaning and sifting, the total weight was 1000 lbs. — Bourne. 

English Flour Mill near'Metz. — Diameter of stones, 51.18 
inches; number of revolutions per minute, 110; weight of millstone, 
1 ton ; corn ground per hour by each pair, 220 lbs. with two pairs of 
millstones acting, 1 bolting and 1 winnowing machine; the power con- 
sumed was 8^ horse power. — Bourne. 5 bushels of Northern, and 4^ 
bushels of Southern wheat, are required to make 1 barrel of flour; 2 
lbs. of wheat make about 3 lbs of bread. 



NO. 


angle WITH 


1 


72 deg 


2 


71 " 


3 


72 " 


4 


74 " 


5 


m " 


G 


83 " 



MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS* DEPARTMENT. 443 




The L^ffel Biproved Double Turbine Water Wheel. — 
This celebrated Avheel (see cut), manufactured by Jas. Leffel & Go., 
of Sprin.scfield, Ohio, and NeAv Haveu, Conn., of Avliich there are now 
about 8,000 in use, combines two independent sets and kinds of buck- 
ets, one a vertical, and the other a central discharge, differing entirely 
from each other in the principle of action upon the water. The two 
sets of buckets are so combined as to make really but one wheel, and 
by their arrangement admit the greatest possible quantity of water 
consistent with economical use to anj^ given wheel of w^hatever size, 
and at the same time the greatest area for the escape of the water is 
secured. Thus, the surface of the wheel is reduced to a minimum, 
as compared with the quantity of water used, and a very great loss 
of power by friction is avoided. In connection with these wheels the 
Globe cast-iron casing is coming to be almost uni^'^rsally used, espe- 
cially for the smaller Avheels. JMany of them are placed under heads 
of water, varying from 80 to 240 feet, and the tremendous pressure 
is withstood in the most admirable manner. The severest test, that 
of taking the place of an over-shot wheel under a very high fall, and 
with an extremely limited supply of water, is repeatedly applied, and 
in every instance with the most complete success. For over 12 years 



44-4 MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 



tliis ^vheel has stood the severest practical tests, developing tlie nt- 
niost power from a giveu quantity of water, in all places and under 
all circumstances, from the magnificent cotton mill down to the 
humble frontier saw and grist mill. 



Table ov Spoutixg 



B 

1 



Velocity axd Discharge 
Gate Orifices. 



9 
10 



E 


1 F 


1 B 


E 


1 F 


1 B 1 


E 


F 


17.6i 


0.62 1 


11 


58.51 


2.03 


! 21 


80.84 


2.81 


24.95 


0.86 


12 


61.11 


2.12 


22 


82.75 


2 87 


30.55 


1.16 


13 


63.61 


2.21 


23 


84.61 


2.93 


b'5.28 


a. 22 


14 


66.01 


2.29 


24 


86.43- 


3.00 


39.45 


1.37 


15 


68.33 


2.37 


25 


88-21 


3.06 


4.3.21 


1.50 


16 


70.57 


2.45 


26 


89.86 


3.12 


46.68 


1.62 


17 


72.74 


2.53 


27 


91.67 


S.18 


49.90 


1.73 


18 


74.85 


2.60 


28 


93.35 


?.24 


52.92 


1.84 


19 


76.90 


2.67 


29 


95.00 


3.30 


55.79 


1.94 1 


20 


78.90 


2.75 


30 


C6.63 


3.£5 



OF Water for 



B I E I F 



31 


98.22 


3.41 


32 


99.80 


3.46 


: 33 


101.34 


3.5 i 


1 34 


102.87 


3.57 


! S5 


104.37 


3.63 


36 


105.85 


3.67 


37 


107.31 


3.72 


38 


1C8.75 


3.77 


i 39 


110.17 


3.82 


1 40 


111. 58 j 


3.87 



The above table gives depth in inches* from 1 to 40, as noted under 
columns B. Columns E represent the velocity per second, in inches 
and decimals of an inch. Columns F represent the number of cubic 
feet per minute for each square inch of orifice. ^ 

Illustkatio>^ — Suppose the opening under a forebay gate, re- 
quired to pass tlie water of a stream, is 48 inches wide and 3 inches 
deep, with a head of water (B) in forebay of 28 ins. ; to find the water 
discharged, run down the columns marked B until you come to 28 ins. 
(head given in this example); then run across to column F, Jind you 
will find 3.24, the number of cubic feet of water discharged by an 
orifice 1 in. square, under 28 ins. head. The area of the opening 
given, 48 ins. by 3 ins. is 144 square inches; this multiplied by 3.24 
gives 4()(3.5(j cubic feet that the above opening will dischaj-ge per min- 
ute. Tliis table gives the actual and not the theoretical discharge. 

In the measurement of large open streams, first asceitain the mean 
velocity in feet per minute, and also the area of cross section of the 
stream in square feet, when tlie product of these two quantities Avill 
give the required quantit}^ of water afforded by the stream. The 
velocity of such stream can be estimated by throwing floating bodies 
on the surface of near the specific gravity of the water, and rating the 
time accurately required in passing a given distance. It is generally 
best to ascertain the velocity at the centre, and from this ascertain 
the mean velocity, which has been found by accurate and reliable ex- 
periments to be 83 per cent., or about four-fifths of the velocity of the 
surface of the stream. The cross section may be estimated by measur- 
ing the depth of the stream at a number of points, at equal distances 
apart (these points being in a line across the stream), adding the 
depths together, and multiplying their sum by the distance apart in 
feet of any two points. This will give the result required in square 
feet of cross section, when the product of mean velocity in feet ]iev 
minute and cross section in square feet, obtains the quantity of water 
that the stream affords in cubic feet per minute. Leffell's Wheel 
Book. 

Saw a>t) Grist Mill. — A Waterous 40-horse-power engine will 
drive a 60 inch circular saw, capable of cutting 20,000 feet of ship 
plank in 12 hours, edger, trimmer, shingle machines, lath machine, 
and bolter, and 2 run of stones in grist mill. 



MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 445 



Pitch of Wheels, being a Table of Radii of "Wheels ix 
Inches, hating from 7 to 22G teeth, the Pitch being 2 inches, 
showing how to compute the Pitch fok a designated Diam' 
eter, or the Diameter for a Designated Pitch. 

Eadius 

£8.25 
58.57 
58-89 
59 21 
59.53 
59.84 
GO. 16 
60.48 
60.80 
Gl . 13 
61. « 
61.76 
62.07 
62.39 
62.71 
63.03 
63.34 
63.66 
63-98 
64.30 
64.62 
64.94 
C5.26 
65.57 
65.89 
66.21 
66.53 
C6.85 
67.17 
67.48 
67.80 
68.12 
68.44 
C8.76 
69.07 
69.39 
69.71 
70.03 
70.35 
70.67 
70.68 
71.30 
71.66 
71.94 

To find the Radius for any given Pitch other than two inches, the rule 
is, as two inches is to the given pitch, so is the radius of the Table to 
the radius required, or, to determine the niimber of Teeth in a wheel for 
a designated pitch and diameter, divide the diameter by the pitch, and 
opposite to the quotient, in the Table will be found the proper number 
of teeth. 

Wheel Gearing, Cokstrtjctign of Teeth. — The cut represents 
a section of a pair of gears whose teeth act on each other on the same 
plane; tliey are L:nown us sjmr gear. Tlie hirges-jt is v. sjncr mortice 



Teeth. 


Radius. 


Teeth. 


Radius. 


Teeth. 


Radius. 
30.24 


Teeth. 


Radius. 


Teeth. ] 


7 


2.29 


51 


16.24 


95 


139 


44.25 


183 


8 


2.61 


52 


16.56 


96 


30.56 


140 


44.57 


- 184 


9 


2.93 


53 


16.88 


97 


30.88 


141 


44.88 


J 85 


10 


3.24 


54 


17.20 


98 


31.20 


142 


45.20 


186 


11 


3.55 


65 


17.52 


99 


31.52 


143 


45.. 52 


187 


12 


3.86 


5G 


17.83 


100 


31.84 


144 


45.84 


188 


13 


4.18 


57 


18.15 


101 


32.15 


145 


46.16 


189 


14 


4.49 


5S 


18.47 


102 


32.47 


146 


46.48 


190 


15 


4.81 


59 


18.79 


103 


32.79 


147 


46.79 


191 


16 


5.12 


CO 


19.11 


104 


33.11 


148 


47.11 


192 


17 


5.44 


61 


19.42 


105 


33.43 


149 


47.43 


193 


18 


5.76 


62 


19.74 


106 


33.74 


150 


47.75 


194 


19 


6.39 


C3 


20.06 


107 


34.06 


151 


48.07 


195 


20 


6.71 


64 


20.38 


108 


34.38 


152 


48.39 


lf]6 


21 


7.71 


65 


20.70 


109 


34.70 


153 


48.70 


197 


22 


7.03 


66 


21.02 


110 


35.02 


154 


49.02 


198 


23 


7.34 


67 


21.33 


111 


35.34 


155 


49.34 


199 


24 


7.66 


68 


21.65 


112 


35.65 


156 


49.66 


200 


25 


7.98 


69 


21.97 


113 


35.97 


157 


49.98 


201 


26 


8.30 


70 


22.29 


114 


36.29 


158 


50.30 


202 


27 


8.61 


71 


22.61 


115 


36.61 


159 


50.61 


203 


2.S 


8.93 


72 


22.92 


116 


36.93 


160 


50.93 


204 


29 


9.25 


73 


23.24 


117 


37.25 


161 


51.25 


205 


30 


9.57 


74 


23.56 


118 


37.56 


162 


51.57 


206 


31 


9.88 


75 


23.88 


119 


37.88 


163 


51.89 


207 


32 


10.20 


76 


24.20 


120 


38.20 


164 


52.21 


208 


33 


10.52 


77 


24.52 


121 


c8.52 


165 


52.52 


209 


34 


10.84 


78 


24.83 


122 


38.84 


166 


52.84 


210 


3o 


11. IG 


79 


25.15 


123 


39.16 


167 


53.16 


211 


36 


11.47 


80 


25.47 


124 


39.47 


168 


53.48 


212 


37 


11.79 


81 


25.79 


125 


39.79 


169 


53.^0 


213 


38 


12.11 


82 


26.11 


126 


40.11 


170 


54.12 


214 


39 


12.43 


83 


26.43 


127 


40.43 


171 


54.43 


215 


40 


12.74 


84 


26.74 


128 


40.75 


172 


54.75 


2W 


41 


13.06 


85 


27.06 


129 


41.07 


173 


55.07 


217 


42 


13.38 


86 


27.38 


130 


41.38 


174' 


55.39 


218 


43 


13.70 


87 


27.70 


131 


41.70 


175 


55.71 


219 


44 


14.02 


88 


28.02 


132 


42.02 


176 


56.02 


220 


45 


14.33 


89 


28.34 


133 


42.34 


177 


56 34 


221 


46 


14.65 


90 


28.65 


134 


42.66 


178 


56.66 


222 


47 


14.97 


91 


28.97 


135 


42.98 


179 


56.98 


223 


48 


15.29 


92 


29.30 


136 


43.29 


180 


57.23 


224 


49 


15.61 


93 


29.61 


137 


43 61 


181 


57.62 


225 


50 


15.93 


&4 


29-93 


138 J 


43.93 


182" 


58.93 


226 



446 MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 



wheels fitted witli woodeu cogs. A shows the square wooden cogs, 
generally driven into niortice wheels previous to beiug laid off with 
the dividers and dressed down to the exact pitch and outlme, as shown 




in the shaded part representing the finished tooth. The teeth of the 
small wheel (called the driven, the large one with the cogs beiug Iniown 
as the driver) are iron, bemg cast with the wheel, and are suiS&ciently 
strong if but lialf the size of cogs. 

The jj/fc7i line (see dotted lines extending from B to C, and from D 



MACHINISTS AND ENGINEEKS' DEPARTMENT. 447 

to E) is a circle of sufficient dimeusions to permit the requisite num- 
ber of teeth and spaces to be laid out on it. 

The length of a tooth should be .7 of the pitch, A of it being below 
the pitch line, and .3 above, as shown in cut. As a general thing, the 
greater the breadth of a tooth across the surface the longer it Avili wear. 
By the pitch is understood the space between the middle or centres 
of two adjoining teeth, as shown by the arrows at F F, or the breadth 
of a tooth and a space, as shown by the arrows at G G. The semi- 
diameter running to the pitch line is called the pitch radius. 

The true or chordial pitch is a straight line draAvn between the 
centres of two adjoining teeth, and is that by which the dimensions 
of the teeth and speed of Avheel are computed. 

The radius is the space between the centre o! the Avhc el and the 
periphery of a tooth, or half the diameter of the Avb.ccl. 

The line of centre^;, shown at H, passes throiigh the centres of two 
wheels, and on this line the pitch circles of the wheels should merge 
into each other (as shown in cut) when they are properly regulated 
for operation. 

Proportion of Teeth of "Wheels — . 

From pitch line to top of tooth = Pitch x 0-.03 

Total depth of tooth =- Pitch x C-75 

• Thickness of tooth on pitch line = Pitch x 0-^5 

Space between teeth on pitch line = Pitch x ('"ou 

Thickness of rim of wheel = Pitch x O'JS 

Thickness of arms in Hat = Pitch x 2*u:) 

Thickness round centre = Pitch x 1"30 

Mortice wheels to be wider than iron wheels by twice the thickness of 

the rim ; ilm to be double the thickness of iron wheels. 

Pitches of Equivalent Strength for the Teeth of Wheels in 
Different Materials — 

Pitch for cast iron =: 1-00 

" brass = 1-00 

" hardwood = 1-20 

'* " according to other authorities =: 1-2G 

The number of arms in wheels should be as follows : — 

1-5 to 3.2G feet in diameter, 4 8.5 to lU feet in diameter, 8 

3-25 to 5 '• " 5 16 to 24 " " 10 

5 to 8.5 " " 6 

Fly Wheels.— Weight of rim should be 85 to Co lbs. per horse 
power, momentum of wheel being 4^ times that of the piston; dia- 
meter 3 to 4 times that of the stroke of the engine. Single-acting 
engines, fly-wheel to be 5 times heavier than in double acting engines. 

To Compute Weight of Rim — Multiply the mean effective pressure 
upon the piston, in pounds, by its stroke, in feet, and divide the pro- 
duct by the product of the square of the number of revolutions, the 
diameter of the wheel, and -00023. For a light wheel multiply by 
•0003; for a heavy one by 'OOOIG. 

To Compute Dimensions of i?/»j— Multiply the weight, in pounds, 
by •!, and divide the product by the mean"^ diameter of the rim, in 
feet ; the quotient will give the sectional area of the rim in square 
inches of cast iron. 

Ginning Cotton — 4 horse poAver will drive a gin of from 40 to 60 
saws, and for every additional 20 saws add 1 horse power. 

TJireshing Grain — 4 horse power should thresh 50 bushels per 
hour ; 6 to 8 horse power will drive the ordinary 10 to 12 horse 
thresher and separator. 



448 MACHINISTS and engineers' department. 




BORING MACHINE FOR SUBMARINE TUNNELS. 

The above engraving represents a back view of the tunnelling or 
boring machine intended to be used in perforating the proposed tunnel 
under the English Cliannel, between Erance and England. Opera- 
tions have already been commenced on the French coast, and fer- 
vent hopes are entertained that no insurmountable obstacles will be 
encountered. The chalk formation through which it is proposed to 
drive the tunnel, is 400 feet thick on the English coast and 300 feet 
on the French ; and, as the Straits of Dover are in no ]oart deeper than 
186 feet, it is confidently anticipated that the proposed enterprise will 



MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS* DEPARTMENT. 449 

be successful. It is intended that the machine will at once bore out 
the tunnel to the proper size, 16 or 18 feet in diameter ; and, as the 
soil to he penetrated consists only of soft chalk beds, it is thought 
that all the operations can be conducted Avithout resorting to the use 
of steel drills or blasting operations, as simple boring tools will be 
all that will be requisite. The power will be transmitted from a 
steam engine placed at the mouth of the shaft or entrance to the tun- 
nel, by means of a wire rope connecting with the first wheel or 
pulley, as shown in the cut, which then, by means of intermediate 
gearing, &c. , communicates motion to a series of cutters and borers in 
front of the machine. Should this arrangement prove too compli- 
cated, it is most probable that compressed air will be used as a sub- 
stitute for steam power. The machine, as represented above, is im- 
movably braced by means of two uprights, fitted with stout rollers, 
extended against the arch above, and four projecting wheels Avith 
triple flanges, fitted into temporary rails below, the whole being 
further secured by two heavy jack-screws, one above the machine 
and another below, pressing on proper bearings against the contri- 
vance from the top and bottom of the tunnel. It is estimated that 
the tunnel, if driven through the lower chalk formation, will be about 
23 miles long ; but in the event of serious obstacles arising from over- 
whelming quantities of water breaking in, it is not improbable that 
the advice of Professor Prestwick may be followed : to drive a tun- 
nel through the Paleozoic rocks (the lowest fossiliferous strata), which 
are supposed to be about 600 feet below the surface at Dover, in 
which event the length would somcAvhat exceed the above estimate. 
The only question in connection Avith the prosecution of this enormous 
enterprise, is raerelj- one of money, as the scientific appliances of 
the present day put the practicability of the Avork beyond a doubt. 
That a A-ast amount of money Avill be required, may be manifest from 
the folloAving table, compiled by Major I»icClellan, U. S. A., showing 
the cost of tumiels in various localities prior to 1855 : — 



Location. 



Per Cubic 
Yard. 



Black Rock, U.S., grey 
Avacke slate 

Blaisley, France, lined 

Blis worth, Eng., blue 
claA% lined 

Blue Ridge, U. S 



S6 60 
3 18 

1 55 



Location. 



Per Cubic 
Yard, 



England, freestone, mar- 
ble, clay, &c., lined. . 

Lehigh, U.S., hard gran- 
ite. 

Schuylkill, U. S., slate.. 



4 00: Union, U. S.. slate. 



^3 46 

4 36 
2 00 
2 08 



RailavatTuxxels in soft scmdstone, in the United States, cost, 
without lining, per lineal yard, ^88. In loose ground, thick lining, 
per lineal yard, $7.10. Ordinary brick lining, including centering, per 
cubic yard, $8.50. 

Shafts. — Blaisley Tunnel, clav, chalk, and loose earth, cost, per 
yard in depth, $139.11. Deepest, 646 ft. Black Rock, 7 ft. in diam. 
and 139 in depth, hard slate, cost, per yard in depth, $79.50, or per 
cubic vard, $18.72. The time required to drive the heading of the 
Black'Rock Tunnel for 1782-5 feet, Avas 23,387 turns of 12 hoiirs each. 

The Ingeesoll Rock Drill, represented in the cuts, is a most 
powerful flud effective mechanical appliance in the A'aried requiie- 

29 



450 MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPAl^TMENT. 




ments of tunnelling, mining, submarine blasting, «&:c. It works on 

the percussion 
principle, and is 
operated either by 
steam power, as il- 
lustrated in the 
out, or by com- 
pressed air, acting 
on a iiistbn Avithiu 
a cylinder, secured 
b}' clamps to a ver- 
tical or horizontal 
column or tripod. 
It can be adjusted 
to perforate the 
rock at any desired 
angle, and, on open 
quarry work, the 
large drill (they 
are made of differ- 
ent sizes), is an 
equivalent to the 
work of 25 men, 
and has often done 
the work of 40 men 
for mipppsssi vp dfiv<3 

YIEW OF THE DRILt ATTACHED TO COLt'MN, AS Jii rnlUvn^'r +nii^if« 
USED WITH COMPRESSED AIR OR STEAM, '^^ otJ^^^r SUbteJ- 
WHEN PRACTICABLE. '^" „ ^^, ^"^^^^ 

ranean places pre- 
s e n t i u g impedi- 
ments to active 
work, of course the 
progress is consid- 
erably less. The 
average boring 
done in hard rock, 
p'er day, of ten 
hours, is from 70 
to 80 feet. In un- 
derground work, 
where foul air ex- 
ists, the emijlo}-- 
ment of compress- 
ed air becomes a 
necessity, as it not 
only dissipates all 
danger from explo- 
sive gases, but 
drives the drill 
equal to steam 
power, cools the 
atmosphere, and 
dispenses fresh air 
to the workmen. 
ConsideTed in all 
its bearings, it is a 
most wonderful 
machine. 




\aEW OF DRILL ATTACHED TO COLUINIX, AS AR- 
RANGED FOR USE IX SHAFTS. 



ASSAYING AND SMELTING METALS. 451 

Gold Assay by Smelting Process.— Take 600 grains of the 
gold-bearing quartz, finely pulverized, and free from sulphurets; mix 
with GOO grs. litharge and 7 grs. of charcoal; melt all in a crucible of 
ample size, and set off to cool. Break the crucible wlien cold, 
and the gold will be found in a small button under the refuse matter 
at the bottom. To ascertain the amount of f/old in a metallic sub- 
stance, select a small sample, weigh it, and melt in a small cupel, 
composed of calcined bone ashes. Tliis absorbs the common metal, 
leaving the gold and silver exposed to view. The resultant button is 
melted once more in the proportion of gold, 1 part, silver, 3 pai-ts, 
and then rolled into a thin baud and boiled in nitric acid, which dis- 
solves out the silver, and leaves the gold pure at the hottom. The 
gold can be removed, and the silver subsequently ]3recipitated with 
salt. 

Gold Assay with a Hokn^ Spoox. — Take an ox horn and re- 
move half of it, so as to leave an open part 7 or 8 ins. long and about 
o ins. wide; pulverize the rock to be tested very fine, and using it 
instead of a jmn, wash out a few ounces, and if some particles of gold 
are detected, or a " color " perceived, as a rule it will pay to work it. 

I>* THE Assay of Rock Cgn'TAinijs'G Pyrites, it must be 
roasted until it ceases to evolve sulphurous fumes, then mix 600 grs. 
of the powder with 300 grs. carbonate of soda, 300 grs. charcoal, 300 
grs. litharge, 300 grs. dried borax, and 15 grs. charcoal; melt all in 
a crucible, and treat as directed above. 

Silver Assay by Smelting. — If no lead is present, mix 600 
grs. of the pulverized ore Avith 300 grs. carbonate of soda, 600 grs. of 
litharge, and 12 grs. of charcoal in a crucible, add a slight coat of 
borax over all, put on the furnace, melt, take off, give it a few taps 
to settle the metal, let it cool, and remove the button. 

To Assay Argentiferous Galena, or lead bearing silver ore. — 
Mix 300 grs. of the pulverized ore with 000 grs. carbonate of soda and 
30 grs. charcoal; melt in a crucible on a furnace, and treat as de- 
scribed above, and remelt the button in a porous cupel made of bone 
dust, which absorbs the lead, leaving the silver pure. 

Test for Iron or Copper Pyrites. — Place a sample of the 
mineral rock on an anvil; if it becomes flat under a blow of the 
hammer it is gold, but if it scatters into fragments it is pyrites ; or 
place some of the doubtful material, pulverized, in a cup with nitric 
acid over a flame until it evolves dark red vapors : the acid will be- 
come stained or tinged if pyrites are present. 

Silver Assay' w'ith Testing Tube. — Place in the tube enough 
of the powdered mineral to fill one inch of space, and on this pour 
nitric acid in quantity to occupy 2 ins. more, and hold the mixture 
over a flame until the acid boils. The acid Avill dissolve Avhat- 
ever silver may be present, and must be passed through filter- 
ing i^aper to remove extraneous matter, and returned to the tube. 
Next add a few drops of Avater saturated Avith salt ; anj- silver or lead 
that may be present Avill be precipitated in a cloud.y form to the bottom. 
-Drain off the acid, place the precipitate in the sunlight, and in a few 
minutes, if it contains silver, it Avill turn to a purple color, and ma-j 
be again liquified by the addition of spirits of ammonia. The testing 
tube is formed of thin glass, about 5 ins. long, and less than 1 in. 
dinm. ; bottom and sides of equal thickness. Where the tube is lack- 
in^iX, a, cup may be used instead. 



452 PROSPECTING FOR GOLD. 

Prospecting for Quartz.— The first step to be taken is to ascer- 
tain the direction of the strata of the bed-rock and quartz veins im- 
bedded therein. Then take a common pick, shovel, and good iron 
pan, and prospect the surface dirt along, and just under the break of 
the veins every few yards, then following tlie vein as far as it shows 
itself, either by its outcrop or loose fragments ; and if gold is found 
in the surface along the vein, it is a good presumptive evidence that the 
vein is gold bearing. Then ascertain the point on the vein that gives 
the best " prospect," and make a cut across it deep enough to show 
the vein as it is inclosed in the bed or wall rock; then make a careful 
examination of every part of the vein, so as to determine what part of 
it is gold bearing. The casing of the vein where it joins the wall rock 
should be carefully tested also ; it frequently occurs that the casing 
is richer than the vein itself. The best mode of testing the rock is to 
pound it up finely in a hand mortar, and wash it out in a pan or horn 
spoon. If a satisfactory result is obtained, then sink a shaft so as to 
cut the vein at tlie point Avhere the prospect is obtained, and follow it 
down, say 40 or 50 feet. The character of the " wall rock " should be 
closely observed, to ascertain the " line of its texture." The smooth 
faces that s'eparate the vein from the wall rock should be carefully 
examined ; the smooth faces have numerous small ridges upon them, 
that show "the line of its projection," or the direction from which 
the vein was forced up between the walls enclosing it. The ridges 
and fine grooves on the faces of the veins will, in most cases, be found 
to have the same direction of the texture of the wall rock; and the 
rich section of the vein will most generally continue rich in the " line 
of its projection." It is frequentlj^ the case that a vein will have a 
section of a few feet that will be rich, and all the balance of it be 
poor ; therefore, it is very important to learn the " line of its projec- 
tion," for the rich sections always follow the course indicated by the 
" line of projection," and the " line of texture " of the w^all rock. — J. 
E. Clayton. 

To Prospect a River Bar. — The prospector should, during the 
season of low water, select the bend of a stream below where it 
emerges from a deep gorge,aud,noting the spot where the eddy usually 
exists during high water on the inward bend of the stream, he will 
proceed to dig to a depth of 2 or 3 ft., as near the water's edge as pos- 
sible, but distant enough to keep the hole dry on reaching the rock, 
Now fill the pan nearly full with the bottom dirt from the rock, take 
it to the stream, immerse it in the water and agitate the mass, break- 
ing up the lumps of clay, &c., if any exist. Keep the pan underwater, 
with the side next the operator slightly elevated ; shake from side to 
side; the muddy water will flow out, as the clear water flows in, car- 
rying away the dirt; the pan is now raised from the water, and the 
shaking continued, with the lower side still more depressed in order 
to allow the light sand to pass over the further edge ; the stones are 
removed by hand, and the operation continued until but a few dregs 
are left; the particles of gold, if any existed in the sample, will be 
found in the pan, and a search for them will decide the question of 
value. 

To Prospect in a Gully. — Select a spot soon after a rain, when 
water is abundant, and if possible let it be a level place over a vein of 
slate with vertical, or nearly vertical strata, presenting its ragged 
edges towards the adjacent acclivities in such x^sition as to intercept 



PROSPECTING, PLACER MINING. 453 

the gold in its downward progress. Fill the pan with dirt from the 
slaty bed, make a dam across the stream and pan out in standing 
Avater. 

In Pjrospectikg Flats, examine the surface for the nidications 
of old channels, and the beds of ancient streams or broolcs, and ex- 
plore the most promising spots by digging down to the bed rock, and 
test by panning out a portion of the dirt. In mining districts, the 
high elevations containing gravel and clay should be Avell tested by 
the panning out of numerous samples, as they frequently contain vast 
stores of golden wealth. 

To Pbospect with a Knife. —Select a suitable spot m a ravuie 
in an auriferous district, remove the earth to the vicinity of the rock, 
making a hole large enough to afford room to admit the prospector to 
overhaul the dirt with the point of a knife. The particles of gold are 
ciirefully picked as they are discovered, and the rest is rejected; the 
seams and crevices in the rock should be thoroughly scraped out and 
the contents closely examined, as these places often contain the most 
precious deposits. , . 

Placer Mining, Board Sluice Process.— The board sluice is a 
trough from 50, to 1400 or 1500 ft. long (composed of 1^ m. boards, 
length of boards from 12 to 14 feet, ) constructed in sections or boxes 
of the same length as the boards. The sections composing the trough 
are made to fit into each other, and usually rest on trestles elevated 
from the ground, but Avith an inclination of from 12 to 18 ins. in every 
12 feet of length. The box may be from 12 to 50 ins. wide, and half 
as deep as it is broad, more or less as desired. By placing division 
boards edgeways along the centre it may be divided into two parts, 
thus adopting it for the use of two parties, or for keeping up constant 
work in the washing department on the one side, Avhile cleaning is go- 
ing on in the other. The bottom of the sluice is fitted with longitudinal 
riffle bars from 3 to 7 ins. high, and from 2 to 4 ins. wide, Avell se- 
cured from 1 inch to l^ins. apart,by means of Avedges, two sets of riffle 
bars being fitted into each box. 

The labor of from 5 to 18 or 20 men is required to fill the dirt into 
the sluice, and a stream of AA^ater, say from 15 to 40 inches or more, is 
admitted at the upper end and emerges at the loAver, carrying along 
the mud, gravel, stones, &c., in its course. A vessel containing, 
quicksilver is placed at the head of the sluice, and, about 2 hours af- 
ter the Avashing commences, the liquid particles are alloAved to trickle 
through an aperture in the side of the vessel into the stream, Avhich 
hurries them onwards and doAvmvards through the sluice, Avherethey 
mingle Avith the gold particles and lodge together against the riffle 
bars. The precious metals being heavy, alway trend tOAvards the 
bottom, and lodge against these interposed obstacles, the riffle bars. 
The same effects may be seen on our streets and roads nny day after 
a shower, the dirt is washed aAvay, and the heavy aiticles, as nails, 
buttons, horseshoes, &c., remain. This furious torrent " or run " of 
AA\ater, gravel, stones, mud, &c-, is continued through the sluice for 6 
or 8 days, by Avhich time the riffle bars are usually Avorn out, and the 
cleaning up process is commeuced by raising G or 7 sets of the riffle 
bars towards the head of the sluice, and the auriferous matter found 
lodged against them is remoA^ed Avith scoop and pan. Another lot of 
riffle bars is then raised and the same operation is repeated until they 
are all clea^jed out. An amalgam i>late, inserted in the last box of 



454 HYDRAULIC MINING, LONG TOM. 

the sluice, is very effective in arresting the fine gold on its downward 
course. To prepare the plate, place a sheet of copper, say 3 feet or 
more, in length, and the san^e width as the box, very even and flat on 
the bottom. Make a tight, close lit on the upper edge, and secure 
each side by nailing down narrow strips of board. Next, take nitric 
acid, 1 lb., add to this, vrater, 1 lb., and apply the mixture to the cop- 
per plate with a rag on the end of a stick; drop on some quicksilver, 
and wipe it all over the plate until it is completely silvered. This is 
the amalgam plate. Now get a sheet of stout plate iron, equal in di- 
mensions to the copper plate, and perforate with numerous slits ^ 
inch long and 1-16 inch Avide, crosswise of the plate, not in regular 
rows, but as it were with brokeii joints, like bricks in a wall, ranged 
with their ends out of line on every half inch, in order to i^ermit the 
easy entrance of fluid material at all points. The perforated iron 
plate, being now ready, is laid in the box inmiediately over the amal- 
gamated plate, and resting on the narrow boards, which hold the lat- 
ter in place, and is firmly secured in this position, but so as to be 
easily detached when reqnired. The sluice box is now adjusted or 
placed at the same grade as the others, but so that the iron plate will 
be on a level Avith the bottom of the box above. It will be found that 
-while the gravel, stones, and gross material Avill easily pass over the 
iron plate, part of the fluid portion, with the fine atoms of gold, Avill 
fall through the crevices on the amalgamated plate below, Avhen the 
latter Avill be arrested at once. Each day, for the first Aveek or less, 
the iron plate should be removed, the copper cleaned from a green 
substance which adheres, and more quicksilver added . A riffle bar 
should be placed beloAV the plate to secure the sui-plus quicksilver. 
The gold may be remoA^ed at proper inter\'als as it accumulates. The 
value of the catch Avill be enhanced by admitting a small quantity of 
water into the sluice just above the plate. 

The water used by miners is generally sold by Avater companies at- 
a certain rate per inch ; it is delivered from an orifice in the side of a 
flume, Avhich in many cases couA'eys the water from distant mountains 
over hills, ravines, plains, and along excavations on the sides of pre- 
cipitous mountains, &c. An inch of Avater is estim^ated to be the 
quantity emitted through an aperture an inch square under a head of 
^ 6 or 7 inches, and the price per inch varies from 12 cents up to 40 
cents per day, according to the locality, demand, &c. 

Hydraulic Minikg.— The operative poAver in hydraulic mining 
is derived from a reservoir of Avater placed at a high elevation above 
the point of action, from Avhence the Avater is conveyed through a 
hose, and projected with terrific force under a pressure of from 80 to 
200 feet, against the dirt above the bed rock. The effect is equal to 
the combined labor of several hundred men ; the force exerted being 
literally equivalent to the removal of mountains, as the superincum- 
bert masses of earth and rock frequently comes tumbling down in 
quantities of hundreds of tons at a time. The dirt thus loosened is 
conveyed into and Avashed down the sluice. To fortify the hose to 
Avithstand the fearful pressure of the Avater, it should be stoutly band- 
ed Avith strong galvanized iron rings about 2 ins. broad, secured 
around the hose at intervals of about 2 ins. apart. The quantity of 
water reciuired by a hydraulic claim varies from 50 to 300 ins. 

The Long Tom, at one time in quite extensive use by miners in 
California, is a trough ranging from 8 to 14 ft. in length, generally 16 



QUARTZ CRUSHING, MINING MACHINERY. 455 

ins. wide at the upper end -where the dirt is deposited, 30 ins. wide at 
the lower extremity, and about 8 ius. deep. Tlie bottom, at the Avide 
end is composed of a sieve or riddle of perforated sheet iron, with a 
small riffle box, or trough with riffle bars placed underneath. The 
water entermg in at the upper ejid, ilows through the entire leno^th of 
the torn, washing the dirt in its passage, but is prevented from forcing 
it over the lower end by an ui)ward erection at the lower end of tlie 
riddle. The gravel, sand, and small stones escape through the perfo- 
rated iron, while the large stones are tossed out Avith the shovel, and 
the gold is caught in the riffle box beloAv, quicksilver being used oc- 
casionally to assist in securing the finer particles. 

QuAKTZ Crushing by Stamps.— The rotary stamp is very highly 
commended as the most efficient stamp in use for the crushing of 
quartz rock. The square stamp is vertical, with the main i^art or 
shaft about 8 ft. long, and from 5 to Sins, square, shod with massive 
iron weighing from 100 to 1000 lbs. They are elevated by cams pro- 
jecting from a horizontal shaft, which effect a lift of from 6 to 18 ins. 
at each revolution, when the stamp falls with all its force into the 
battery or the quartz below. The quartz, previously broken to pieces 
the size of a hen's egg or less, may be crushed in a dry state, or in a 
wet condition, with a small stream of water constantly flowing through 
the battery, which is enclosed by a wire cloth or perforated plate of 
sheet of iron, to permit the egress of the quartz wlien sufficiently trit- 
urated. The separation of the gold from the quartz is effected by wash- 
ing, etc., as in placer mining; much of it is caught by the use of 
coarse blankets laid in troughs, through w^hich the quartz is waslied 
as in a sluice, and many use the amalgam plate, made as described 
above, to secure the gold. 

In amalgamating in the battery, 2 ozs. of quicksilver to 1 oz. of gold 
is the best proportion for use, aiid produces the most effective results 
in securing the gold. 

Mixing Machinery (Molesworth). 

Speed of crushing rolls at periphery CO ft. per minute. 

Diameter of " ♦' '' ' 21 to 30 ins. 

Breadth of *' " " 12 to 15 ins. 

Roller shaft Gins, square. 

Tumbling shaft 4I/2 " 

Sifting screen shaft 1% ins. diameter. 

Rolls crushed together with a force of 60 tons. 

Weight of stamper heads, from 1^/2 to 5 cwt. 

Lift of ditto 9 to 12 ins. 

Number of lifts per minute 45 to 60. 

Exposed area of cast gratings about 9 x 10 ins. 

Number of holes to the inch for tin 140. 

Area of stamper bottom, generally C X 10 ins. 

Pumps for deep mines, usually 8 to 10 ft. stroke. 

Each lift from 150 to 200 ft. 

Horse power of pumping engines : — 

Ql = quantity of water raised per minute, cubic feet. 

H = height in feet. 

Actual horse power =: -0021 H Q. 

In Smelting Silver, fifty per cent, of lead is added to silver ore, 
or lead ore containing that proportion of lead, will do as well. Add 
10 per cent, of iron, and melt all together; the silver is then permit- 
ted to escape through an orifice in the lower part of the furnace. Tlie 



456 



SILVER SMELTING, STUBS GAUGE, &C. 



silver is ouce more put iu a furnace aud boiled until all impurities are 
driven off. 

In the Salt Solution Process, five per cent, of salt is added to 
the silver ore, aud the mixture is roasted until the salt is converted 
into a chloride. When in this state, and still red hot, it is thrown iuto 
a very strong solntion of boiling brine, to dissolve the chloride of 
silver. The brine is filtered at a temperature of 212" and the silver 
is precipitated by addmg small pieces of copper, together with a small 
quantity of muriatic acid. 




BuiMiNCUAH Wire. Gauge Compared with Inches. 



No. x.== .31 

- a -.28 

3 

4 
S 
6 

7 
8 

9 



.26 

.1S7 

..x66 
.158 



n. W. O. = Ins 

No. 10 =.137 
XI .X.25 

XX . 

X3 

IS 
16 

X7 

(8 



.095 
.083 
• 072 
.06s 
.056 
.049 



B. W. O — Ins, 
No. X0 5=:.o42 
20 .035 



2t 

az 
*3 
24 

25 

36 
27 



,032 

.02S 

.025 

.022 
.02 
.018 
.oiO 



No. 28 = .oif 



29 
30 
31 
3* 
33 
34 
35 
36 



•ots 
.013 

.OX 

.009 
.ooS 

.007 
.005 
.oc« 



No. i\V.G.= ... I'^in. 
4 " •• i!" 



^7 



fe »n 



No. iiW. G. 
16 " 
22 " 



. -,Vin. 



Artificial Meerschaum is made with very fine sifted plaster of 
Paris, baked for a few hours and thrown while warm into melted wax 
or linseed oil ; the resemblance may be increased by a coloring solu- 
tion of gamboge and dragon's blood. 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 457 



N.B. — In addition to the folloAving inestimable Receipts and pro- 
cesses, the blacksmith will find Iron Tables, and Tables of Circum- 
ferences, Areas and Diameters of Circles, for measurement of hoops, 
rings, &c., at the end of the mechanical department. 




Tempering Liquids. — 1. Water, 3 gals; soda, 2 ozs. ; saltpetre, 2 
ozs. ; prussic acid, 1 oz. , or oil of vitrol, 2 ozs. 2. Water, H gals. ; 
saltpetre, .sal-ammoniac and alum, of each 4 ozs., and draw no tem- 
per, 3. Water, 4 gals. : saltpetre and alum, of each, 4 ozs. ; sal-am- 
moniac, pulverized, 1 oz. ; salt, 3 lbs. Heat to a cherry red and 
p'unge in, drawing no temper. 4. Water, 4 gals.; saltpetre, 1 oz. ; 
p ilverized borax, 1 oz. ; pulverized sal-ammoniac, 1 oz. ; white vitriol, 
2 ozs. ; salt, 3 i)ts. Do not hammer too cold, nor heat too high. 5. 
^^''ater, 4 gals. ; salt, 2 teacupfuls; saltpetre, 2 ozs. ; pulverized alum, 
4 teaspoonf uls ; never heat over a cherry red, nor draw any temper. 
(>. Water, 2 gals. : add corrosive sublimate, 1^ oz. ; common salt, 2 
handfuls; when dissolved it is ready for nse. "The first gives tough- 
ness to the steel, while the latter gives the hardness, causing the water 
to adhere to the steel, which otherwise would be repelled by the heat. 
7. Tempering Liqiddfor Mill Picks. — Water, 3 gals. ; spts. of nitre, 3 
ozs. ; hartshorn, 3 ozs ; white vitriol, 3 ozs. ; alum, 3 ozs. ; sal-ammo- 
niac, 3 ozs. ; salt, G ozs. , with 2 handfuls of the parings of horses' 
lioof. The steel is to be heated to a cherry red. A large jug of this 
preparation should be kept corked tight, in order to retain its strength. 
Use soft-^vater in all these temjiering liquids. 

Tempering Mill Picks. — Get double refined cast steel made ex- 
pressly for mill picks. In drawing out the pick, use an anvil and 
hammer with smooth faces, and be careful not to heat the steel higher 
than a dark cherry red. Do not strike the pick on the edge when 
finishing it, but hammer it on the flat side, striking light and often, 
until the steel is quite dark, letting the blows fall "so as to close the 
pores of the steel. When a dozen ]:)icks are ready to temper, get 2 
gals, of rain water from which the chill should be taken, if in winter, 
by dipping a hot iron mto it; add 2 lbs. salt, and it is ready for use. 
Heat your pick gradually from the centre ; let the heat run to the 
point, and when it is a dark cherry red, dip the point verticallj'' into 
the bath and hold it still. When the heat has left the part immersed, 
take it out, and cool the balance of the pick in ordinary water.;* Be 
sure to heat and hammer well. 

To Teiviper a Drill very Hard. — ^Heat your drill to a cherry 
red and quench it in mercury. .. This vnll drill hardened steel. 



458 MACHINISTS, engineers', «!cC., RECEIPTS. 

CoMPOSiTiox FOR TEMPERING. — Hosiii, Ih parts; whale oil, 1^ 
parts; pulverized charcoal, ^ x^art; tallow, ^ part. Directions. — Very 
small tools should he dipped in this mixture the same as in water, 
then polish and draw the temper as usual. Large tools should bo 
dipped, then heated up again and temperas usual. This composition 
will also restore burnt steel as good as new. If small tools, dip once. 
If large, dip two or three times ; no hammering is required. 

To Make Iron take a Bright Polish like Steel. — Pulverize 
and dissolve the following articles in 1 qt. hot Avater ; blue vitriol, 1 oz. ; 
borax, 1 oz. ; prussiate of potash, 1 oz. ; charcoal, 1 oz. ; salt, ^ pt. ; then 
add 1 gal. linseed oil, mix well, bring your iron or steel to the proper 
heat and cool in the solution. Itissaidthemanufacturersofthe Judsou 
governor paid $100 for this receipt, the object being to case harden 
iron so that it would take a bright polish like steel. 

Dipping Tools when Hardening. — To harden a pen-knife blade, 
lancet, razor, chisel, gouge-bit, plane, spoke-shave, iron shaving 
knife, three or four square files, and round and flat files, dip 
them endwise or perpendicularly. This keeps them straight, 
which would not be the case were they dii)ped in the water ob- 
liquely. 

Substitute for Borax. — Alum, 2 ozs. ; dilute with water and mix 
with 2 ozs. potash, boil in a pot half an hour over a gentle fire, take it 
out of the water, add 2 ozs. gem salt in poAvder, as much of alka- 
line salt, 3 lbs. honey, and one of cow's milk, mix all together, set it 
in the sun for 3 days and the borax is ready for use. This wiU go 
twice as far in "a blacksmith's shop as common borax. 

Welding Cast Steel. — Silver sand 2 lbs., plaster of Paris, 1 lb. ; 
mix thoroughly. Heat your article and dust it with the above, place 
it in the fire again until you get a red heat and it will weld. 

Respirator. — An excellent respirator may be made of a thick 
sheet of carded cotton wool placed between two pieces of muslin. 
Unequalled for arresting dust, steel particles, &c. 

Annealing Steel. — For small pieces of steel, take a piece of gas 
pipe 2 or 3 inches in diameter, and put the pieces in it, first heat- 
ing one end of the pipe, and drawing it together, leaving the other 
end open to look into. When the pieces are of a cherry red, cover 
the fire with saw dust, use a charcoal fire, and leave the steel in over 
night. 

To DRILL Hardened Steel. — Cover your steel with melted beeswax, 
when coated and cold, make a hole in the wax with a fine pointed nee- 
dle or other ai-ticle the size of hole you require, put a drop of strong 
nitric acid upon it, after an hour rinse off, and apply again, it will 
gradually eat through. 

To Harden Metals.— -Iron, 60 parts: chrome, 40 parts; form a 
composition as hard as the diamond. A high degree of hardness 
may also be imparted to iron or steel by adding | part of silver. 
Copper may be externally hardened by the fumes of zinc and tin. 
The specula of Lord Ross's telescope is 1 part tin and 1 part- 
copper, this is as hard as steel, and takes a very high polish ; if 
more than this be added it will scarcely cohere. 

Welding Cast Steel. — Rock saltpetre, ^ lb. ; dissolve in i lb. oil 
yitriol ; and add it to 1 gal. water. After scarfing the steel, get it 
kot; and quench in the preparation. Then weld the same as s. 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &c., receipts. 459 

piece of iron, hammer it very quick witli light blovrs. It answers the 
purpose much "better than bomx ; cork it iu a bottle, and it will keep 
for years. Another. — Borax, 15 parts; sal-ammoniac, 2 parts; cyan- 
ide of potassium, 2 parts ; dissolve all iu water, and evaporate tlio 
water at a low temperature. 

Geemak Welding Powder. — Iron tummgs, 4 parts; borax, 3 
parts, borate of iron, 2 parts ; water, 1 part. 

Tempering Swords and Cutlasses. — N. B. Ames, late of Clii- 
copce, Mass., after many costly experiments, found that the best 
means of tempeiing swords and cutlasses that would stand the U. 
S. Government test, was by heating in a charcoal fire, hardening 
iu pure spring water, and drawhig the temper in charcoal flame. 

Belgian AYelding Poavder.— Iron filings, 1000 parts ; borax, 500 
parts; balsam of copaiba, or other resinous oil, 50 parts; sal-ammo- 
niac, 75 parts. !Mix all well together, heat, and pulverize completely. 
The surfaces to be welded are powdered with the composition, aiid 
then brought to a cherry red heat, at which the powder melts, when 
the portions to be united are taken from the fire and joined. If tho 
pieces to be welded are too large to be both introduced into the forge, 
one can be first Iieated with the welding powder to a cherry red lieat, 
and the other afterAvards to a white heat, after which the welding 
may be effected. 

CoarPOSiTiON Used in "Welding Cast Steel. — Borax, 10 parts ; 
sal-ammoniac, Ipart; grind or pound them roughly together; then 
fuse them in a metal pot over a clear fire, taking care to contiiiuetlie 
heat imtil all spume has disappeared from the surface. When the 
liquid appears clear, the composition is ready to be poured out to 
cool and concrete ; afterAvards being ground to a fine poAvder, it is 
ready for use. To use this composition, the steel to be Avelded is 
raised to a heat Avhich may be expressed by " bright yellow;" it is 
then dipped among the welding i)OAvder,.and again placed in the fire 
nntil it attains the same degree of heat as before : it is then ready to 
be placed under the hammer. 

To Restore Burnt Steel ant) Improve Poor Steel. — Borax, 
3 ozs. ; sal-ammoniac, 8 ozs. ; prussiate of potash, 3 ozs. ; blue clay, 2 
ozs. ; resin, ^ lb. ; water, Igill; alcohol. 1 gill. Put all on the fire, 
and simmer till it dries to a powder. The steel is to be heated, dip- 
ped iu this powder, and afterwards hammered. 

To Restore Burnt Cast Steel. — Borax 1^ lbs. ; sal-ammoniac 
^Ib. ; prussiate of potash ^ lb. ; rosin, 1 oz. Pound the above fine, 
add a gill each of water and alcohol, and boil all to a stiff paste in an 
iron kettle. Do not boil too long, or it will become hard Avhen cool. 
The burnt steel is dipped while quite liot in tho composition and 
slightly hammered. 

Restoring Burnt Steel.— It is not generally knoAvn that burnt 
Bteel maybe almost instantaneously re.stored by plmiging It while hot 
in cold water, and hammering it with light strokes on the anvil, turn-^ 
ing it so as to hammer all over it, again dippuig in the cold Avater, and 
repeating the hammering process as before Try it; if you don't suc- 
ceed the first time, j'ou will soon do so. 

CoaiPOSiTioN to Restore Burnt Steel. — Two parts horn fil- 
ings; 10 parts tallow; Ipart sal-ammoniac, 1 part pulverized charcoal: 
1 part goda; pulverize tho hard Ingredieuta gepavately, mix all 



460 MAcniNiSTs, engineers', &c., keceipts. 

thoroughly with the tallow. Bring your burnt steel to a cherry red 
jiud dip it iu the mixture; when it gets cold it may be hardened in 
the usual manner. 

Composition to Toughen' Steel. — Kcsin, 2 lbs. ; tallow, 2 lbs. ; 
black i)itch, 1 lb. ; melt together, and dip in the steel when hot. 

BuRGLAii AND DiiiLL-PitooF DiAiMOND CniLL. — Take 1 gal. urine, 
and add to it 1 oz. borax and 1 oz. salt. 

To 11e-shaiipenOldFil.es. — Remove the grease and dirt from your 
files by washing them in warm })otash water, then wash them i:i 
warm water, and dry with artificial heat; next, place 1 pt warm 
water in a wooden vessel, and put in your files, add 2 ozs. of blue 
vitriol, finely i^ulverized, 2 ozs. borax, well mixed, taking care to turn 
tlie files over, so that each one may come in contact with the mixture. 
Now add 7 ozs. suli)huric acid and ^ oz. cider vinegar to the above 
mixture. Remove the files after a short time, diy, sponge them with 
olive oil, wrap them up in porous paper, and x)ut aside for use Coarse 
files require to be immersed longer than fine. 

Substitute for Bohax. — Copperas, 2 ozs. ; saltpetre, 1 oz. ; com- 
mon salt, G ozs. ; black oxide of manganese, 1 oz; prussiate of pot- 
ash, 1 oz. ; all pulverized and mixed Avith 3 lbs. nice welding sand, 
and use the same as you would sand. High-tempered steel can be 
welded Avith this at a lower heat than is required for borax. 

To Soften Ikon ob Steel, — Either of the following methods 
■will make iron or steel very soft: — 1. Anoint it all over with tallow, 
temper it iii a gentle charcoal fire, and let it cool of itself. 2. Take a 
little clay, cover your iron with it, temper in a charcoal fire. .'». 
When the iron or steel is red hot, strew hellebore on it. - 4. Quench 
the iron or steel in the juice or water of common beans. ^ 

Tebipering Steel Springs. — The steel used should be that called 
"spring" for the large work; for small work, "double shear" 
After hardening in the usual way, in water, or, as some prefer, in oil, 
dry the spring over the firo to get rid of its moisture, then smear it 
over with tallow or oil, hold it over the flame of the smith's forge, 
passing it to and fro, so that the whole of it Avill be equally heated, 
holding it there until the oil or tallow takes fire. Take the article 
out of the fire and let it burn a short time, then blow it out. The 
process may be repeated two or three times if the o])&rator fancier 
that any portion of the spring has not been reduced to the proper 
temperature, or rather raised to it. 

Tempering Saws. — A late improvement consists in temperin§> 
and straightening the saws at one operation. This is done by heat- 
ing the saws to the proper degree, and then pressing them with a 
sudden and j)owerful stroke between two surfaces of cold iron. A 
drop press is employed for the purpose. The mechanism is quite 
simple and inexpensive. Its use effects an important economy in the 
manufacture of nearly all kinds of saws, and also improves their 
quality. 

Tempering Spiral Springs. — ^Place a piece of roimd iron inside 
the spring, large enough to fill it; then make the spring and iron red 
hot, and, when hot place them quicldy into cold water, and stir them 
about tiH cold ; afterwards rub them with oil or grease, and move 
them about in a flame till the grease takes fire; tlio spring Avill thcu 
bo reduced to its proper temper, 



MACHINISTS, ENGINEERS', &C., KECEIPTS. 4G1 

To Temper Small Springs, — In Large Quantiticf^. — First, harden 
tliem iu the usual manner of hardening steel ; tlien place as many as 
convenient in a vessel containing oil. Heat tlie oil containing the 
springs until it takes fire from the top, tlien set off the vCvSsel and let 
it cool. The springs will then be found to possess the required 
temper. 

Tempering. — The article after being completed, is hardened by 
being heated gradually to a bright red, and then plunged into colil 
■water: it is then tempered by being warmed gradually and equably, 
either over a fire, or on a piece of heated metal, till of tlie color cor- 
responding to the purpose for which it is required, as per table be- 
low, when it is again plunged into water. 

Corresponding Temperature. 

A very pale straw . 430 Lancets ) 

Straw 450 Razors ) 

Darker Straw . . . 470 Penknives ) All kinds of wood tools. 

Yellow 490 Scissors ) Screw taps. 

Brown yellow . . . 500 J Hatchets, Chipping Chisels, 
Slightly tinged purple 520 > Saws. 

Purple 530 S All kinds of percussive tools. 

Dark puqile. . . .550 g^jin^g 

Blue 570 ) ^P^-^»S' 

Dark blue .... GOO Soft for saws. 

TE3IPERING Razors, Cutlery, Saws, &c. — Razors and pen- 
knives are too frequently hardened without the removal of the scale 
arising from the foregoing : this practice, xoliich is never done with 
the best works, cannot be too much deprecated. The blades are heated 
in a coke or charcoal fire, and dipped in the water obliquely. In 
tempering razors, they are laid on their backs upon a clean fire, about 
half-a-dozeu together, and they are removed one at a time, when the* 
edges, which are as yet thick, come down to a pale straw color. 
Should the backs accidentally get heated beyond the straw-color, the 
blades are cooled in water, but not otherwise. Pen-blades are tem- 
pered a dozen or two at a time, on a plate of iron or copper, about 12 
inches long, 3 or 4 inches wide, and about ^ of an inch thick. The 
blades are arranged close together on their back and lean at an 
angle against each other. As they come down to the temper, they 
are picked out with small pliers and thrown into water if necessary ; 
other blades are then thrust forward from the cooler parts of the 
plate to take their place. Axes, adzes, cold chisels, and other edge 
tools, m which the total bulk is considerable compared with the part 
to be hardened, are only partially dipped ; they are afterwards let 
down by the heat of the remainder of the tool; and, when the color 
indicative of the temper is attained, they are entirely quenched. 
With the view of removing the loose scales, or the oxidation acquired 
in the fire, some workmen rub the objects hastily in dry salt before 
plunging them, in the water, in order to give them a cleaner and 
brighter face. ^ 

Oil, or resinous mixtures of oil, tallow, wax, and resin, are used for 
many thin and elastic articles, such as needles, fish hooks, steel pens 
and springs, which require a milder degree of hardness than is given 



462 MACHINISTS, exgixeeks , SiC, heceipts. 

byvrater. Giin lock-springg are somctimca fried in oilioT a con- 
Biderable time over a fire, in an iron tray; the thick pai-ts are then 
Bure to be sufficiently reduced, and the thin parts do not hecomo the 
more softened from the continuance of the blazing heat. Sa-ws and 
springs are generally hardened in various compositions of oil, suet, 
Tvax, &c. The saws are heated in long furnaces, and then immersed 
horizontally and edgeways into a lung trough containiug the com- 
position. Part of the composition is Aviped off the saws with a piece 
of leather, when they are removed from the trough, And heated one 
by one, until the grease inflames. This is called " hlazing of." The 
composition used by a large saw manufacturer is 2 lbs. suet.' and i lb. 
of beeswax, to every gallon of whale oil ; the scare boiled together, 
and will serve for tliin works and most kinds of steel. The addition 
of black resin, about 1 lb. to each gallon, makes it servo for thicker 
pieces, and for those it refused to harden before; but resin should 
be added with judgment, or the works will become too hard and 
brittle. 

To IsEPROVE Poor Iron. — ^Black oxide of manganese, 1 part; cop- 
peras and common salt, 4 parts each; dissolve in soft water, and boil 
till dry ; Avheu cool, pulverize, and mix quite freely with nice welding 
sand. When you have poor iron which you cannot afford to throw 
away, heat it, and roll it in this mixture; workhig for a time, reheat- 
ing, &c., will soon free it from all impurities, which is the cause of its 
rottenness. By this process you can make good horse nails out of 
common iron. 

Case-Hardening for Iron. — Cast iron may bo case-hardened by 
beating to a red heat, and then rolling it in a composition composed 
of equal parts of prussiate of potash, "sal-ammoniac, and saltpetre, all 
pulverized and thoroughly mixed. This must be got to every part of 
the surface; then i^lunged, whilo yet hot, into a bath containing 2 ozs. 
IDrussiate of j)otash, and 4 ozs. sal-ammoniac to each gallon of cold 
water. 

Moxon's Case-IIardenixg Process.— Cow's horns or hoofs are 
to be baked, dried and pulverized in order that more may be got into 
tlie box with the articles, or bone dust answers very well. To this 
add an equal quantity of bay salt; mix them with stale chamber 
ley, or white wine vinegar; cover the iron with this mixtxrre, and bed 
it in the same in ' loam, or enclose it in an iron box, lay it on tho 
hearth of the forge to dry and harden; then put it into the fire, and 
blow till the lump has a blood red heat, and no higher, lest the iron 
mixture be burnt too much. '•- Take the iron out and throw it into cold 
water. 

For MAiiLEABLE Iron^ — ^Put the articles in an iron box, and strat* 
ify them among animal carbon, that is, pieces of horns, hoofs, skins, 
or leather, just sufficiently burned to be reduced to powder. Luto 
the box with equal parts of sand and clay; then place it in the fire, 
and keep at a light red heat for a length of time proportioned to tho 
depth of steel required, .when the contents of the box are emptied 
into water. 

! . Another for Wrought Iron. — ^Take prussiate of potash, finely 
pulverized, and roll the article in it, if its shape admits of it; if not, 
sprinkle the powder upon it freely, while the iron is hot. 

To Temper SrEiNCS. — ^For tempering cast-steel trap springs, all 



MACHINISTS, engineers', AC, RECEirTS. 465 

that h necessary is to heat them in the dark, just so that you can seo 
tliat they are red; then cool them in luke-warm water. You can ob- 
serve a much lower degree of heat in the darlc than by daylight, and 
the low heat and warm water give the desired temper. 

Case-IIakdexing Compound. — Prussiato of potash, 3 lbs. ; sal-am- 
moniac, 2 lbs. ; bone dust, 2 lbs. 

CojirosiTioN FOR "Welding Cast Steel. — Pulverized borax any 
quantity, and slightly color it with dragon's blood, llcat tlie steel red 
hot, shake the borax over it; place it agam in the fire till the borax 
smokes, on the steel, which will be much below the ordinary welding 
heat, and then hammer it. 

To Weld Cast Icon. — The best way of welding cast iron is to 
take it at a very intense heat, closely approaching tlie melting poiiit. 
In this state it will be found sufficiently malleable to stand Avclding by 
the hammer. There are other methods, but most of tliem are attend- 
ed by almost insurmomitable difficulties. 

To Temper Taps or Reamers Avithout springing, select your 
steel for the job, and forge the tap with a little more than the usual 
allowance, being careful not to heat too hot nor liammer too cold; 
after the tap or reamer is forged, heat it and hold it on one end on 
the anvil. If a largo one, hit it with the sledge; if a small one, the 
liammer will do. This will cause the tap to bend slightly. Do not 
straighten it with the hammer, but on finishing and hardening the 
tap, it will become straight of its own accord. 

To Harden and Te^ii'er Cast Steel. — For saws and springs 
in general the following is an excellent liquid ; Spermaceti oil, 20 
gals. ; beef suet rendered, 20 lbs. ; neat's-foot oil, 1 gal. ; pitch, 1 lb. ; 
black resin, 3 lbs. The last two articles must be previously melted 
together, and then added to the other ingredients, when the whole 
must be heated in a proper iron vessel, with a close cover fitted to it, 
until all moisture is evaporated, and the composition will take fire on 
a flaming body being presented to its surface. 

Water Annealing. — Heat the steel to a red heat, and let it lie a 
few minutes, until nearly black hot; then throw it into soap-suds; 
steel in this way may bo annealed softer than by iDuttuig it into the 
ashes of the forge. 

To Soften Malle.,\jjle Iron.— When your furnace is charged 
with fuel and metal, get the firo up to a dull red heat, then 
pour fluoric acid all over the coke; use h pt. to 1 pt. or even 1 
qt. adding a handful of fiuor spar; it w-ill make the metal much 
softer. 

Working Steel for Tools. — ^Li working steel for tools, great 
caro should be taken to hammer all sides alike, for if one side is 
hammered more than another it will cause it to spring in harden- 
ing. Again, steel, when being hammered, should be heated as hot 
as it will stand, until finishing, and should then be hammered until 
almost black hot, for the reason that it sets the grain finer, and 
gives the tool a better edge. The reason for heating the steel so 
hot while hammering is simply because it makes the steel tougher 
when hardened, and softer when annealed, while if it were 
worked at a low red heat, the continued percussive shocks of tho 
hammer would so harden it as to make it almost Impossible to 
anneal it, and at the same time render it brittle when hardened. 



464 MACHINISTS, engineers', &C.y RECEIPTS. 

To Make, Harden, and Teiviper T001.S.— Experience has proved 
that all steel cutting tools should be hardened at a low red heat, or 
the lowest degree of heat compatible to yield efficient results, not 
forgetting that large tools require more heat than small ones, for the 
reason that thej^ retain the heat much longer in the cooling process. 
Very small tools such as some surgical, and dental instruments, all 
springs, centre drills, needles, etc., should be hardened in oil, as cold 
water is apt, by coolmg them too rapidly, to render them brittle and 
worthless. Too much heat imparts a coarse grain like cast iron, to 
the steel, and makes it liable to break when in use. A heat sufficient 
to raise scales should never be taken unless Avith an implement too 
large to temper without it, for it is sure to result in injurv'to the steel, 
even though the temper is drawn to a straw color. Tools such as 
cutters and reamers which require to be hardened without springing, 
should be accurately turned to within 5 inch of their finished size, and 
then annealed previous to finishing. In anneaUnc/ steel, it should be 
heated very slowly to a red heat, being careful to keep it mider the 
scaling degree, then allow it two days or more to cool in. In makimf 
taps, you should have immediately under the square head, a place 
accurate size of the outside of the thread, so that you will have no 
trouble in gettuig dimensions of the thread wherever an odd number 
of flutes exist. Every tap should be the accurate size of the bottom of 
tlie thread to within about ^ an inch of the square head, shaping it 
this way, when a strain comes in the work it will twist instead of 
brealdng. The threads on V taps ought to be cut Avith a tool exactly 
three square, (unless the thread is rounded on the top), and then 
finished with a sharp tool without polishing, as this produces a glaze 
on the metal Avhile bemg tapped. In making a tap for common ma- 
chine screAvs or for bolts, measure Avith callipers, the loAver part of 
the thread of one of the screws, and proceed to cut your tap at the 
bottom of the thread the exact size of the measurement. Strong taps 
for square thread screivs ought to be cut ^ the depth of their pitch, 
so if the thread is five to the inch, cut one-tenth of an inch deep. 
The threads being 5 to the inch, leaves a space between the threads of 
one tenth of an inch, and the thread being one tenth in depth and 
one-tenth wide, Avould make the thread square. In square threads 
required for Avear, the cut shovild be 5 the depth of their pitch. 

In hardening a tap, use a clear, bright fire; a fire of charcoal is the 
best; heat to a cherrj^ red, and holding it by the upper end immerse 
the entire thread-part first, keeping it stationary until the smooth 
part attains a dark red color; then gradually dip the whole tool, ho'd- 
ing it stationary until cold. Brighten tlie fluted parts and proceed to 
temper the tool by heating a piece of an iron pipe to a bright red ; re- 
move it from the fii-e, place it in a vertical position, and insert the 
tap in the centre of the tube (but not touching any part of it) with 
the threaded part outside. The interior of the tube should be twice the 
diameter of the tool, and the length but half. Revolve the tap in 
the hot pipe until the smooth part is warm enough to slightly pain 
the hand, keeping it in motion endways, back and forth through the 
pipe and turning it until the thread is tinted to a deep broAvn, and the 
1 est of the tool to a brown purple, modify any irregularity in the color 
by holding the light colored parts longer in the tui)e, or if i\.nj parts 
color too deep, cool off Avith a little oil. The squares of taps should be 
tempered to a deep blue color. 



MACHINISTS TOOLS. 



465 




Fig. 1. Tool for cutting square thread screws, &c. 

Fig. 2. Lathe tool for boring. 

Fig. 3. Tool for cutting interior screws. 

Fig. 4. Left hand side tool, top view. 

Fig. 5. Tool for cutting V thread screws. 

Fig. 6. Diamond-point tool, to turn small shafting, &c. 

Fig. 7. Kound-ended tool, to turn heavv shafting, &c. 

30 



466 MACHINISTS, ENGINEERS «feC., RECEIPTS. 

To Dip or Temper Half-round Files or Reamers. — On 

account of the unequal surface presented to the water by half round 
tools, it is necessary, in order to keep them straight, or nearly so. 
while tempering, that they should be inserted with the semicircular 
side 20? leaning toivards the water. To dip a fluted reamer, hisert it ^ 
an inch beyond the fluting, dipping and withdrawing it several times 
ill succession. This ensures a reliable temper in the tool and will 
assist greatly in preventing fracture, and breakage. 

To Set a La.the to Turn Tapering. — Calculate a certain 
amount of taper to the foot or the extension of the piece to be turned, 
for instance with a shaft one foot long with a thickness of 1 inch at 
one end larger than the other, set the puppet-head over ^- inch, and 
you will obtain the desired taper of 1 inch per foot. With a shaft 20 
ins. long, you will obtain a taper of 2 ins. over its whole length, by 
setting your lathe over 1 inch. 

To Set a Lathe to Turn Shafting. —Find out if your centres 
are true, and adjust them correctly if they are not, using a square 
end tool, keeping them true to a three-square gauge, otherwise you 
will be apt to ruin your work. Now set your puppet-head so that it 
will turn the shaft true and straight, and if without a straight marlc 
upon it, turn one end of the shaft for about an inch, next, without 
stiri-ing your tools, take the shaft from the lathe, run the carriage 
down to the main head, and if the tool comes in contact with the spot 
you have turned, the machine is straight, if not, screw over the 
puppet head, and keep adjusting it until the tool touches the place 
turned at both ends of the lathe. 

On Keys, Planing Key Ways, &c.— To ensure an easy entrance, 
apply oil to the key Avay and enter the key, marking where it binds, 
avoiding extreme tightness at the sides, and securing the lock by a 
proper taper at the rate of about ^ of an inch to the foot of length. 
To ease hardened key loays and slots, use a strip of copper as a file on 
the surface of the metal, together with emery and oil. To plane a key 
way in a shaft, drill a hole the size of the way the depth you wish to 
plane; then plane the key way slightly narrower than the intended 
size ; this is done with a square point tool, afterwards finish with a 
tool of the desired size; this method ensures a much neater finish, 
than the use of one tool only. To ensure true cuttinq in adjusting a 
tool for cutting a key way, test each side of it by a square set on the 
planer bed, to see that it is perpendicular. To iMne a T shaped slot 
or loay, plane to the desired depth with a square pohittool, then plane 
the upper part of the way to the proper width. Noav planethe bottom 
part of the way with two tools, each being bent to a different angle, 
one to the right and the other to the left. Shalloio icays may be'cut 
out, the upper width and proper depth, then finished with one tool 
shaped the desired form of the way. Powerful tools should be used in 
planing large ways in order to avoid breaking, and should cut easily 
oil each of the three sides. Use a sheet iron gau^e and plane the way 
to conform to it. To plane a gibe rest or slide, plane it all over, 
oinitting the slide, on both sides ; then set the planer head at an angle 
of 30°, and finish the slide with a taper point tool. In planinr/ thi)i 
cast iron surfaces, the outside being harder than the inside, it is 
necessary in order to prevent springing owing to the expansion of the 
scale, to plane over a cut on each side previous to finishing either. 



machinists' tools. 



467 




Fig. 8. Side view of right-hand side tool. 

Fig. 9. Tool for cutting V threads, side view. 

Fig, 10. Tool for planing a key-way. 

Fig, 11. End view of a fluted tap or reamer. 

Fig. 12. Side tool for squaring the ends of Avrought iyon work. 

Fig. 13. Tool for parting or cutting brass apart. 

Fig. 14. Side tool for cast iron, wrought iron or steel, left baud form. 

Fig. 15. Parting tool for iron or steel work. 



468 MACHINISTS, ENGINKERS' &C., RECEIPTS. 

Care of Lathes, Pi.akers, Drills, &c. — In order to utilize your 
lathes, &c., for nice line work, and keep your \vay.=, arbors,"and 
centres in order, it is necessary to keep them clean by brushing away 
the rubbish from the ways, feed gears, and other working parts; 
clean well by frequent rubbing with cotton w^aste, and keep them iii 
easy working order by regular oiling. 

Tools for Turning. — 1. For turning balance icheels, or squarmfi 
np large surfaces, use a round end tool constructed well tapering to 
cut from the side. 2. The best tool for turning small shafting is a 
diamond point tool ; for heavy shafting use a round end tool, shaped 
to stand high like a diamond point and to cut full and free from 
the side. 3. For cutting off a shaft, use a tool shaped thin and 
having the tapering down the reverse of turning tools. 4. For 
cutting a V thread screw use a V thread tool, with the points 
ground to lean down when finished, so as to prevent running and de- 
strojdngboth the tool and the work, 5. For cutting a square thread 
screv), the best way is to use a square point tool about | of the thick- 
ness of the thread you intend to cut, and finish with another the exact 
size of the thread. In cutting a thread within a hole apply the same 
method. 6. For boring out a hole use a lathe boring tool with the end 
turned on a right angle to the left, and the point turned up hooking. 

The side tool shown in Fig. 12, should, for light work, be hardened 
right out; temper to a straw color for heavy work. For heavy work 
on a slotting machine, temper to a brownish purple, and grind so that 
the cutting edge first strikes the cut near the body of the tool, and 
not at the point ends ; use at a speed of about 10 feet per minute. 

The parting tool for brass, Fig. 13, should be made to conform to 
the shape as represented and hardened right out. 

The side tool for iron, Fig. 14, cannot be made too hard; and should 
be used at a speed ranging from 20 to 80 feet per minute, with feed 
from 20 to 30 revolutions for each inch cut, varying as the dimensions 
of the work ranges from 1 inch up to 12 inches in diameter, the speed 
decreasing as the size of the work increases. 

The parting tool for iron, Fig. 15, should be tempered m accordance 
with the size of the tool and the nature of the work to be done; it 
may be hardened right out, or hardened to a dark straw, or, for a 
weak tool, to a purple color. 

The roughinr/ tool for wrought iron, Fig. 16, when used on large 
work, should be tempered to a light straw, but for work of 5 inch 
diameter or less, it should be made as hard as possible and not tem- 
pered at all. The cutting speed varies from 15 to 35 feet per minute 
as the size of the work varies from 1 inch to 20 inches or more in 
diameter ; feed &c. , ranging about as follows : — 

Diameter of Work Cutting Speed Feet Feed per Inch 

in Inches. per Minute; »-ut- 

1 or less. 35 ^p 

lto2 24 la 

2-5 20 19 

5 '' 10 17 1| 

10" 20 16 1^ 

20 and upwards 15 ^ ,, _,.^^- ._ 

In hardening and tempering the boring tools represented by iigs. i/, 
19, 20, 21, 22 and 26 proceed, according to the directions given else- 
where; making them very hard. 
The side tool for brass, Fig. 18, should be hardened as much as lire 



MACHINISTS TOOLS. 



4G9 




Fig. 16. Tool for roughing out wrought iron work. 

Fig. 17. Boring tool for heavy work on wrought iron. 

Fig. 18. Side tool for brass work. 

Fig. 19. Boring tool for heavy cutting on wrought iron. 

Fig, 20. For boring on cast iron where tool is liable to vibrate or tremble. 

Fig. 21. Stout finishing tool on cast iron. The back part of the tool is 

formed for scraping only, the front corner doing the cutting. 
Fig' 22. Tool to cut out a straight comer at the bottom of a hole in. 

wrought iron. Fig, 23, Boring tool for wrought iron or steel. 



470 MACHINISTS, engineers' &C., RECEIPTS. 

and water will permit, and maybe used at a cutting speed of from 150 
to 350 feet per minute on work ranging from 1 inch up to 20 inches in 
diameter, with a feed of 30 and 25 revolutions to each inch turned. 

The horing tool for ivrotight iron, etc. , Tig. 23, should, if slight, be 
tempered to a light straw color ; otherwise, harden it right out, and 
when in use lubricate well with a mixture of soft soap 1 lb; boiling 
water, 1 gal. 

The finishing tool for cast iron, Fig. 24, should be hardened 
right out ; the cutting speed on the lathe is about 25 to 30 feet per 
minute on small work, and 18 feet on large work, with a coarse feed 
of say, 8 revolutions of the lathe per inch of travel. 

To make ?i counter horing toot, (Fig. 25), adjust the handle to a 
proper collet and turn the governor, which ought not to be over a ^ of 
inch in length; next turn a spot for the lips about ^ of an inch, on 
small tools and about | inch on large oues. Above this spot, turn it 
about ^ larger than the governor and straight up to the handle, by 
leaving the place for the lips short, thus saving filing. Next file 4 
spiral lips in them, resembling a drill; afterwards dress off the back 
bade side of the lips on the end to an edge with a file, and harden. 

Milling tools or cutters, (Fig. 27.) ought to be chucked to fit loosely 
on the arbor, so that they may not prove to be too small after harden- 
ing. Now turn them to within a 32nd. of an inch of the required 
thickness, and again heat previous to finishing. This second heating 
renders t'lem less apt to spring when heated for the final hardening. 

Tiie front tool/or brass, Fig. 29, should be hardened right out, 
and the speed and feed should be about the following : — 

Diameter of Work Cutting Speed ft. Amount of Feed 

in Inches. per minute. 

1 or less, 345 25 

2 to 5, 245 25 
5 to 10, 195 25 

10 to 20, 150 SO 

The tool for cutting square threads, Fig. 30, should be made quite 
liard, and formed as shown in cut. The same remark applies to the 
tool for hard tnstal, shown at Fig. 31. 

The boring tool for brass, Fig. 32, should be made as hard as fire 
and water will make it, and used with a quick speed and lightfeed. 
The finishing tool for wrought iron, &c.. Fig. 33, should be hard- 
ened right out, aiid used at a cutting speed of "from 18 to 38 revc-lu- 
tions per minute, as the size of the work varies from 18 inches, or 
more, down to 1 inch in diameter, with a feed from 14 to 30 revolu- 
tions for each inch cut, as f oilows : — 

Diameter of Work Cutting Speed ft. Amount of Feed, 

in Inches. per minute. 

1 or less, 38 30 

1 to 2, 29 24 

2 to 4, 24 19 
4 to 10, 22 19 
10 to 18, 19 16 
18 and upwards, 18 14 

In addition to these instructions, each tool requires to be ground 
in such a way as will best adapt it for the performance of the various 
kmds of work that may be in hand. 

Spiral DRiiiLS, Fig. 35. should be annealed and tunied to l-50th 
of an inch larger than the finished size ; then heated again, and au- 



machinists' tools. 



471 




.-^^ 




Fig. 24. Finishing tool for cast iron. 

Fig. 25. Counter boring tool, end view. 

Fig. 2G. To be used on wrought iron when the tool is liable to spring on 

account of distance from the tool post. 
Fig. 27, Fluted milling tool or cutter. 



472 MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 

nealed in a vertical position, among lime, ashes, or soap-suds ; the 
shank is tlien turned to fit a j)roper collet socket, and after-wards the 
point may be turned to the desired dimensions and shaped. Next 
measure from the point and finish the turning, by making it tapering 
to the extent of 100th of an inch smaller for every 2 inches of the 
length of the drill. The spiral grooves are cut on a machine con- 
structed for the i)iirpose, containing a spindle, -which imparts the 
double movement of sliding and revolving slo-wly -while the spirals 
are being cut. The spindle coutains a screw, on -which a chuck to 
hold the drill is adjusted. The drill being inserted in the chnck, pro- 
ceed to elevate the sliding block beneath the drill, so that it -will 
touch it, adjusting it so as not to raise it too high ; then insert a cut- 
ter, -which should be one-half the diameter of drill, and groove your 
drills, which should, for a drill 1 inch in diameter, be cut 1 to the 
inch, and down to within a 32nd cf the centre ; for |-inch drills, cut 
the grooves IJ to the inch, down to within a 64th of" the centre ; for 
J-iuch drills, cut the grooves 2 to the inch, down to within 100th of 
the centre, computing as yon would in cutting a screw in a lathe, the 
index plate giving you the two startmg points at which to commence 
the Avork. 

Fluted Reamers, Fig. S6, should be carefully turned to a 32nd 
of an inch of the finished size, then heated and allowed to cool in a 
perpendicular position, previous to finishmg. The treatment re- 
moves the strains and the occasional hardness made by the hammer- 
ing, so that they will not spring in the operation of heating for tem- 
pering. The lips of a reamer should be made imeven ; othei-wise, 
when it chatters, it leaps from one lip to the other. In reamers from 
1 inch to I5 inches in diameter, the flutes or channels should be 9 in 
number, and 11 in reamers of from 1^ to 1^ inches in diameter. 
Reamers from ^ to f of an inch in diameter, should have 5 flutes, and 
reamers from f to 1 inch should have 7. After cooling, as above 
noted, turn the part intended for the lips ICCth of an inch larger than 
the finished size ; afterwards turn a spot in the middle of it | long, 
and l-12th of the size of the reamer smaller than the reamer. After 
hardening, this is the place to pene it straight. When the turning of 
all but the upper part is finished, put it on the centres, and prepare 
to flute it, deferring the turning of the upper part until after harden- 
ing and straightening. Place it- on the centres ; if on a planer, flute 
with a round end tool, 1-lCth of an inch thick, and plane down to 
the face of each lip, to the bottom of the spot intended for the pen- 
ing, and plane them so that the space between every other of the two 
lips will be shorter than that of the two just before them. The 
next step is to plane off the back side of the lips with a square end 
tool to within a 32nd of an inch from the face. The faces of the lips 
should be planed even with the centre, the lips dressed smooth with 
the file, hardened again, and then pened straight. Finish by turning 
the upper part to the desired size, and polish it off ; grind the lips to 
a sharj) edge and to the proper size, and it is all right. 

To flute taps, Fig. 38, adjust the work on the centres, and plane 
the faces of all the teeth with a cutter or planing tool, made circular 
lit the end, the thickness at the end being ^ the diameter of the tap. 
Taps should be fluted with the teeth slightly hooking on the face. 
Dress the faces of all the teeth with the planer one-half the depth of 
he thread deeper than the bottom of the thread ; this done, plane 



MACHINISTS TOOLS. 



473 




Fig. 29. Front tool for brass work. 

Fig. 30. Tool for cutting square threads. 

Fig. 31. Tool for cutting hard metal. 

Fig. 32. Boring tool for brass. 

Fig. 33. Tool for finishing cast iron, wrought irou and ateel. 

Fig. 34. Die for screw-cutting, face view. 

Fig. 35. Spiral drill. 



474 MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 

off the back parts of the teeth, giving them 1^ the breadth of theii 
pitoli, leaving them, if the jtitch i.s 10, a 10th and a 20th, which leaves 
them quite strong enough lor elticieut service and easy work. Trim 
tlic back jiarts ot the teeth with a planing tool '"^[ual in tiiicknes to 
the size ol the tap. Two taps should be used for each thread; with 
lite tirst, remove two-thirds of the thread, and finish olf witli the 
other. No taer is prequired on taps for 5 threads ; if they are fabri- 
cated by this plan, they are not liable to break, and work easy. 
Extra large mongrel-thread taps should invariably be of two or more 
sizes, owing to tne coarse thread and tlie mass of metal to be re- 
moved by them, which otherwise would be crushed and torn. 

Cold Chisels should be shaped thin at tlie cutting end, and ■with 
the edge slightly rounded outwards, instead of being square across 
or hollowed inwards, as is frequently the case. This shape imparts 
more endurance to the tool, and makes it cut easier than when it is 
even across or rounded inwards, as we sec it iu many cases. In hard- 
ening, heat the tool to a dark red heat to a depth equivalent to its 
width, and dip it half that length into the tempering liquid, holding 
it stationary about 4 seconds ; then j)lunge it a little deeper and with- 
draw ; brighten one side by rubbing on an emery or sand board, re- 
move the bad color ^ith a piece of waste or rag, and bring out a 
clear blue color by immersion in the water. In many cases it is 
rather difficult to temper a piece of steel uniformly, and molten 
metallic mixtures are used, being chiefly made up of tin and lead ; 
the bright hardened steel is kept inihese molten inixtures until it has 
assumed the temperature of the bath. The following tabulated form 
exhibits the composition of the metallic baths which experience has 
proved to be the best for the manufacturing of cutlery : — 

Composition of Melting Temperature. 

Metallic Mixture. Point. 
Lead. Tin. 

Lancets 7 4 220° IT ardly pale yellow. 

Kazors 8 4 228° \^^'^ ^f^Z^l"" "'"^'' 

Pen-knives 8i^ 4 232° Straw yellow. 

Pairs of Scissors 14 " 4 254° Brown. 

Clasp-knives, Join-) 

ors' and Carpen- 1 19 4 265° Purplish Colored. 

ters' Tools ) 

Swords. Cutlasses, ) 

and W a t eh j 48 4 288° Bright blue. 

Springs ) 

S t i 1 ettos, Boring ) 

Tools, and Fine [ 50 2 2D2° Deep blue. 

Saws ) 

Ordinary saws p" S ofl!'''' ! ^^^° Blackish olue. 

Such tools as are required to work iron and other metals, and 
hard stones, are heated to a bright yellow ; razors, coining dies, en- 
gravers' tools", and Avire-drawing plates follow next to straw yellow ; 
carpenters' tools to pui-plish red, while such tools and objects as are 
required to be elastic are heated to the violet or deep blue tint. The 
less steel is heated the harder it remains, but also the more brittle. 



MACHINISTS TOOLS. 



475 



rex /±^ ^'>-'« As-n T^m 




Fig. 36. Fluted reamer, side viev/. 

Fig. 37. Single lipped drill, to drill very true. 

Fig. 38. Square thread tap, side view. 

Fig. 39. Single lipped reamer. 

Fig. 40. Counter boring tool, side view. 



476 MACHINISTS, engineers', etc., RECEIPTS. 

Single-lq^ped Reamers^ Fig. 39, should be fabricated from a 
piece of steel, with the head forged square to adept it to a proper 
wreuch ; turn it tapering and exactly round, and, after placing it on 
the centres, plane a groove through its entire length, one side of 
which groove will form the lips of the reamer. From this groove 
dress off the 64th of an inch half tlie distance round. Finish by 
filing up the face of the lips on a line through the middle on the end: 
next harden and temper. Rose reamers should be made with square 
ends, with the corners removed, lips cut about 9 to the inch on the 
end, and a little hooking, with a temper like other roamers. 

To Chuck Pullevs. — This means to adjust or secure the work 
in such position as to ensure truthful drilling or planing ; the term 
chuck is also used to denote the instrument employed to secure the 
work, being merely a circular mece of iron with an aperture on one 
side of it, fitted with a screw arrangement used to secure it to the 
sniudle of a lathe. The other side contains a number of jaws, gener- 
ally three or lour, AVhicn screw together for the pmi^ose of securing 
the work while it is being drilled or otherwise operated upon. To 
chuck a pulley, first secure it bj^ screwing it in the jaAvs of the chuck 
as near the right position as possible, next screw a tool into the post, 
with one end of it near the face of the pulley ; then turn and true the 
pulley by means of the screws, so that the tool touches it all around, 
and true the edges the same way ; repeat, trying the face again to 
see if it has moved. Pulleys should be chucked either on a mandril 
or else chucked by the arms, since chucking them by the rims springs 
them out of true. 

To Set the Chuck Rest. — To set the rest, place it into the tool 
post with the centres of the slats through which the drills passes 
just as high, and no more, as the centres of the lathe, (otherwise it 
"Will fail to bore true) and drill your wheel, using two drills, to ensure 
true work, or three, if the holes are cored badly to one side ; the last 

tool should remove no more than the ^^g- of an inch, which will leave 
the hole exactly right. 

To Scrape Cast-Ikon Smooth. — Place a rest close to the sur- 
face to be operated on, and, using a thin wide scraper, rest it on one 
edge and scrape, twisting it, and upholding it while cutting, in your 
hand. Don't bear on very hard, but remove as thin a chip as pos- 
sible, and you will easily succeed. 

Work should be fitted as exact and true as possible before being 
scraped with the flat scraper, which should be used on flat surfaces 
onl5^ The half round scraper is the best form for curves, hollow 
work, etc., the three-cornered scraper being the least useful. Old 
files which have never been re-cut make very good scrapers. 

To Make Drill Socicets or Collets. — The best collets for 
correct work on drill lathes are those formed to screw on to the spin- 
dle, and constructed with a tapering hole for the retention of the 
drill, and a key-way to secure the end of the drill from turning. 
Sockets for ordinary job form, should be shaped with a set-screw to 
retain the drills, and the aperture for the drills should be drilled 

circular, adapted for the reception of round drill steel about yV of ^^ 
in. in diameter. For collets to screw on the drill lathe, bore out the 
end and shape the screw to conform well to the spindle, and attach it 
by screwing it on to the lathe where it is required for use. Next, 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 477 

bore a hole for the drill shank 1^ ins. deep, exactly straight and 
true, ream it tapering, and cut a key- way through the metal, below 
the lower part of, and running into the aperture bored for the shank. 
This key-wav is intended to secure the drill and ought to be h an 
inch long and ^ wide. A collet for upright drills should be made by 
drilling the centres and turning up the ends to be drilled for the 
shank so as to adapt it for running in a back rest; then insert the end 
to be drilled into the back rest and the other cud on the lathe centre 
and proceed to drill out the hole for the shank; then remove it from 
the back re^^t, and, making use of Ihe liole for a centre, turn it to fit 
the drill, insert a set screw in it, and all is finished. 

Screw Threads. — The E-nglish Proportions, the 
AVhitworth Thread. 

Tliim in inp>ip«5 3_ 1 _5_ 3. _7_ 1 5. 8. 7. 1 IJL 11 13.11 

Threads per i nch. .. .21 20 18 10 14 12 11 10 9 8 7 7 6 6 

Diam. in inches 1| 1| 1| 2 2i 2i 2f 3 3-1-3^ 3| 4 4^ 4^ 

Threads per inch. ... 5 5 4 ^- 4^ 4 4 31 '^^^ 8^ 3 3 2| 2| 

l)iam. in inches 4f 5 5^ 5^ 5| 6 

Threads per inch . . . . 2f 2f 2| 2| 21 2^ 

Angle of threads = 55°. Depth of threads — pitch of screws. 
One-6th of the depth is rounded off at top and bottom. Number of 
threads to the inch in square threads = ^ number of those in angular 
threads. 

Screw Threads. — Standard American Proportions. 

Diam. in inches. .. .^ A I iV i I f ¥ ^ H ^T H 
No. of thread s 20 18 16 14 13 1110 9 8 7 7 6 

Diam. in inches.... U 1| If H - -\ ^ H ^ H H 
Xo. of threads 6 6 5 5 41 4^ 4 4 3^ 3^ 3^ 

Diam. in inches. . ..3| 4 4-1 4i 4| 5 5i 5^ 5f 6 
Kg. of threads 3 3 2| 2 3- 21 21 21 2| 3| 21 

Angle of threads = 60°. Flat surface at top and bottom = | of 
the pitch. For rough bolts, the distance between the parallel sides of 
bolt-head and nut = Ih diameters of bolt -|- g of an inch. Thickness 
of head = h distance of between parallel sides. Thickness of nut = 
diam . of bolt, hi finished bolts, thickness of head equals thickness 
of nut. Distance between parallel sides of a bolt-head and nut and 

thiclaiess of nnt is ^^ of an inch less for finished work than for rough. 

Spked of Emery AVheels.— A 12-inch wheel should make 1,200 
revolutions per minute; an 8-inch, 18,00; and a 6-inch, 2,400. 

To Trce Coruxdu^i Wheels.— Adjust the wheel in the lathe 
and start it at a high speed, holding a piece of corundum stone against 
the uneven surface. Tlie stone will soon melt and unite itself to the 
defective places in the wheel. 

To Clean Greasy Cottox Waste.— Boil it in a strong solution 
of common soda in water, and use the resultant emulsion as a lubri- 
cant for drills, reamers, &c. 



478 MACHINISTS, ENGINEERS,' &C., RECEIPTS. 

TEBrpEEixG TooiiS. — ^Drawing the temper of tools is usually done 
in a charcoal flame, and to draw the temper of a tool properly it 
should be held iii the thickest part, or the part not requiring any 
temper, towards the fire, and in the meantime, should be often 
■wiped with a piece of waste or rag, dipped in oil. Tlie oil keeps 
tlie temper even, and prevents it drawing more to one place than 
another. And in drawing the temper of any tool it should be 
drawn very slowly, otherwise it will run too far ere you are aware 
of it. Lancet blades and razors should be drawn to a sti-aw 
color. Knife blades and chisels should be drawn to a copper or 
almost red color. Plane irons, shaving knives and shoemakers 
knives the same temper ; cold chisels and' stone drills, should bo 
drawn to a dark blue. Fluted reamers should only be drawu to a 
straw color, on the end, as they never break elsewhere, and keep 
their size longer by leaving the lips hard. Half round or tapering 
reamers, also taps, dies, and drills, shoiild be draA\'n to a straw 
color. Jijucs and gauges, also common lathe tools, need no drawing, 
being tempered enough when merely hardened. 

IIaedening and Filling for FinE-rROOF Safes. — ^Experience has 
sho\vn tliat the fire and burglar-proof diamond chill for iron or steel, 
described in another part of this work, has no superior as a harden- 
ing for security in the construction of safes; and, as a non-conductor 
of heat, we would recommend a fiUing of plaster of Paris or alum. 1 1 is 
claimed by some that a mixture of both of these articles forms the best 
known fillmg for safes, as an external application of intense heat is 
certain to Uberate a large quantity of water, which is transformed into 
steam, thus ensuring entire safety to the contents of the safe. Other 
manufacturers employa concrete filling for safes, and es tol it very higli- 
]y. Mr. Moffat, gas and stcamfitter, Boston, has informed me that"lio 
lias apphed for protection in the matter of a discovery by which he claims 
that he can fully protect a safe against a double blast furnace heat, by 
means of an outside luiing of bricks composed of asbestos and Icaolin, 
a very small portion of the latter material being used. From the well 
known incombustible nature of these materials, there can be no 
reasonable doubt but that the claim in question is a just one. 

Metallic Bath for Teiupering. — Use a black lead or cast iron 
crucible (of the requisite depth), and place the same, fiUed with lead, 
on a fire made of coal or charcoal, and surroimded on aU sides by a 
metallic or brick wall, level, or nearly so, with the top of the crucible; 
but at a sufficient distance (say 5 or 6 inches) from it, to receive the 
fuel necessary to maintain the fire, in order to keep the lead in a 
melted state. Let the crucible rest on iron bars, and leave apertures to 
admit air to the fire. The articles, slightly greased to prevent the 
adherence of oxide, are immersed in the melted lead (which is kept 
at a red heat) by means of tongs, two or three pairs being genesaUy 
used, in order that one or two pieces may be heated while the other 
is undergoing manipulation by the hardening process. Keep the lead 
covered with charcoal dust ox cinders. This plan is used by many 
cutlers and file manufacturers for giving the proper degree of heat in 
the tempering of their wares. The process is highly valued by those 
who use it. See file manufacture. 

CoNCERNENQ Saws, RAILWAY SPRINGS, &c. — ^Wheu the saws are 
vranted to be rather haild, but little of the oil tempering composition 



MACHINISTS, engineers', AC, KECEirXS. 479 

is bimied off; ^x]\cn milder, a large portion; and for a spring temper 
the whole is allowed to burn away. Saws as well as springs appear to 
lose their elasticity, after hardenmg and tempering, from the reduction 
they undergo in grmding and polishing. Towards the conclusion of 
the manufacture, the elasticity of the saw is restored principally by 
hammering, and partly over a clear coke fire to a straw color; the 
tint is removed by very diluted muriatic acid, after which the saws 
are well washed in plahi water and dried. Spring manufacture in- 
cludes the heaviest specimens of hardened steel works uncombiued 
with iron; for example, bow-springs for all kinds of vehicles, some 
intended for railway use, measure 3^ feet long, and weigh 50 lbs. each 
piece; two of these are used in combmation; other single springs are 
C feet long, and weigh 70 lbs. The principle of these bow-sjirings will 
be immediately seen by conceiving the common archery bow fixed 
liorizontally with its cord upwards ; the body of the carriage being 
attached to the cord sways both perpendicularly and sideways with 
perfect freedom. In hardening them they are heated by being drawn 
backwards and forwards through an ordinary fire built hollow, and 
they are immersed in a trough of plain water. In tempering tliem 
they are heated until the black red is just visible at night ; by 
daylight the heat is denoted by its making a piece of wood sparklo 
when rubbed on the spring, which is then allowed to cool in the air. 
The metal is nine-sixteenths of an inch thick, and some consider five- 
eighths the limits to which steel will hard enproperly, that is sufficiently 
alike to serve as a spring. Their elasticity is tested far beyond their 
intended range. 

Tejipering Locomotive Tires. — This is quite ponderous work, as 
the tires of the eight foot wheels weigh about 10 cvrt. and consist of 
about one-third steel. The materials for the tires are first swaged se- 
parately, and then welded together under the heavy hammer at the 
steel Avorks, after which they are bent to the circle, welded, and 
turned to ccilaiin gauges. The tire is now heated to redness in a cir- 
cular furnace ; during the time it is getting hot, the iron wheel, pre- 
viously turned to the right diameter, is bolted down upon a face- 
plate, the tire expands with the heat, and when at a cherry red, it is 
dropped over the wheel, for which it was previously too small, and is 
also hastily bolted down to the surface plate. The whole load is 
quickly immersed by a swing crane into a tank of water about five 
feet deep, and hauled up and down until nearly cold ; the steel tires 
are not afterwards tempered. The spokes are forged out of flat-bars 
with T formed heads, these are arranged radially in the founder's 
mould whilst the cast-iron centre is poured around them, the ends of 
the T heads are then welded together to constitute the periphery of 
the wheel or inner tire, and little wedge-form pieces are inserted 
where there is any deficiency of iron. The wheel is then chucked on 
a lathe, bored and turned on the edge, not cylindrically, but like 
the meeting of two cones, and about one quarter of an inch higher in 
the middle than the two edges. The compound tire is turned to the 
corresponding form, and consequently, larger vdthin or under cut so 
that the shrinldng secures the tire without the possibility of obliquity 
or derangement, and no rivets are required. It sometimes happens, 
that the tire breaks in shrinking, when by mismanagement the cliam- 
eter of the wheel is in excess. 



480 lIACniXISTS, exgineers', «tC., RECEinS. 

Making Axchors. — The anchor smith's forge consists of a hearth 
of brickwork, raised about 9 inches above the ground, and generally 
about 7 feet square. In tlie centre of this is a cavity containing the 
fire. A vertical brick wall is built on one side of the hearth, which 
supports the dome, and a low chimney to carry off the smoke. 
Behind this wall are placed the bellows, with which the fire is urged ; 
the bellows being so placed that they blow to the centre of the fire. 
The anvil and the crane by which the heavy masses of metal are 
moved from and to the fire are adjusted near the hearth. The 
Hercules, a kind of stamping machme, or the steam hammer, need 
not be described in this place. To make the anchor, bars of good 
iron are brought together to be fagoted ; the number varying with the 
size of the anchor. The fagot is kept together by hoops of iron, 
and the whole is placed upon the properly arranged hearth, and 
covered up by small coals, which arc thrown upon a kind of oven 
made of cinders. Great care and good management are required to 
keep this temporary oven sound during the combustion ; a smith 
strictly attends to this. When all is arranged, the bellows are set to 
work, and a blast urged on the fire ; this is continued for about an 
hour, when a good welding heat is obtained. The mass is now 
brought from the fire to the anvil, and the iron welded by the 
hammers. One portion having been welded, the iron is returned to 
to the fire, and the operation is repeated until the whole is welded in 
one mass. The different parts of the anchor being made, the arms are 
united to the end of the shank. This must be done with great care, 
as the goodness of the anchor depends entirely upon this process 
being effectively performed. The arms being welded on, the ring has 
to be formed and welded. The ling consists of several bars welded 
together, drawn out into a round rod passed through a hole in the 
shank, bent into a circle, and the ends welded together. "\Mien all 
the parts are adjusted, the whole anchor is brought to a red heat, 
and hammered with lighter hammers than those used for welding, 
the object being to give a finish and evenness to the surface. The 
toughest iron that can be procured should be used in anchors. Good 
"Welsh mine iron" is suitable; also "scrap iron." An anchor of 
the ordinary or Admiralty pattern, the Trotman, or Porter's im- 
proved (pivot fluke), thelloniball, Porter's, Aylin's, Rodger's, Mitche- 
son's and Lennox's, each weighmg, inclusive of stock, 27000 lbs., 
withstood without injury a proof strain of 45000 lbs. In di'tj ground, 
Rodger's dragged the Admiralty anchor at both long and short stay ; 
at short stay, Rodger's and Aylin's gave equal resistance; Mitche- 
son's dragged Aylin's at both long and short stay ; and Aylui's 
dragged the Admiralty at short stay, they giving equal resistance at 
long stay. In ground under water, Trotman' s dragged Aylin's, 
HonibaU's, Mitcheson's, and Lennox's : Aylin's dragged Rodger's ; 
Mitcheson's dragged Rodger's, and Lennox's dragged the Admiralty's. 
The breaking weights between a Porter and Admiralty anchor, as 
tested at the Woolwich Dockyard, were as 43 to 15. 

MAjnjFACTUKiNG AND REPAIRING An^^ls. — ^The common anvil is 
usually made of seven pieces : 1, the core, or body ; 2,3, 4, 5, the 
four comer pieces, which serve to enlarge its base ; 6, the projecting 
end, which has a square hole for the reception of the tail or shank of 
a chisel on which iron bars may be cut through, and 7, the beak, or 



MACHINISTS, ENGINEERS &C., IlECEIPTS 481 

horizontal cone round wliicli rods or slips of metal may be turned m 
a circular form, as in maldng rings. These six i^ieces are welded 
separately to the first or core, and then hammered into a uniform body. 
In manufacturing large anvils two hearths are needed, in order to 
bring each of the two pieces to be welded to a i)roper heat by itself, 
and several men are employed in working them together briskly in 
the welding state, by heavy swing liammers. Tlie steel facing is ap- 
l)lied by Avelding in the same manner, powdered borax Avitli sal-am- 
moniac (1 part to 10 parts of borax) being used as a Ihix. The anvil 
is tlien heated to a clierry red, and plunged into cold water, a run- 
ning stream being better than a pool or cistern, the rapid formation 
of steam at the sides of the metal preventing the free access of the 
Avater for the removal of the heat witli tlie required expedition. In 
some cases a stream of water is contrived to descend from a cistern 
above on the part to be chilled, wliich is sure to render it very hard. 
Tlie facmg sliould not be too thick a plate, for when such, it is apt to 
track in "the hardening. It is somewhat dangerous to stand near 
Piich works at the time, as when the anvil face is not j)erfectly weld- 
ed, it sometimes, in part, flies off Avith great A'iolence and a loud re- 
jioit. In the case of broken anvils the repairs will have to be made 
iu accordance with the above description. In finishing off the face, it 
is smoothed upon a grindstone, and, for fine work, polished with em- 
ery and crocus. 

"Manufactltrtxg CnAiNS. — For this purpose the iron is cut off 
with a plain chamfer, as from the annular form of the links their ex- 
tremities cannot slide asmider when struck. Every succeeding link 
is bent, mtroduced, and finally Avelded. Li some of these welded 
diains the finks are not more than h an inch long, and the iron wire 
^ inch diameter. These are made Avith great dexterity by a man and 
a boy, at a small fire. The curbed chains are Avelded in the ordinary 
Avay and twisted afterwards, a few links being made red-hot at ^ 
time for the purpose. The massive cable chains are made much it 
the same manner, although partly by aid of machinery. The bar o; 
iron, now one, one and a half, or even two inches in diameter, is heatca 
and the scarf is made as a plain chamfer, by a cutting machine ; tha 
link is then formed by inserting the edge of the heated bar within ^ 
loop in the edge of an OA'al disc, which may be compared to a chuck 
fixed on the end of a lathe mandriL The disc is put in gear by tha 
Bteam engine ; it makes exactly oiie revolution and throws itself out 
of motion. This bends the heated extremity of the iron into an oval 
figure. Aftei-wards it is detached from the rod with a chamfered cut 
by the cutthig machuie, which, at one stroke, makes the second scarf 
of the detached link, and the first of that next to be curled up. Thp 
liuk is now threaded to the extremity of the chain, closed together 
and transfcn'ed to the fire, the loose end being carried by a traversj 
crane. AVhen the link is at the proper heat, it is returned to the anvi^ 
Avelded, and dressed off betAveen the top and bottom tools, after which 
the cast iron transverse stay is inserted, and the link having been 
closed upon the stay, the routine is recommenced. The work com- 
monly requires three men, and the scarf is placed at the side of the 
oval link, and flat way through the same. In similar chains made 
by hand, it is, perhaps, more customary to weld the link sxt the croicn, 
ot small end. 

31 



482 MACHINISTS, engineers', &c., KECEirxs. 

Vulcanite Emery "Wheels. — ^Use a coTn]X)nr>d of India rubber, 
and Wellington mills emery, as little of the former as ■will suffice 
to hold the particles of emery together. The materials must be thor- 
onglily iucoiporated together, then rolled into sheets, cut into "wheels 
of the desired size and pattern, pressed into the iron moulds, and vul- 
canized or cured by being subjected to a high degree of steam heat 
for several hours, making it almost as hard as cast iron. 

To Bkaze a Band Saw. — WJiitncy' s method. — The tools required 
are a small portable forge, brazing clamps, &c. and a straight edge, 
3 or 4 feet long, also some brass wire and powdered borax. Take tho 
saw and ciit it to the proper length, scarf the ends from one-half to 
three-fourths of an inch, then put the saw in tlie clamps. I would 
say that I use a very small and simple clamp in the shape of a double 
vise. Keep the back of the saw out of the jaws of the vise, or clamps, 
and apply the straight edge to the back, as it is very necessary to 
braze it straight ; make the fire in as small a compass as possible ; 
place the clamps directly over the centre of the fire, and then put on 
three pieces of brass wire, bent in the form of the letter U, so that 
they will pinch the laps together ; put as much borax as will lie on tho 
saw, cover the whole with a piece of charcoal : melt the brass so 
that it will flow over the saw before taking it off tlie fire, and cool 
very slow so as not to make the braze brittle. File off what remains 
on the saw and it is ready for use. 

To Remove Rust. — If you immerse the articles in kerosene oil and 
let them remain for some time, the rust will become so much loos- 
ened as to come off very easy. 

Dx^vLA-scus Steel. — ^It is said that this steel consists of a highly 
carburetted metal which, by undergomg careful coolmg and annealing, 
separates into two compounds of iron and carbon, giving it the peculiar 
appearance known as " Damasceenmg." The wonderful strength of 
this steel is no doubt owing to careful manipulation. 

Gearing a Lathe for Screw Cutting. — ^Every screw-cutting 
lathe contains a long screw called the lead screw, which feeds the 
carriage of the lathe, while cutting screws; upon the end of this screw 
is placed a gear to which is transmitted motion from another gear 
placed on the end of the spindle, these gears each contain a different 
number of teeth, for the purpose of cutting different threads, and tho 
threads are cut a certain number to the inch varying from 1 to 50. 
Therefore to find the proper gears to cut a certain number of threads 
to the mch, you will first: — multiply the number of threads you de- 
sire to cut to the inch, by any small number, four for instance, and 
this will give you the proper gear to put on the lead screw. Then 
with the same number, four, multiply the number of threads to the 
inch in the lead screw, and this will give you the proper gear to put 
on the spindle. For example, if you Avant to cut 12 to the inch, mul- 
tiply 12 by 4, and it wiU give you 48. Put this gear on the lead 
screw, then with the same number, 4, multiply the number of threads 
to the inch in the lead screw. If it is five, for instance, it will give you 
twenty, put this on the spindle and your lathe is geared. If the lead 
sci-ew is 4, 5, G, 7, or 8, the same rule holds good. AlwTiys multiply 
the number of threads to be cut, first. Some, indeed most small 
lathes, are now made with a stud geared into the spindle, which stud 
only runs half as fast as the spindle, and in finding the gears for these 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &c., receipts. 483 

lathes, you "^ill first multiply the number of threads to be cut, as be- 
fore, and then multiply the number of threads on the lead screw, as 
double the number it is. For instance, if you Avant to cut 10 to the 
inch, mukiply by 4, and you get 40, put tliis on the lead screw, then 
if yoiirlead screw is five to the inch, you call it 10; and nuiltiply by 
4 and it will give you 40. Again put tJiis on your stud and your lathe 
is geared ready to commence cutting. 

Cutting a Screav in an Engine Lathe. — ^In cutting V thread- 
screws, it is only necessary for you to practice operating the shipper 
and slide-screw handle of j-our lathe, before cuttmg. After having 
done this, until you get the motions, you may set the point of the tool 
as high as the centre, and if you keep the tool sharp, you will find no 
difficulty in cutting screAvs. You must, however, cut very light 
chips, mere scrapings in finishing and must take it out of the lathe 
often, and look at it from both sides, very carefullj'-, to see that tlic 
threads, do not lean like fish scales. After cutting, polish with an 
emery stick, and some emery. 

Cutting Square Thread-Screws. — In cutting square thread- 
screws, it is always necessary to get the depth required, Avith a tool 
somewhat thumer than one-half the pitch of the thread. After doijig 
this, make another tool exactly one-half the pitch of the thread, and 
use it to finish with, cutting a slight chip on each side of the groove. 
After doing this, polish with a pine stick, and some emery. Square 
threads for strength should be cut one-half the depth of their pitch, 
while square threads, for wear, may, and should be cut three-fourths 
the depth of their pitch. 

Mongrel, Threads. — Mongrel, or half Y, half-square threads are 
usually made for great wear, and should be cut the deptli of their 
pitch and for extraordinary wear they may even be cut 1^ the depth 
of the pitch. The point and the bottom of the grooves should be in 
Avidth \ the depth of their pitch. What is meant here by the point of 
the thread, is the outside surface. And the bottom of the groove is 
the groove between the threads. In cutting these threads it is neces- 
sary to use a tool about the shape of the thread, and in thickness 
about one-fifth less than the thread is when finished. As it is im- 
possible to cut the whole surface at once, you will cut it in depth 
about one-sixteenth at a time, then a chip off the sides of the thread 
and continue in this way alternately till you have arrived at the 
depth required. Make a gauge of the size required betAveen the 
threads and finish by scraping with water. It is usually best to leave 
such screws as these a little large until after they are cut, and 
then turn off a light chip, to size them, this leaves them true and 
nice. 

PiiANiNG Metals. — The first operation about planing, is to oil 
yoiu planer and find out if the bed is smooth. If it is not, file off 
the rough places ; then change the dogs to see if they will work 
Avell, and fiiid out the movements of the planer. After doing tliis, 
bolt your work on the bed, and if it is a long, tlifn piece, plane 
off a chip, then turn it over and finish the other side, taking two 
chips, the last of which should be very light. Great care should 
be taken, in bolting it to the bed, not to spring it. After finish- 
ing this side turn it to the other side, and take off a light cut to 
^uish it. 



484 MACniXISTS, engixeees', &c., keceipts. 

PLA^'rNa PEiirE>T)i<:x'LARLT. — In planing perpendicularly, it is 
necessary to swivel the bottom of the small head around, so it "vrill 
stand about three-fourths of an inch inside of square, towarda the 
jiicce you are to plane. This prevents breaking the tool when the 
bed runs back. 

Gear Cutting. — In cutting gears, they are reckoned a certiin 
number of teeth to the inch, measuring across the diameter to a cer- 
tain line which is marked on the face or sides of the gear with a tool. 
Tliis line is one-half the depth of the teeth from the outer diameter. 
That is, if the teeth of the gear are two-tenths of an inch deep, this 
line would be one-tenth of an inch from the edge and is called the 
pitch line. 

Depth of Teeth. — ^Every gear cut with a different number of 
teeth to the inch, should be cut of a depth to the pitch line, to corres- 
pond with the number of teeth to the inch. This is called proportion. 
Therefore, if you cut a gear eight to the inch, the depth to the pitch 
line should be one-eight of an inch, and the whole depth of the tooth 
"would be two-eighths. Again, if you cut a gear twelve to the inch, the 
depth to pitch line should be one-twelfth of an inch, and the whole 
depth of tooth two-twelfths. And again, if you cut a gear twenty to 
the inch, the depth to pitch line should be one-twentieth of au hich, 
Avhile the "whole depth should be two-twentieths, and so on cul in- 
finitum. 

Measurikg to tjkd the ITumber or teeth. — To find the size 
a certam gear should be, for a certain number of teeth, is an easy 
matter, if you study carefully these rules. If you want a gear with 
thirty-two teeth and eight to the inch, it should be four inches measur- 
ing across the diameter to the pitch line, and the two-eighths outside 
of the pitch line "^ould make it four inches and two-eighhts. Again, 
if you want a gear with forty teeth, and ten to the inch, it should 
measure across the diameter to pitch line four inches, and the two- 
tenths outside the pitch line would make the whole diameter four 
inches and two-tenths. And again, if you Avant a gear with eighty 
teeth, and twenty to the inch, it should measure to the pitch line, 
across the diameter, four inches, and the two-twentieths, outside 
tJie pitch line, would make it four inches and two-twentieths, and 
these examiples will form a rule for the measurement of all except 
bevel gears. 

Bevel Gears. — These are turned a certain bevel to correspond 
•with each other, according to the angle upon which the shafts driven 
by them are set. For instance, if two shafts are set upon an angle of 
ninety degrees, the surfaces of the faces of these gears will stand at 
an angle of forty-five degrees. To get the surface of these gears, in 
turning them, put a straight edge across the face. Then set your 
level on an angle of forty-five degrees, and try the face of the teeth by 
placing the level on the straight edge. After turning the face of the 
teeth, square the outer diameter by the face of the teeth; and to get 
the size to w-hich you wish to cut, measure from the centre of the 
face of the teeth. Thus, if a bevel gear is six inches in diameter, and 
the face of the teeth is oiie inch, you will measure from the centre of 
the face, and find it is five inches. On this line you calculate the 
number of teeth to the inch, and if you Avant a gear with twenty 
teeth, and ten to tha 'nch, it should measure two inches across the 



MACniXISTS, EXGINEERS , iC, KECEirXS. 



485 



f.ace to the centre of tlie surface of the teeth; and if the face of the 
teetli -were one inch in length, tlie diameter of the gear woixld bo 
three inche.s, and the uiside of tlie teeth would measure only one 
ii\ch. Again, if you want to cut a gear with forty teeth, and ten to 
the inch, it would measure four inclies to the centre of the teeth on 
the surface. And if the surface of the teeth were one inch long, the 
diameter of the gear would he five inches, while it would only 
measure three inches inside the teeth. These examples will form a 
rule for all bevel gears. 

Draw-filixg axd FixisHrN'O. — To draw-file a piece of work 
rmootldy and quickly, it is best to first draw-file it with a medhim 
fine file, and fiiiish with a superfine file. After doiiig this, polish 
the work with dr}"- emery paper and then with emery paper and oil. 

Li>TNG Boxes witu Babbitt Metal. — ^To line boxes properly, so 
as to insure their filling every time, it- is ncces.sary to heat the box 
nearly red hot, or at least hot enough to melt the m.etal. Then smoke 
the shaft where the metal is to be poured upon it. This insures its 
coming out of the box easily, after it is cold. After smokhig the 
shaft, put it into the box or boxes, and draw .some putty around the 
ends of them, for the purpose of stopping them, taking care 
not to press upon it, for if you do it will go into the box and fill a 
place that ought to be filled with metal; and, in the meantime, your 
metal ought to be heated, and after you have poured it, let 
the box stand till it is nearly cold ; drive out your shaft, and it is 
done. 

TuENi^ro A2a) Bokixg. — Tov tuminr/, the proper speed for the cir- 
cumference is about fifteen feet per minute. The best speed for bori 
ing cast iron is about 7^ feet per mmnte. For drillinr/, about 10 o. 
11 feet per minute is a good speed lor the circumference of the tool. 
Tor a 1 inch drUl, 40 revolutions = 11 feet x)er minute, other sizes ir 
proportion. 

How TO FIT Keys i^^^to Locks. — When it is not convenient to 
take locks apart hi the event of keys bemg lost, stolen, or missing, 
when you wish to fit a new key, take a lighted match or candle and 
smoke the new key in the flame, introduce it carefully into the key- 
hole, press it firmly against the opposing wards of the lock, withdraw 
it; and the indentiitions in the smoked part of the key will show you 
exactly where to file. 

Putti^'g MACHI^^ss Together. — ^In putting machines together no 
part should be finished except where it is necessary to make a fit, as 
it is sometimes the case that machinery is miscalculated, and by 
finishing it would be spoiled, while if it were not, it might be saved 
by slight alterations m design. And again, m finishing certain paiis 
before you get a machine together, you are unknowingly finishing 
]iart3 not necessary to be finished, and maldng tlicai of a shape any- 
thing but desirable. This rule, however, is not intended to apply to 
machinery being made to detail draAvings. , 

To DRLLL A HOJLE WHERE YOU HAVE INO ReAINIER. — It IS SOmC- 

times necessary to drill a hole of an exact size to fit a certain shaft, 
and at the same time have it smooth without reaming it. This may 
be done, by first drilling a hole, one-hundreth of an inch smaller tlian 
the size desired, and then making a drill the exact size and running it 
through to finish v/ith. This last drill should have the corners of its 



486 MACHINISTS, engineers', AC, RECEIPTS. 

lips rounded, like a reamer, and the hole sliould be fiiiislied ■vrithout 
holding the drill with a rest. 

Squaring, or Facixg up Cast Irox Surfaces. — A round-end 
tool is best for this. A rough chip should first be taken off, over the 
entire surface to be faced. Then speed your lathe up and taking a 
light chip, merely enough to fcike out the first tool mark, run over 
the entire surface again. In turning up surfaces it is always best to 
begin at the centre and feed out, as the tool cuts freer and will wear 
twice as long. 

Boring a Hole with a Boring Toot.. — h\ boring a hole with a 
boring tool, it is usually necessary to drill the hole first, and too 
much care cannot be taken in finishing. An iron gauge should bo 
made first; it is usually made of a piece of sheet iron or wire. The 
liole should then be drilled smaller than the size desired, and then 
bored to the required size, and it is impossible to bore a hole perfect 
without taking two or three light chips, mere scrapings with which 
to finish. Holes, in tliis way, may be bored as nicely as they can be 
reamed. 

Boring Holes with Boring Arbor. — A boring arbor is a shaft 
with a set in it, for the i)urpose of boring holes of great length, and fs 
designed to be used in a lathe. In doing this properly, you must first 
see if your lathe is set straight; if not, adjust it. Having done this, 
put the piece of work to be bored in the carriage of your lathe, pass 
your arbor through the hole to be bored, and put it on the centres of 
your lathe. Having done this, adjust your work true to the position 
desired by measuring from the point of the tool, conthiually turning 
round the arbor from side to side of the piece to be bored, while you 
are bolting it to the carriage, and measure until it is perfectly true. 
Having done this, bore the hole, and take for the last chip only a 
hundredth of an inch. This makes a true and smooth hole. It is 
impossible to make a hole true with any kind of a tool when you arc 
cutting a large chiiJ, for the tool springs so that no dependence can be 
placed upon it. 

To Make a Boring Arbor and Tool that vtitaj not Chat- 
ter. — Boring tools, when used in small arbors, are always liable to 
chatter and make a rough hole. To prevent this, the tool should be 
turned in a lathe, while in its position in the arbor, upon the circle of 
the size of the hole to be bored, and the bearing lengthwise of the 
arbor, should be only as wide as the feed of the lathe; for if the bear- 
ing of a tool is on the face, the more it will chatter. 

To Straighten Shafting. — This should be done by centreing, 
then put it into a lathe, and square the ends up with what is called 
a side tool. After doing this, take a piece of chalk and try it in 
several places, to find out where the worst crooks are : then, if 
you have not a machine for springing shafting, spring it with a 
lever where the most crook is, and continue this operation tiU the 
shaft is straight. 

Turning Shafting. — To do this properly, two cliips should 
ahvays be run over the shaft, for the reason that it saves filing, and 
leaves the shaft truer and more round, and on shafts thus turned, 
the time saved in filmg more than compensates for the time lost in 
turning. Before you commence you will put j^our feed belts or 
gear on a coarse feed ; turn off one a sixty-fourth of an inch 



MACUINISTS, EXGIXEEUS' AC KECEiriS. 487 

larger than the size required ; having tumea off this cliip, ' com 
mcnce the finishing chip, and turn it small enough to have tho 
pully -wring on about an uich without filing. This "sviU leave it 
large cnougli to file and finish. If tlicrc arc coupUngs to go on a 
shalt, -with holes smaller than the lioles in the pulleys, the ends of 
the shaft, where they fit on, should be turned down to a sixty-foui-th 
of an inch of the size required before any part of tlie shaft is 
finished ; that is, every ]iart of a shaft shoiild be turned to within 
a pLxty-fourtli of an iucli of the size required before an}"- part 
if it has tlie finish-chii-> taken off. Tlio reason for tliat is that it 
leaves every i)art of tlie shaft perfectly true, wliich would not 
be the case Avero it done otherwise. Having done tliis, you will 
file the shaft so that the pullcj-s will slide on, and the couplings so 
that they will drive on ; polish the shaft with a j^air of i>olishiug- 
damps and some emery and it is done. 

To FoiiGE A Twist Drill. — ^It is necessary to forge a flat blade 
Pimihir to a fiat drill, and then twist this blade into the resem- 
blance required, then, with a light hammer, anjl careful blows, ham- 
mer the twisted edges so that they will be thicker than the central 
line of the tool. This will give greater strength and a better drill, 
and, to cut Avell, the central line or cutting point must be made 
quite thin. Be careful to get the mme ticlst at the point of the drill 
as upon tho body of the drill. The inexperienced often leave the 
point straight like a flat drill. 

To C03irUTE THE NL'illJEll OF TEETH REQUIRED IN A TRAIN OF 

^VTiEELS TO TRODCCE A GiVEX VELOCiTV. Jiule. — Multiply the 
luimber of teeth in the driver by its number of revolutions, and divide 
the product by the number of revolutions of each pinion, for each 
driver and pinion. For speed of Wheel, Pulleys, &c., seepar/e 2G7. 

Example. — If a driver in a train of three wheels has 90 teetli, and 
makes 2 revolutions, and the velocities required are 2, 10, and 18, 
what are the number of teeth in each of the other two. 
10: 90: : 2: \%=teeih in 2nd u-heel. 
18: 90: : 2: 10=ieeth in Srd xcliecl. 
To COMPUTE THE DIAMETER OF A WHEEL. Ride. — ^Multiply the 
number of teeth by the pitch, and divide the product by 3, 1410. 

Example. — The luimber of teeth in the wheel is 75, and tlic pitch 
1, G7o ins: what is the diameter of it? 

75X1.C755 

=10 ills. 

3.1416 
To co^rruTE the true or cuordial riTcn. Bide. — ^Divide 180 
by the number of teeth, ascertain the sine of the quotient, and multi- 
ply it by the diameter of the Avlieel. 

Example. — The number of teeth is 75, and tho diameter 40 inches; 
what is the true pitch? 
180 

=2o24, and sin. of 2^24,= 04188, which X 40=1.0752 ms. 

75 
Paper Friction Pullets. — Tliese superior mechanical contri- 
vances are made by cutting pieces of pasteboard into a circular form, 
and of the desired diameter of the pulley, and placmg them in layers 
one on tho toj) of auotlier, cementing properly with a good coat of glue 



488 MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 

between each layer, poundiag or pressing them together as close as 
possible, aud leaving a perforation in the centre of each, for the shalt. 
When you have got enough of these layers together to give you tho 
proper breadth of pulley, allow the glue to harden, then tuni it off to 
a smooth finish in a lathe. Secure each side of the pulley with a good 
stout iron flange large enough to cover the entire diameter, or nearly 
eo, and with proper usage it will last a long time. 

Ox Belting and Friction. — Leather belts will last double tho 
usual time if treated with castor oil, they will be rat proof, they will 
always remain flexible and Avill not crack. A belt 4 inches wide will 
he equal to one G inches wide without it. It requires about 24 hours 
to i^euetrate the leather, if used sooner the greasiness will cause it to 
slip. A leather belt should have a speed of 1300 It. per minute, and 
not more than 1800 ft. or itwilluot last long. Leather belts, with 
grain side to pulley will drive 35 per cent, more than the flesh side, 
because it is less porous, thus admitting less air between the surfaces. 
Pulleys covered with leather with evolve full 50 per cent, more power 
than the naked pulley. To increase the power of rubber belting, 
use red lead, French yellow and litharge, equal parts; mix with boiled 
Imseed oil and japan sufficient to make it dry quick. This will produce 
a highly polished surface. Experiments without lubricants resulted 
in showing the following co-efficients. Oak upon oak, C2; wrought 
iron on oak, 49 to 62; cast iron on oak, 65; wrought iron oh cast, 19; 
cast iron on cast, 16; cast iron axles on lignum-vitae bearings, 18; 
copper on oak, 62; iron on elm, 25; pear tree on cast iron, 44; iron 
axles on lignumvitse bearings (with oil), 11 ; iron axles with brass 
bearings (with oil), .07. A belt 5 in. wide, velocity 1000 ft. per min- 
ute, on leather covered pulleys, will yield 5-horse power; double tho 
speed and it will evolve double the power. 

Methylated Spirit. — Methylated spirit, so Tcry useful in tho 
arts, is an inferior kind of alcohol, mixed with one-ninth of its vol- 
ume of pyroxylic spirit, or wood naphtha. 

Engineers' Bell Signals in Use on Steamers. — Go ahead, 1 
stroke, Back, 2 strokes. Stop, 1 stroke, Sloidy, 2 short strokes. Full 
speed, 3 short strokes, Go ahead Slowly,. 1 long and 2 short strokes, * 
Back Sloioly, 2 long and 2 short strokes, Go ahead Full Speed, 1 long 
and 3 short strokes. Back Fast, 2 long and 3 short strokes, Huri'y, 3 
short strokes repeated, 

. To Dye Metals. — Metals can be dyed any color by dissolving any 
of the aniline dyes in methylated spirit and adding shellac. Thi.i 
solution must be painted on until the desired shade is obtained. If 
the iron has been previously painted white so much the better. 
1 New Self-Lubricating Anti-friction for Bearings. — Take 
equal parts of asbestos and plumbago, mix them thoroughly aud 
carefully together, then add sufficient liquid silicate of soda or potash 
to reduce the whole to a half dry paste. This paste must_ then bo 
submitted to the action of a hydraulic or other press, till it is con- 
verted into a solid mass, which is afterwards dried, either in a fur- 
nace or by exposure to the air, until all moisture has disappeared. 
The bearings may either be turned out of the block or moulded from 
the composition while in the moist state. "When the bearing is finish- 
ed it is steeped in hot melted paraffiue or other mineral oil, until all 
t!ic i)ores of the composition arc filled up. 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEirXf,. 489 

BuBGLAR Alarm. — During the present time, when tramps, sneak 
thieves, audacious burglars and desperadoes are prowling around 
and infesting society, it may not be amiss to quote the following 
description of a home made burglar alarm by a correspondent of the 
English Mechanic : — " Just inside my shop door, and directly o])po- 
cite to it, I have cut a trap in the floor, 3ft. by 2it., and made it to 
■work upon hinges, at the back or door side (same as a box-lid). 
I have placed under the front edge of the trap two common spiral 
bed springs, blocked up from the ground sufRcently to tlirow front 
edge of trap, which rests upon them, about 1 in. above the level 
of the flooring. The springs of course, are placed about 6 in. from 
each front corner, along hont edge, so as to equalize the strain as 
much as possible. The following is easy. In the place \vhere " New 
, Subscriber" would fix his electric bell, let him fix or have fixed an or- 
dinary bell or gong, with tlie wire carried from it, in the way best 
suited to the house, under flooring of passage to the trap, beneath the 
front or raised edge of which there must be a crank that the spring- 
ing of the trap shall ^ork and ring the bell, which, if well hung at a 
good rmging pitch, will awaken the soundest sleeper in the event of 
a thief or any intruder enteriug the house at improper times, or for 
improper purposes. To avoid annoyance in the day time, a button 
at each end of trap would fix it down firmly, and at night, upon 
gomg to bed or when locking up, it could be released. The door-mat 
Avouid cover the entire thing, and no one but those concerned need 
ever Itnow of its existence. I do not hesitate to say that not one in 
fifty people, or even a hundred, that enter my shop know of any- 
thing or notice anything different to any other place they may go in- 
to, yet it has been in use for seven years. I fitted it myself, tiiougli 
not a bell-hanger, and it has never once got out of condition, but the 
bell will often give fifteen and twenty beats with one person treading 
on the mat." 

Black Yarxish for lRo:jr "Work. — Asphaltum, 1 lb. ; lampblack, 
^ lb. ; resin, ^Ib. ; spirits turi:)entino, 1 quart; linseed oil, just sufficient 
to rub up the lampblack with before mixing it with the others. Ap- 
ply with a camel's hair brush. 

To File a Hole Square. — ^To file a hole square, it is necessary 
to reverse the work very often ; a square file should first be used, 
and the holes finished with either a diamond-shaped file or a 
half round. This leaves the corners square, as they properly should 
be. 

To Turn Chilled Iron. — At Lister's Works, Darlington, Eng- 
land, some articles reqiiired turning in the lathe, and cast steel could 
not be made hard enough to cut them. One man proposed east metal 
tools. He was laughed at, of course, but his plan had to be tried. 
Well, cast metal tools were tried, with points chilled, and they cut 
when cast steel tools were of no use. The article was turned up with 
metal tools. 

Drilling Holes ik Cast Iron.— By means of carbolic aeid a 
hole 4 of an inch in diameter has been drilled through h inch thickness 
of cast iron, with a common carpenter's brace; judge," then, what can 
be done by using the acid and pressure drill. 

Hardening Wood for Pulleys. — After a wooden pulley is turn- 
ed and rubbed smooth, boil it for about eight minutes in olive oil; 
then allow it to dry, and it will become almost as hard as copper. 

To Solder Ferrules for Tool Handles.— Take your ferrule, 
lap round the jointing u small piece of brass Avirc, then just wet tha 



490 MACniNISTS, EXGINEEKS', «fcC., RECEIPTS. 

fcrriilc, scatter on the joining ground borax, put it on the end ( t a 
•wire, and hold it in the fire till the brass fu?cs. It will fill up »he 
joiuing, and form a perfect solder. It may afterwards be turned ir 
the lathe. 

IMaking Dies for Sciiew-Cutti>t.. — In making dies for screw- 
cutting, they should, Avhenever practicable, be lapped with a taper 
tap, as they cut more easily and wear longer than those which arc 
cut straight, and then tapered off to make the screw " take." 

Very fine threaded screws, however, cut well Avitli straight die?. 
Small dies, or dies below one-fourth of an inch in size, should only 
have three lips in them. Dies from one-fourth to one-half should 
have four lips in them. Dies from three-fourtlis to one inch should 
have six lips in them; and dies from one inch to one-and-a-lialf 
ghould have seven lips in them. The cuts through dies should bo 
only twice the depth of the thread, which is sufficient to make them 
free themselves from chips, for when cut too deep they are liable to 
break on the face. Harden and draw to a straw color. 

To Dip a Fluted Reamer PiiorERLY. — Dip it perpendicularly 
to a short distance beyond the fluting — that is to say, about half an 
inch and withdraw and return it several times. This hardens all the 
lips, and prevents it cracking off at the water's edge, which is tlio 
case when a piece of steel is dix^ped in to a certain depth, and allowed 
to cool without moving. 

AxTi-FiiicTiON Metal. — Copper, 4 lbs. ; regulua of antimony, 8 
lbs. ;«Banca tin, 96 lbs. 2. Grain zinc, 7^ lbs. ; purified zinc, 7^ lbs. ; 
antimony, 1 lb. 3, Zinc, 17 parts; copper, 1 part; antimony. Imparts. 
This possesses nnsurijassible anti-friction qualities, and does not re- 
quire the protection of outer casings of a harder metal. 4. Block tin, 
8 lbs. ; antimony, 2 lbs. ; copper, 1 lb. If the metal be too hard, it 
may bo softened by adding some lead. 5. The best alloy for journal 
boxes is composed of copper, 24 lbs. ; tin, 24 lbs. ; and antimony, 8 
lbs. !Melt the copper first, then add the tin, and lastly the antimony. 
It should be first run into ingots, then melted, and cast hi the form 
required for the boxes. G. Melt in a crucible 1^ lbs. of copper, and, 
while the copper is meltmg, melt in a ladle 25 lbs. of tin and 3 of anti- 
mony, jiearly red hot, pour the two together, and stir until nearly 
cool. This makes the finest kind of linmg metal. 7. Veiy cheap. 
Lead, 100 lbs. ; antimony, 15 lbs. This costs about 10 cents per lb. 
8. For Bearings to sustain cjreat weifjhts. — Copper, 1 lb. ; zinc, ^ oz. ; 
tm, 2^.oz. 9. Hard Bearings for machinery. — Copper, 1 lb. ; tin, 2 
ozs. "10. Venj Hard cZiiio.— Copper, 1 lb. ; tin, 2| ozg. 11. Lining 
Metal for Boxes of Railway Cars. — Mix tin, 24 lbs, ; copper 4 lbs. ; 
antimony, 8 lbs, ; (for a hardening) then add tin 72 lbs. 12. Lining 
Metal for Locomotives' Axle trees. — Copper, 80.03.; tin, 13.97.13. 
Another, French. — Copper, 82 parts, tin, 10 parts, zinc, 8 parts. 14. 
Another, (jStepAenson's),—- Copper. 79 parts; tin, 8 parts, zinc, 5,parts, 
lead 8 parts. 15. Another {Belgian). — Copper, 89.02. parts, tin, 2.44 
parts, zinc, 7,76 parts iron, 0.78. 16. Another {Fnc'lish). — Copper, 73. 
iXi parts, tin, 9.49 parts, zinc, 9.03 parts, lead, 7.09 parts, iron, 0.43 
parts. 17. Another.-^Coppev, 90.06 parts, tin, 3.56pai-ts, zmc. 0.38. of 
Nickel Anti-friction Metal. — Alate improvement in the manufacture 
of anti-friction metal is the introduction of a small percentage of 
nickel into either of the above, or any other auti-f rictiou compositioa. 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 491 

C(»rposiTiON FOR Crucibles. — 1. Stourbridge crucible clay 4 parts, 
plumbago 3 parts, hard coke 2 parts, cement, consisting of old pots 
{ground and silted, 1 part. If old pots are not to be had, the forego- 
ing must be burnt hard, ground and silted. The carbon chippings 
from the interior of gas retorts are superior to the best ordinary coke. 
Pulverize the whole and sift through a g inch mesh sieve, temper and 
mix with plentj' of clean cold water, tread with tlie bare loot to the 
consistency of stiff dough, allow it to stand for three or four days 
covered with a damp cloth to permit sweating and thorough maturitj^ 
then block by a machine or by hand. "When completeh' dry, place in 
the kiln and anneal, but do not burn hard. 2. Another. — The Birm- 
ingham soft, tough pot consists of 2 parts of the best Stourbridge cru- 
cible clay, 3 parts plumbago, and 1 part cement consisting of old cru- 
cibles pulverized and sifted, &c., as above described. 3, Artoihcr. — 
Stourbridge crucible clay 2 parts, cement 3 parts, silt through a J incli 
mesh sieve, temper as above, and when dry place in the kiln and 
bum hard. 4. Another. — Stourbridge best crucible clay, 3 parts by 
measure; cement, comjDOsed of old worn out fire brick, 2 parts; hard 
coke, 1 part; sift, temper and manipulate as above. 

Cast Iron Patteeks should be made very smooth, then slightly- 
warmed, and waxed all over with the best beeswax. 

Facings, Sands, &c., for Castings. — As a facing for loam cast- 
ings use fire sand 3 parts, "Whitehead sand 1 part; mix. For pipes 
and small cylinders use No. 1, or fine sand, lacing with plum"bago. 
Albany or Waterford sand is excellent for fine castings, or use 1 part 
of sea coal to 8 or 10 of Albany sand ; 1 part to 5 will do for heavy 
castings. To ensure very smooth castings, mix with the green foun- 
dry sand about 1-20 part of tar. 

To Prevent Holes in Castings. — In casting iron on iron or 
steel spindles, the moulds are cast endwise; let the cast metal spindle 
be an inch longer on the uppermost side than is necessary Avhen the 
job is finished; thus the air holes, if any, w^ill form in the extra inch 
of length, and may be cut off in the lathe. 

To Cast Chilled Iron Tools for Cutti>^g Chilled Iron. — 
After making a tool of the required form out of wrought iron, cast 
the chilled part, using charcoal iron No. 5. 

Dysiot. — The new alloy, called dysiot, brought into the market by 
Rompel & Co., of Homburgh, has been analyzed by Yon Uhleuhutli, 
and found to consist of copper, 62.30 parts; lead, 17.75; tin, 10.42; 
zinc, 9.20, with traces of iron. It can be prepared by melting together 
62 parts of copper, 18 of lead, 10 of tin, and 10 of zinc. 

Excellent Anti-Friction. — Tin 50 parts, antimony 5, copper 1. 

Cheap Brass.— Copper 1 lb., zinc 12 ozs. 

Brazing Metal.— Copper 1 lb., spelter 8 ozs., with a little lead. 

Tough Tvpe Metal.— Lead 100 lbs., antimony 40, tin 20. 

Platln'um Bronze, Eust-Proo/.^mckel 100 parts, tm 10, plati- 
num 1, ^ 

Malleable or Aluminum Bronze.— Copper 90, tin 10. 
ALU>nNUM Silver, of Fine Luster and Polish.— Copper 70 
parts, nickel 23, aluminum 7. 

Yellow Brass for Steam Engines.— Add 4i to 9 ozs. zinc to 
each lb. of copper. ^ 



492 MACHINISTS, ENGINEEKS', &C., IIKCEIPTS. 

Good Brass FOR Machikert, — 1, Copper, 21bs., tiii2^ozs., zinc 
^ oz. 2, Tuiif/h B7-ass. — Copper, 10 ozs., tin, 1^ ozs., zinc 1^ ozs. 

3. ]\7ieds and Valves. — Copper, 90 lbs., tin, 10 lbs, 4, Brass, venj 
tenacious. — Copper, 88.9 parts, tin, 8.3 parts, zinc, 2.8 parts. 5. 
Lathe Bushes. — Copper, 80 parts, tin 20 parts. G. Machinery Bearings. 
— (jopper, 88 parts, tin, 12 ]^arts. 7. Boxes for Engines Running 
at High Speed. — Coi^i^er, 7 lbs., tin, 1 lb, ; add spelter 1 lb. to every 
40 lbs, of the mixture. Use steel piston rods for high speed and 
lignum vitse or apple-tree Avood for shoes or gihhs on the cross-head.-^. 
Iron for cylinders and guides, if made from pig iron should be melted 
at least 8 or 9 times previous to use. 

Bronze. — 1, Copper, 83 parts; zinc, 11 parts; tin, 4 parts: lead, 2 
parts; mix. 2. Copper, 14 parts; melt and add zinc, Gpart.s; tin, 4 
parts; mix, 3, Ancient Bronze. — Co])pcr, 100 parts; lead and tin, of 
each 7 parts; mix, 4, Alloy for Bronze Ornaments. — Copper, 82 
parts ; zinc, 18 parts ; tin, 3 parts ; lead, 3 parts ; mix, 5. Statuanj 
Bronze. — Copper, 88 parts; tin, 9 parts; zinc, 2 jDarts- lead, Ipart. G. 
Another. — Copper, 82^ parts; tin, 5 parts; zinc, lOj parts; lead, 2 
parts. 7. Another. — Copper, 90 parts; tin, 9 parts; lead, Ipart. 8. 
Bronze for Medals. — Copper, 89i)arts; tin 8 parts; zinc, 3 parts. 9. 
Bronze. — Copper, 7 lbs, ; zinc, 3 lbs. ; tin, 2 lbs. 10. Another.— Co\}- 
\)CT, 1 lb. ; zinc, 12 lbs. ; tin, 8 lbs. 

SurEEiOR Bell Metal. — 1. Copper, lOOlbs, ; tin,231bs. 2. Cop- 
per, 25 parts; tin, 5 parts. 3, Copper, 79 parts; tin, 2G parts; mix. 

4. Copper, 78 parts; tin, 22 parts; mix. 5, Parisian Bell Metal. — Cop- 
per, 72 parts; tin, 20^ parts; iron, 1^ parts. Used for the bells of 
small ornamental clocks. 6, Clock Bell i/ei!aZ,^-Copper, 75.19 parts; 
tin, 24.81 parts. 7. Bell Metal for Large Bells. — Copper, 100 lbs. ; tin, 
from 20 to 25 lbs, 8, Bell Metal for Small Bells. — Co]-)per, 3 lbs, ; tin, 
1 lb. 9. White Metal for Tabic ZieZZs.— Copper, 2,0G parts; tm, 97.31 
pai'ts ; bismuth, 0.G3 parts. 

Yellow Brass (J'or casting).—!. Copper, Gi.G parts; zinc, 35.3 
parts; lead, 2.9 parts; tin, 0.2 parts, 2. Brass of Jemappes. — Copper, 
C4.G parts ; zinc, 33.7 parts ; lead, 1.4 parts, tin, 0.2 parts. 3, Sheet 
of Stolberg, near Aix la C/iopeZZc— Copper, 04. 8 parts; zinc, 32,8 parts; 
lead, 2,0 parts; tin, 0,4 parts. 4, D 'Arcets Brass for Gilding.— -Co^- 
per, G3,70 parts; zinc, 33,55 parts; lead, 0.25 parts; tin, 2.50 parts. 

5. Anotlier.—Co'p^Y, C4,45 parts; zuic, 32,44 parts; lead, 2.8G parts; 
tin, 0,25 parts. 6. Sheet Brass of Romilly. — Copper, 70.1 parts; zinc, 
29.9 parts. 7. English Brass TFire.— Copper, 70.29 parts; zinc, 29,2G 
parts; lead, 0.28 parts; tin, 0.17 parts. 8, Angshurg Brass Wire. — 
Copper, 71,89 parts; zinc, 27,G3 parts; tin, 0,85 parts. 

Red Brass, for Gilt Articles. —1. Copper, 82,0 parts ; zinc, 18.0 
parts; lead, 1,5 parts; tin, 3,0 parts. 2, Another. — Copper, 82 parts : 
zinc, 18 parts; lead, 3 parts; tin, 1 part 3 Another. Copper, 82,3 
parts; zinc, 17.5 parts; tin, 0,2 parts. 4. French Tomhac for Sword 
Handles.— Coppev, 80 parts ; zinc, 17 parts ; tin, 3 ports, 5 For 
Parisian 0?'namen,^s.— -Copper, 85 parts ; zinc, 15 parts ; tin, a trace 

6. Used for German Ornaments. — Copper, 85 3 prrts ; zinc, 14.7 parts. 

7. Chrysochalk.—Cop])ev, 90,0 parts; zinc, 7.9 parts; lead, l.G parts.- 

8. Red Tomhaefrom Paris. — Copper, 92 parts ; zinc, 8 ])arts. 
Brass. — 1. Yelloio Brass for Turning, (common article.) — Copper, 

20 lbs, zmc, 10 lbs. lead, 4 ozs. 2, Another Brass for Turning. --Coih 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &c., keceipts. 493 

per, 32 lbs. zinc, 10 lbs. lead, 1 lb. 3. Red Brass free, for Turninfi.— 
Copper, IGO lbs. ziuc, 50 lbs. lead, 10 lbs. antimony, 44 ozs. 4. Bcsi. 
lied Brass for fine Castings. — Copper, 24 lbs. zinc, 5 lb§. bismuth, 1 
oz. 5. Red Tombac. — Copper, 10 lbs. zinc, 1 lb. G. Tombac. — Copper, 
16 lbs. tin, 1 lb. zinc, 1 lb. 7. Brass for Heavy Castings. — Copper. (J 
to 7 parts; tin, 1 part; zinc, 1 part. 8. Malleable Brass. — Copper, 70.10 
parts; zinc, 29.<J0 parts. 9. Superior Malleable Brass. — Copper, GO 
parts; zinc, 40 parts. 10. Brass. — Copper, 73 parts; ziuc, 27 parts. 11. 
Copper, G5 parts; zinc, 35 parts. 12. Copper, 70 parts; zinc, 30 
parts. 13. Gcrnuni Brass. — Copper, 1 lb. ziuc, 1 lb. 14. Watch- 
makers' Brass. — Copper, 1 part; ziuc, 2 parts. 15. Brass for Wire. — 
Copper, 34 parts; calamine, 5G parts. IG. Brass, for Tubes. — Copper, 
2 parts; ziuc, 1 part. 17. Brass for Heavy Work. — Copper, 100 parts: 
tin, 15 parts; zijic, 15 parts. 18. Another. — Copper, 112 parts; tin, 13 
parts ; zinc, 1 part. 19. Tombac or Red Brass. — Copper, 8 parts ; zinc, 
1 part. 20. Brass. — Copper, 3 parts; melt, then add zinc, 1 part. 
21. Buitonmakers' Fine Bj'ass. lirass, 8 parts; zinc, 5 parts. 22. 
Jiuttonmakers' Common Brass. — Button brass, 6 parts; tm, 1 part; 
lead, Ijjart; mbc. 23. Mallet's Brass. — Copper, 25.4; zinc, 74.G; used 
to preserve irou from oxydizin^. 24. Best Brass for Clocks. — Koso 
tO])per, 85 parts; ziuc, 14 parts ;"lead, 1 part. 

To Cast Biiass solid. — The metal should uotbo run any hotter 
tlian is necessary to insure sharp castiugs. Tlie most probable cause 
of the honey combings of castings is that the air cannot get out 
of tlie way ; and there ought to be proper vents made for it from 
the liigliest parts of the mould ; the metal should be run in near 
or at the bottom of the mold. If about 1 lb. of lead be added to eve- 
ry 16 lbs. of old bi-ass, wlieu just at the melting point, solid good bras- 
t^es Avill be tlie result. In melting old brass, the zhic, or lead, con- 
tiiined in it (whcnlluid) oxydizes freely, consequently the propor- 
tions of the metjil are altered, and require an addition similar to 
the above. If the brass has not been re-cast a little less lead Aviil 
do, b'lt if re-cast several times it may take the full quantity, 

Nkw axd Beautiful, Allovs. — Copper, G9.8 parts; nickel, 10.8 
parts ; ziuc, 5.5 ])arts ; cadminum, 4.7 parts ; used for spoons, forks, Szc. 
Another. — Copper, 89.3 parts; aluminum, 10.5 parts. Oreide resem- 
hliarj Gold. Cojiper, 79.7 parts; ziuc, 83-05 parts; nickel, 6.09 parts, 
with a trace of irou and tin. 

Good Buitaxxia Mktal. — 1. Tin, 150 lbs. ; copper 3 lbs. ; antimon v, 
lOlba. 2. Britannia. 2d Quality.— Tin, UOlb».; Copper, 3 lbs. ; anti- 
mony 9 lbs. 3.Brita)iniaMctal,forCastinf/. — Tin, 210 lbs.; copper, 4 
lbs.; antimony, 13 lbs. 4. Britannia Metal for spinninf/. — Tin, 100 
lbs.; Britannia hardening, 4 lbs.; antimony, 4 lbs. 5. Britannia 
Metal for Re rjisters. — Tin, 'l40 lbs. ; hardeuuig' 8 lbs. ; antimony 8 lbs. 
G. Best Britannia for spouts. — Tin 140 lbs.; copper, 3Tbs. ; anti- 
mony, 6 lbs. 7. Best Britannia for spoons. — Tin, 100 lbs. ; hardening 
5 lbs. ; antimony, 10 lbs. 8. Jiest Britannia for Handles.— Tm, 140 lbs. ; 
copper 2 lbs. ; antimony 5 lbs. 9. Best Britannia for Lamps, Pillars, 
and Spouts. — Tin. 300 lbs. ; copper, 4 lbs. ; antimony 15 lbs. 10. Fuf 
Casting.— T'm, 100 lbs.; hardening 5 lbs.; antimony, 5 ibs. 11. Tin, 
S3 parts; lead, 18 parts; brass 5" parts; antimony, 5 parts; mix. 13. 
Another Britannia. — Tin, 20 parts; antimony, 4 i)arts; brass, 1 part; 
mix. 13 Hardening for Britannia.— Brass, 4" parts ; tiu, 4 parts ; wiieu 



494 MAcniN'TSTS, engineers', &c., receipts. 

fused, add bismuth, 4, .and autiirvony, 4 parts. Another Ilardeninff. 
— Autimony, tin, bismuth, and plate brass of each equal parts. Add 
this mixture to melted tin until it acquires the proper color and hard- 
ness. 15. Britannia. — Tin, 89.70 parts, antimony 9.70 parts, copper 0. 
30i)arts, zinc, 0.30 parts, 16. Tin, 81.64 parts, autimonj^, 16.51 parts, 
copper, 1,85 parts. 17. Tin, 89.97 parts, antimony 9. 12 parts, copper, 
0.91 parts. 18. Tin, 90.00 parts, antimony, 10 parts. 19. Thi 89.30 
I)arts, antimony, 7.14 parts, copper, 1.78 parts, bismuth, 1.78 parts. 

Germ/U!! Silver, Fikst quality fob Casting. — 1. Copper 50 lbs. 
zinc, 25 lbs. nickel, 25 lbs. 2. Second Quality, for Casting. — Cop- 
per, 50 lbs. zinc, 20 lb.-5. best pulverized uiclcel, 10 lbs. 3. German 
Silver for liolling. — Copper, 60 lbs. zinc, 20 lbs. nickel, 25 lbs. 4, 
German Silver for Belts, and other Castings. — Copper 60 lbs. zinc, 
20 lbs. nickel, 20 lbs. lead, 3 lbs. iron, that of tin plate is the best, 
2 lbs. 5. German Silver for Castings.— Lead, 3 parts, nickel, 20 
parts, zinc, 20 parts, copper 60 parts, mix. 6. German Silver for 
Hulling. — Nickel, 5 parts, zinc, 4 parts, copper 12 parts, mix. 7. Cop- 
per, 40. 62 parts, zinc, 43. 76 parts, nickel, 15. 62 parts. 8. Copper 41.47 
parts, zinc 26. 08 parts, nickel, 32. 35 parts. 9. Copper 55. 55 parts, 
zinc, 5. 55 parts, niclcel 38. 90 parts. 10. Copper, 53. 40 parts, zinc 
29. 10 parts, nickel 17. 50 parts. 11. Alfenide.—Gowtsdn a trace of 
iron, copper, 59. 60 parts, zinc, 30. 30 parts, nickel, 10. 10 parts. 12. 
Fine Silver Colored Metal. — Tin 100 lbs. antimony, 8 lbs. copper, 4 
lbs. bismuth, 1 lb. 13. Fine White German Silver. — Iron 1 part : 
nickel, 10 parts, zinc, 10 parts, copper, 20 parts : melt. 14. Genuine 
German Silver. — Iron 2^ parts, nickel 31^ parts, ziuc 25^ parts, cop- 
per, 40^ parts : melt. 15. Biderij. — Copper, 48.48 parts ; tin, 6.G3 
parts, zinc, 33.80 parts, lead, 12.12 parts. 

Sundry Compositions. — 1. Organ Pipe Metal consists of lead al- 
loyed "W'ith about half its quantity of tin to harden it. Lead, 100; tin, 
33 parts ; and lead, 100 ; tm, 20 parts, answer very well. The mot- 
tled or crj'stalline appearance so much admired shows an abundance 
of tin. 2. Cannon Metal. — Tm, 10 parts ; copper, 90 parts ; melt. 
3. Alloy for Cymbals. — Copper, 80 parts ; tin, 20 parts. 4. Chinese 
Gong Metal. — Copper, 78 parts ; tm, 22 parts. 5. Cock Metal— 
Copper, 20 lbs. ; lead, 8 lbs. ; lithari;e, 1 oz. ; antimony, 3 ozs. 6. 
Metal for taking Impressions. — Lead, 3 lbs. ; tin, 2 lbs. ; bismuth, 5 
lbs. 7. Alloy for Gun Mountings. — Copper, 80 parts ; tin, 3 parts, 
zinc, 17 parts. 8. Pinchbeck. — Copper, 5 lbs. ; zinc, 1 lb. 9. Span- 
ish Tutania. — ^Iron or steel, 8 ozs. ; antimony, 16 ozs. ; nitre, 8 ozs. 
Melt and harden 8 ozs. of tin with 1 oz. of the above compound. 10. 
Jiivet Metal. — Copper, 32 ozs. ; tiu, 2 ozs. ; zinc. 1 oz. 11. Chinese 
White Copper.— Copper, 40.4 ; nickel, 31.6 ; zinc, 25.4 ; and iron, 2.6 
l?arts. 12. Bath Metal. — Brass, 32 parts ; zinc, 9 parts. 13. Spccu- 
hmi Metal; — Copper, 6; tin, 2; arsenic, 1 part. Or copper, 7; zinc, 3; 
and tin, 4 parts. 14. Electrum. — Copper, 8, nickel, 4, zinc, 3.^ parts. 
This compound is unsurpassed for ease of workmanship and beauty 
of api^carance. 15. Common Pewter. — Tiu, 4; lead, 1 part. VS. 
Best Pewter.— Tm, 100, antimony, 17 parts. 17 Queen's Metal— Tin, 
9; antimony, 1; bismuth, 1; lead, 1 part. 18. Chantn/s Ilard Alloy. — 
Copper, 1 lb. ; zmc, 2^ ozs. ; tin, 2^ ozs. Razors as hard as tempered 
Ftecl liavo been made from this "alloy. 19. Alloy for Mechanical 
Instruments.— Qo])\iGx, 1 lb. ; tiu, 1 oz. 20. Rivet Metal for Jljse-^ ■ 



MACHINISTS, ENGINEEKS', «S:C., liECEiriS. 405 

Tin, 4G lbs. ; copper, 1 lb. 21. Hard ^VhitG Jl/e^aZ.— Sheet brass, 02 
jzs. ; lead, 2 ozs^ ; tin, 2 ozs. ; ziuc, 1 oz. 22. Fusible Alloy, melts 
ill Boilinfj water. — Bismuth, 8 ozs. ; tin 3 ozs. ; lead, 5 ozs. 23. 
Fusible Alloy for Silverimj Glass. — Tin, G ozs. ; lead, 10 ozs. ; bis- 
muth, 21 ozs. ; mercury, a small quantity. 21. Hard Wliite Metal 
for Buttons. — Brass, 1 lb. ; ziuc, 2 ozs. •; tin, 1 oz. 25. Button Mak- 
jr's Metal. — Copper, 43 parts; zinc, 07 parts. 2Q. Another. — Copper, 
52.22 parts, tin. 2.78 parts, zmc, 35 parts. 27. Another. — Copper, 58. 
04 parts; tin, 5.28 parts; zinc, 3b.78 parts. 28. Metal that expands in 
cool inf J. —Lcn.d, 0; antimony, 2; bismuth, 1 part. This metal is very 
useful in filling small delects in iron castmgs, &c. 29. Albata Metal. 
— Nickel, 3 to 4 parts; copper, 20 parts; zinc, 10 parts. Used for 
l^lated goods. CO. Birminuham Platin. — Copper, 8 parts, zinc, 5 
parts. 31. Imitation Platinum. — ]\Ielt together, 8 parts brass, 5 parts 
of zinc. This alloy closely resembles platinum. 32. Chinese Silver. 
— Silver, 2.5; copper, 05.24; zinc 19.52; cobalt or iron, 0.12; nickel, 13. 
33. Tatcna;i. — Copper, 8; zinc, 5; nickel, 8 parts. 34. Prince's Metal. 
— Copper, 3 parts; zinc, 1 jiart. 35. Another. — Brass, 8 i^arts, zinc, 1 
part. 30. Another. — Zinc and copper equal parts. Mix. 37. Queen' 'i 
Metal. — Lead, 1 part; bismuth 1 part; antimony, 1 part; tin, 9 parts. — 
Mix. 38. Another. — Tin, 9 j)arts; bismutli 1 part; lead, 2 parts; anti- 
mony 1 part; mire. 39. Imitation Gold. — Platiua, 8 parts; silver, 4 
parts; copper, 12 parts, melt. 40. /;m7aiion<S'A7ue7'.-]31oclc tin, 100 parts; 
antimony, 8 parts; bismuth, 1 part; copper, 4 parts; melt. 41. Spur- 
ious Silver Leaf. — Tin, 90.09 ; ziiic, 9.91 parts ; melt. 42. Mirrors of 
Eeflectinf/ Telescope. — Copper 100, tin, 50 parts. 43. White Arrjentan 
— Copper, 8 parts ; nickel, 3 parts, zinc, 35 parts. This beautiful com- 
position is in imitation of silver. 44. Yelloio Dipping Metal. — Cop- 
per, any desired quantity and G or 7 ozs. of zinc to every lb. of copper. 
45. Shot Metal. — Lead, 97.00 parts; arsenic, 2.94 parts. Another. — Lead, 
99.G0 parts ; arsenic, 0.40 parts. 4G. IVIiite Metal. — Parts by weight ; tm, 
82; lead, 18; antimony, 5; zinc, 1; copper, 5. 47. Hard Pewter. — 
Melt together, 12 lbs of tin; regulus of antimony, 1 lb. ; copper, 4 
ozs. 48. Comm,on Pewter. — Melt in a crucible, tin, 7 lbs. ; Avhcn 
fused throw in lead, 1 lb. ; copper, 6 ozs. ; ziuc, 2 ozs. 49. British 
Plate. — Nickel, 5 to i^arts ; copper, 20 parts; zinc, 8 to 10 parts. Used 
for plated goods. 50. Composition for Strong Pumps, &c. — Coi^per, 1 
lb. ; zinc, h, and tin, 1^ ozs. 51. Composition for Toothed Wheels. — Cop- 
per, 1 lb. ; brass, 2 ozs. ; tin, 2 ozs. 52. Another. — Copper, 1 lb. ; 
brass, 2 ozs. ; tin 1| ozs. 53. For Turninr/ Work. — Copper, 1 lb. ; brass 
2 ozs. ; tin, 2 ozs. 54. For Nuts of coarse Threads and Bearings. — 
Copper, 1 lb. ; brass, 1^ ozs. ; tin, 2^ ozs. 55. Pewterers Temper. — 
Copper, 1 lb. ; tni, 2 lbs. Used to add in small quantities to tm. 5G. 
Alloy for Cylinders of Locomotives. — Copper, 88.03 parts; tin, 2.38 
parts; zinc, 0.99 parts. 57. Metal for Sliding Levers of Locomotives. 
— Copper, 85.25 parts; tin, 12.75 jjarts; zinc, 2.00 parts. t)>i. Another 
(Fentons). — Copper, 5.50 tm, 14.50; zinc, 80 parts. 59. Baron Wet- 
tei'stedl's Patent Sheathing for Ships. — Consists of lead with from 
2 to 8 pet cenc. of antimony, about 3 jjer cent, is the usual quantity. 
The alloy is rolled into sheets. GO. Muntz Metal for Ships. — Best 
selected copper, GO parts; best zinc, 40 parts. Melt together in the 
usnal manner and roll into sheets of suitable thiclaiess. 'J'his com- 
position resists oxidation irom exjwoiire to sea water, and prevents 



40 G 



MACHINISTS, ENGINEERS , &C., RECEIPTS. 



clic ndliGsion of barnacles. 61. Metal for Anatomical Injections. — Tin, 
1G.41 parts; load, 9.27 parts; bismuth, 27.81 parts; inercury, 41.41 
parts. 62. Fusible 3Ietal for casts.— Bismnth, 8 parts; lead, 6 parts; 
tin, 3 parts. It will melt at 200° or under boiling water. For malo 
casts use tin only. G3. Pot Metal. — Copper, 40 lbs. ; lead, IG lbs. ; 
tin, IJ lbs. G4. Metal for Models. — Tea lead, Gibs. ; tin, ^ lb. ; anti- 
mony, f lb. G5. Imitation of Silver. — Copper, 1 lb. ; tin, "3 ozs. GG 
Von Bibras Alloy for Mcdels. — Bismutli, 27.27 parts; lead, 59.03 
parts ; tin, 13.4G parts. If the cast objects be bitten with diluted ni- 
tric acid, washed with water, and rubbed with a woolen rag, the ele- 
vated spots become bright, while the sunken portions are duii 
and the castings acquire a dark gray appearance Avith an antique lus- 
tre. Without biting the color is light gray. 67. New Sheaihinfj Metal. 
— This alloy is made by melthig 2 J parts of copper in one crucible, 
in another, 9 parts of zinc, 87 of lead, 1 part of mercury, and ^ part 
of bismuth, then mix the contents of both crucibles, covering the sur- 
face with charcoal dust, and stirring well till all are incorporated. 
The mercury in this alloy protects botli the zinc and copper from the 
action of sea water. The contents of the crucible are run into ingots 
and rolled into sheets. G8. Spelter. — Natural impure zinc, which con- 
tains a x)ortion of lead, iron, copper and a little manganese and plum- 
bago. 

Iron ;Maxut'Acture. — Charcoal 138 bushels, limestone 432 lbs., 
and ore 2G12 lbs., will produce 1 ton of pig iron. In England temper- 
ature of hot blast is G00°, density of blast and of refmiug furnace 2^ 
to 3 lbs. per square inch. Revolutions of puddling rolls GO per 
minute ; rail rolls, 100 ; rail saw, 800. 

House power (iiojicatkd) required for differe^tt processes. 



lUast Furnace GO 

Ilefming " 2G 

Puddling Rolls with squeezers 
and shears. 80 



Railway roUiug train 250 

Small bar train GO 

Double rail saw 12 

Straightening 7 



One pound of Anthracite, coal in a cupola furnace wiU melt from 5 to 
10 lbs of cast irtm ; 8 bushels of bituminous coal will melt 1 ton of 
fast iron. Small coal j)roduces about J of the effect of large coal of 
the same kind. 

To Reduce Oxides. — The more powerful deoxidizing agent is un- 
doubtedly coal in its several varieties, and the gases deriving there- 
from during combustion in the furnace. The oxides of lead, bismuth, 
antimony, nickel, cobalt, copper, and iron require a strong red heat in 
the furnace, whilst the oxides of manganese, chromium, tin, and zinc, 
do not lose their oxygen until heated to whiteness. On a small scale, 
the reduction of oxides is generally effected by mixing charcoal, to- 
gether with the oxide to be reduced, in a refractory clay crucible, the 
charcoal furnishing the carbon necessary to the proper performance 
of this work. Some use a crucible thickly lined with charcoal, put- 
ting in the oxide on the top of the charcoal. It is necessary, however, 
Avlien using the crucible and charcoal, to use a flux, say a little borax 
in powder, strewed on the mixture to accelerate the reduction of the 
oxi4e. The borax is generally the first to fuse, and, as the metal is 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 407 



eliminated, seems to purify and cleanse it, as it gathers into a buttoa 
at the bottom of the crucible. It is all the better if you give the cruci- 
ble a few sharp taps when jou take it off the fire. 

Effects of heat ox vamous bodies. 



Fine Gold melts 2.3»0" 

" Silver '• 1250 

Copper melts : 25i8 

Wrought lion melts 3080 

Cast " " 3179 

Bright red " in the dark 752 

Red hot " in twilight 881 

Glass melts 2377 

< ommou lire 790 

Brass melts 1900 

.\ir furnace 3300 

Antimony melts 951 

Bismuth " 47G 

Cadmium GOO 

Steel 2500 

Lead 504 

Tin 421 



Heat, cherrv red 1500° 

'• bright •' 1861 

" red visible by day 1077 

" white 2C00 

Mercurv boils C63 

" volatilizes GSO 

Platinum melts 3080 

Zinc melts 740 

Highest natural temperature 

(Egypt), 117 

Greatest natural cold (below 

zero) 56 

" artiacial " " 106 

Heat of Imnian blood 98 

Snow and Salt, equal parts ... 

Ice melts 32 

Water in vacuo boils fO 

Furnace under steam boiler. . 1100 



SnnixKAGE of castings. 



Iron, small cyliud'o^l-lG'Lbin. per ft 


Ditto, in length 


..-g- in IG ins. 


" Pipes = I " '-ft. 


Brass, thin 


..= H "1 9 '•' 


*•' Gilders, beams, 


Brass, thick 


..=i- in 10 " 


cot — ^ in. in 15 ins. 


Zinc 


=5-i6ths in a foot 


'• Large cylind- 


Lead 


..=:5-16th3 " '^ 


ers, the con- 


Copper 


..= 3-16ths '•' " 


traction of di- 


Bismuth 


..= 5-32nds " " 


ameter at top . = l-16th per foot. 






Ditto at bottom . . = l-12th per foot. 







Green sand iron castings are (> per cent, stronger than dry, and 
30 per cent, stronger than chilled, but rdien the castings are chilled 
and annealed, a gain of 115 per cent, is attained over those made in 
green sand. Chilling the under side of cast iron very materially in- 
creases its strength. 

To Repair Cracked Bells.— The discordant tones of a cracked 
l)ell being due to the jarring of the rugged uneven edges of the crack 
against each other, the best remedy that can be applied is to cut a 
thin slit with a tootliless saw driven at a very high velocity, say 3 or 
^000 revolutions per minute, in such a manner as to cut away the 
opposmg edges of the fracture Avhereever they come in contact. This 
Avill restore the original tone of the bell. 

To Galvaxize Grey Iron: Casti>-gs.— Cleanse the articles in an 
ordinary chaffing mill, which consists of a barrel revolving on its axis, 
containing sand ; when the sand is all removed, take them out and 
heat one by one, plunging, while hot, in a liquid composed as follows: 
10 lbs. hydrochloric acid and sufficient sheet zinc to make a saturated 
solution. In making this solution, when the evolution of gas has 
ceased, add muriate, or jireferably sulphate of ammonia 1 lb., and 
let it stand till dissolved. The castings should be so hot that Avhen 
dipped in this solution, and instantly removed, they will immediately 

82 



41)8 MACHINISTS, ENGINEEKG'j &.C., RECEIPTS. 

dry, leaving the surface crystallized like frost -worlc on a windo'w 
pane. Next plunge tliem while hot, but perfectly dry, in a bath of 
melted zinc, previously skimming the oxide on the surface a^vay, and 
throwing thereon a small amount of powdered sal ammoniac. If the 
articles are very small, inclose them in a wrought iron basket on a 
pole, and lower them hito the metal. When this is done, shake cff 
the superfluous metal, and cast them into a a essel of water to prevent 
them adhering when the zmc solidifies. 

To Find the Speed of a Countek-Shaft. — If the revolutions of 
the main shaft and size of pulleys are given: Multiply the revo- 
lutions of the main shaft by the diameter in inches of the pulley, and 
divide by the diameter in inches of the pulley on the counter-shaft, 
the quotient will be the number of revolutions. 

Example. — Wliat Avill be the speed of a counter-shaft with a 12 in. 
pulley driven by a 30 hi. pulley ISO revolutions per minute: 180-[- 
i50-^12=450. 

To Find the Size of a Pult.ey Required, if the number of- revo- 
lutions and size of pulley on the main .shaft are given: Multiply the 
diameter in inches of driving pulley by the revolutions of the main 
shaft, and divide by the speed required ; the quotient will be the di-- 
ameter in inches of the pulley. 

Example — What will be the diameter of a pulley to make a coun- 
ter-shaft turn 450 revolutions per minute driven bv a 30 inch pul- 
ley 180 revolutions per minute : 180-]-£0-^450=12 in. pullej^ 

To Find the Size of a Pulley foe a Main Shaft, if the 
speed of shafts and diameter of pulley on the counter-shaft are 
given: Multiply the diameter in inches of pulley by speed of the 
counter-shaft, and divide by the revolutions of the main shaft; the 
quotient will be the diameter of the pulley. 

Example. — What will be the diameter of a pulley on a main shaft, 
making 180 revolutions per minute, to drive a 12 in. 450 revolutions 
per minute : 450 X 12-^180=30 inch pulley. 

To Weld Steel Axles. —To insure a good weld, prepare the com- 
position described on page 270 for welding cast steel. Use a strong 
fire, and when the axle is brought to what may be termed a bright 
red heat, apply a sufficiency of the composition and return it to the 
fire until the heat is regained once more, then place it under the 
hammer. Be careful not to put on too much of the composition, 
otherwise it might waste in the fire, and by its affinity for metal ob- 
struct the tire iron, thereby preventing the fire from receiving the 
full energy of the blast, and thus retarding if not spoiling the job. 

Mildew on Sails can be prevented by soaping the mildewed parts 
and then rubbing in powdered chalk. The growth of the mildew 
fun'vus can be prevented by steeping the canvas in an aqueous solu- 
tion'of corrosive sublimate. Another zoay. Slacked lime 2 bushels, 
draw off the lime water, and mix it with 120 gals, water, and with 
blue vitriol ^ lb. , - ., .^ 

To Make Gun Cotton.— Take dry saltpetre, | oz. ; strong oil vit- 
riol, I oz. Mix in a tumbler, add 20 grs. of dry cottonwool, stir with 
a glass rod 5 minutes, remove the cotton and wash from all traces of 
the acid in 4 or 5 waters; then carefully dry under 120^. This is 
gun cotton. 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &c., eeceipts. 499 

To Keep Wagon Tires os the Wheel. — A practical mechanic 
suggests a method of so putting tires on wagons that they will not 
get loose and require resetting. He says he ironed a wagon some 
years ago for his own use, and, before putting on the tires, he filled 
the felloes with linseed oil, and the tires have worn out and were 
never loose. This method is as follows : He used a long cast iron 
heater made for the purpose; the oil is brought to a boiling heat, the 
v,heel is placed on a stick, so as to hang in the oil, each feUoe an 
hour. The timber should be dry, as green timber will not take oil. 
Care should be taken that the oil is not made hotter than a boiling 
heat, or the timber will be burned. Timber filled with oil is not sus- 
ceptible of injury by water, and is rendered much more durable by 
this process. 

To Chill Cast Iron a'ery Hard. — Use a liquid made as follows: 
Soft water, 10 gallons; salt, Ipeck ; oil vitriol, h pt. ; saltpetre, 5 lb.; 
prussiate of potash, ^ lb. ; cyanide of potash, -^ lb. Heat the iron a 
cherry red and dip as usual, and if wanted harder repeat the process. 

Another to Harden Cast Iron. — Salt, 2 lbs. ; saltpetre ^ lb. ; 
roche alum, -^ lb, ; ammonia, 4 ozs. ; salts of tartar, 4 ozs. ; pulverize 
all together and uicorporate thorouglih-, use by powdering all over 
the iron while it is hot, then plunging it in cold water. 

Flux for Reducing Lead Ore. — Red argol, 6 parts; nitre, 4 parts; 
fluor spar, 1 part; grmd well and mix thoroughl3% 

Varnish for smooth moulding Patterns. — Alcohol, 1 gal. ; 
shellac 1 lb. ; lamp or ivory black, sufficient to color it. 

Iron Lustre is obtained by dissolving a piece of zinc with muriatic 
acid, and mixing the solution with spirit of tar, and applying it to the 
surface of the iron. 

Black having a Polish for Iron. — Pulverized gum asphaltum, 
2 lbs. ; gum benzoin, ^ lb. ; spirits of turpentine, 1 gal. ; to make quick, 
keep in a warm place, and shake often; shade to suit with finely 
ground ivory black. Apply with a brush. And it ought to be used 
on iron exposed to the weather as well as on inside work desiring a 
nice appearance or polish. 

Varnish For Iron. — Asphaltum, 8 lbs. ; melt in an iron kettle, 
slowly adding boiled linseed oil, 5 gals. ; litharge, 1 lb. ; and sulphato 
of zinc, h lb. ; continuing to boil for 3 hours ; then add dark gimi 
amber, 1% lbs. ; and continue to boil 2 hours longer. When cool, re- 
duce to a proper consistence to apply with a brush, with spirits of 
turpentine 

To Soften Cast Iron For Turning. — Steep it in 1 part of aqua- 
fortis to 4 of water, and let it remain in 24 hours. 

Cast Iron Ornainients are rendered susceptil)le of being finished 
"with a scraper, where they cannot be reached with files, after having 
the following liquid applied to them: 

Scaling Cast Iron. — Vitriol, 1 part; water, 2 parts; mix: and lay 
on the diluted vitriol with a cloth in the form of a brush, enough to 
wet the surface well ; after 8 or 10 hours, wash off with water, when 
the hard, scaly surface will be completely removed. 

To Bre-ak UpOld Cannon. — Old cannon and mass've castings 
may be cut in two by a continuous stream of hot molten iron, 
which wears away the iron as a stream of hot water would eat 
into a mass of ice, Or the guu may be rolled on a frame to the mouth 



500 MACHINISTS, engineers', «tC., RECEIPTS. 

of a furnace, and the muzzle end shoved in as far as possible amon.c: 
other iron, the opening filled up a-nd luted around the gun, the end 
of Avhich is melted off. At the next charge shove it in another lengtli, 
and so on until tlie breech is disposed of. 

Large masses of cast iron may be broken up by drilling a hole in the 
the most solid part, filling it up with water, fitting a steel plug very 
accurately into the hole, and letting the drop of a pile driver descend 
on the plug. 

Amalgajni for Mirrors, — 1. Tin, 70 parts ; mercury, 30 parts ; 2. 
{For cwved mirrors) Tin, 80 parts ; mercury, 20 parts ; 3. Tin, 8.33 
parts ; lead, 8.34 parts ; bismuth, 8.33 parts ; mercury, 75 parts. 4. 
{For spherical Mirrors) Bismuth, 80 parts ; inercurj^ 2G parts. 

Keflector IMetal. — 1. {Duppler's) Zinc, 20 parts; silver, 80 parts; 
2. Copper, GG.22])arts; tin, 33.11 parts; arsenic, 0. 07 parts. 3. {Coop- 
er's.) Copper, 57.80 [parts ; thi, 27.28 parts ; zinc, 3.30 parts ; arsenic, 
1.G5 parts ; i^latinum, 9.01 parts ; 4. Copper, 04 parts ; tm, 32,00 
parts ; arsenic, 4.00 parts. 5. Copper, 82.18 parts ; lead, 9.22 parts ; 
antimony, 8.G0 parts. G. {Little's) Copper, G9.01 parts ; tm, 30.82 
parts ; zinc, 2.44 parts ; arsenic, 1.83 parts. 

Metai. for Gilt AV^ares. — 1, Copper, 78.47 parts; tin, 2.87 parts; 
zinc, 17.23 parts; lead, 1.43 parts. 2. Copper, 04.43 parts ; tin, 0.25 
parts ; zmc, 32.44 parts ; lead, 2.8G parts. 3. Copper, 72.43 parts ; 
tin, 1.87 parts ; zinc, 22.75 parts ; lead, 2.9G parts. 4. Copper, 70.90 
parts ; tin, 2.00 parts ; zinc, 24.05 parts ; lead, 3.05. 

Amalgam for Electrical Maciiixes. — 1. Tm, 25 parts ; zinc, 
25 parts ; mercury, 50 parts. 2. Tin, 11.11 parts ; zinc, 22.22 parts ; 
mercury, 6G.G7 parts. 

Type Metal. — 1. For smallest and most hrittio types. — Lead, 3 
parts ; antimony, 1 part. 2. For small, Jiard, hrittle types. — Lead, 4 
l)arts ; antimony, 1 part. 3. For types of medium size. — Lead, 5 
parts ; antimony, 1 part. 4. For large types. — Lead, 7 parts ; anti- 
monj^, 1 part. 5. For larrjest and softest types. — Lead, 7 parts ; anti- 
mony, 1 part. In addition to lead and antimony, type metal also con- 
tains 4 to 8 per cent, of tin, and sometimes 1 to 2 per cent, of copper. 
G. Stereotype plates are made of lead, 20 parts ; antimonj^, 4 parts ; 
tin, 1 part. 7. Another do. — Lead, 25 parts ; antimony, 4 parts ; tin, 
1 part. 8. Type metal. — Lead, 4 i^arts ; antimony, 2 parts. 9. ToikjIi 
type metal. — Lead, 100 jiarts ; antimony, 32 parts ; tin, 8 parts. 

DowLAis Iitox Works, {England.) Furnaces. — Eight, diameter 30 
to 18 feet, 1300 Tons Forgo Iron per week ; discharging 44,000 cubic 
feet of air per minute. Engine, {noncondensing ,) Cylinder, 55 in». in 
diam. by 13 feet strolce of piston. Pressure of steam,, GO lbs per square 
inch, cut off at i the stroke of the piston. Valves, 120 ins. in area. 
Boilers. Eight, (CyUndrical flue, internal furnace,) 7 feet in diam, 
and 42 feet, in length ; one flue, 4 ft. in diam. Grates, 288 square feet, 
Fly icJieel. Diam. 22 feet, wciglit, 25 tons, JJloicing Cylinder, 144 
ins. diam. by 12 ft. stroke of ])iston. lievolutions, 20 per minute. 
Blast 2>\, lbs. per square inch, Discharge pipe, diam, 5 ft. and 420 feet 
in length. Valves, Exhaust, 5G square feet, delivery, IG square feet. 

To ExAMEL Cast Iron axd Hollow AVare.— 1, Calcined flmts, 
G parts ; Cornish stone or composition, two parts ; litharge, 9 parts ; 
borax, C jiarts ; argillaceous earth, 1 part ; nitre, 1 part ; cabc of tin, 
C i)arts ; purified potash, 1 i)art. 2. Calcined Hints, 8 parts ; rod 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 501 

lead, 8 parts ; borax, G parts ; calx of tm, 5 parts ; uitre, 1 part. 3 
I'otters' compositiou, 12 parts ; borax, 8 parts ; A\'liite lead, 10 
liaits; nitre, 2 parts; "white marble, calcined 1 part; purified potasli, 
2 parts ; calx of tin, 5 parts. 4. Calcined flints, 4 parts ; potters' 
coiiii)osition, 1 part ; nitre, 2 parts ; borax, 8 jxirts ; Avliite marble, 
calcined, 1 part ; argillaceous earth, h part ; calx of tin, 2 parts. 
Whichever of the above compositions is tiikeu must be finely pow- 
deied, mixed, and fused. The vitreous mass is to be ground "Nvhcn 
cold, sifted, and levigated.Avith Mater ; it is then made into a pap 
with Avater, or gum uater. The pap is smeared or brushed over tho 
interior of the vessel, dried, and fused with a proper hciit in a muffla 
Clean tlie vessels perfectly before a]iplying. 

Russia Sheet Iron.— Russia sheet iron is, in the lii>t instance, 
a very pure article, rendered exceedingly tough and fiexible by 
refining and annealing. Its bright, glossy surface is partially a 
silicate, and paitiixlly an oxide of iron, and is produced by ])assing 
the hot sheet, moistened Avith a solution of Avood-ashes, through- 
polished steel rollers. 

Liquid Br.ACK Lead Pot.isit. — Black lead pulverized 1 lb. ; tur- 
pentine, 1 gill : Avater, 1 gill ; sugar 1 oz. 

Copi'EK.vs Dip eou Cast Iiiox. — Dissolve 3 lbs. of sulphate of 
copper and add 2 lliiid ozs. sulphuric acid. 

ExAAiELLED Cast Lron. — Clean and brighten the iron before 
applying. The enamel consists of two coats — the body and the ghize. 
Tlie body is made by fusing 100 lbs. ground fiu)ts, 75 lbs. of borax, 
and gi-inding 40 lbs. of this frit Avith 5 lbs. of potters' clay, in Avater, 
till it is brought to the consistence of a pap. A coat of this bemg 
applied and dried, but not hard, the glaze-powder is sifted over it. 
This consi-sts of 100 lbs. Coniish stone in fine poAvder, 117 lbs. of 
borax, 35 lbs. of soda ash, 35 lbs. of nitre, 35 lbs. of sifted slacked 
Ikine, 13 lbs. of white sand, and 50 pounds of pounded Avhite glass. 
These arc all fused together ; the frit obtained is pulverized. 01 
this poAvder, 45 lbs. are mixed with 1 lb. soda ash, in hot Avater. and 
the mixtuie being dried in a stove, is the glaze poAvder, After sifting 
this over the body-coat, the cast-iron article is put into a stove, kept 
at a tempeiatui-e of about 212 o, to dry it hard, after Avhidi it is set in 
u muflle-kiln, to fuse it into a glaze. The inside of pipes is enamelled 
(after being cleaned) by pouring the above body composition through 
them Avhile the pipe is being tuined around to insure an equal coat- 
ing ; after the body has become set, the glaze pap is poured in in like 
manner. The pipe is finally fired in the kiln. 

To ExAMEL CorPER AND OiHER VESSELS. — Flint glass, 6 parts . 
borax, 3 parts ; red lead, 1 part ; oxide of tin, 1 part. Mix all to- 
gether, frit, gi'uid into poA\'der, make into a thin jiaste Avith Avater, ap- 
ply Avith a brush to the surface of the vessels, after scaling by heat 
and cleaning them, repeat Avith a second or even a third coat, alter- 
Avards dry. and lastly fuse on by heat of an enamelled kiln. 

E>rERY Wheels rou Polishing. — Coarse emery ])owder is mixed 
with about half its Aveighi; of pulverized Stourbridge loam, and a little 
water or other liquid to make a thick paste ; this is pressed into a 
metallic mould by means of a scrcAv-press, and, after being thoroughly 
diiod, is baked or burned in a muffle at a tcmjierature above a red, 
jinJ below a a\ h.ite heat. This forms an artificial cmcrv stone, Avhi':h 



502 MACHINISTS, engineers', &,C., RECEIPTS. 

cuts -very greedUy, with very little -wear to itself, Uu equalled for 
griudiiig and polishing glass, metals, enamels, stones, &c. 

Moulding Sand fok Casting Brass ok Iron. — The various kind:j 
of good moulding sand employed in foundries for casting iron or brass, 
have been found to be almost uniform chemical composition, varying 
in grain, or the aggregate form onlj'". It con tarns between 93 and !)(> 
parts silex, or grains of sand, and from 4 to G parts clay, and a littlo 
oxide of iron, in each 100 parts. Moulding sand which contains lime, 
magnesia, manganese and other oxides of metal, is not appUcable, 
particular for tlie casting of iron or brass. Such sand is either too 
close, will not stand or retain its form, or it will acuse the metal to 
boil through its closeness. 

Refining Fluxes, for Metals. — ^Deflagrate, and afterwards pul- 
verize, 2 parts of nitre and 1 part of tartar. Tiio following fluxes 
answer very well, provided the ores be deprived of their sulpliur, or 
if they contain much earthy matter, because, in the latter case, they 
unite with them, and convert them into a thin glass, but, if any 
quantity of sulphur remains, their fluxes unite with it, and form a 
liver of sulphur, which has the power of destroying a portion of all 
the metals, consequently the assay must be, under such circumstances, 
very inaccurate. Limestone, fieldspar, fluorspar, quartz, sand-slate, 
and slags, are all used as fluxes. Iron ores, on account of the argilla- 
ceous earth they contain, require calcareous additions; and the copper 
ores, rather slags, or nitrescent stones, than calcareous earth. 

Burning Iron Castings together. — The usual mode is by imbed- 
ding the castings in the sand, havmg a little space left vacant round 
about the joint where it is to be burned. Two gates must tlien bo 
provided, one lying on a level with the lower side of this space, and 
the other raised so that the metal, which must be very hot, is poured 
in at the higher one ; it passes round, fills up the space, and runs oiJ 
at the lower gate. A constant supply of metal is thus kept up, till iho 
parts of the casting are supposed to be on the eve of melting. The 
lower gate is then closed, and the supply stopi)ed. When cool, and 
the superfluous metal chipped off, it forms as strong a joint as if it 
had been original. 

Cornish Keducing Flux. — Tartar lOozs., nitre 3 ozs. and G drs. 
borax, 3 oz. and 1 dr. Mix together. 

Crucibles. — Tlio best crucibles are made from pure fire-clay, mixed 
with finely-ground cement of old crucibles, and a xwrtion of blaclv-lead 
or grajihite ; some x)ounded coke may bo mixed with the ^plumbago. 
The clay should bo prepared in a similar way as for malcing pottery- 
ware; the vessels, alter bemg formed must bo slowly dried, and then 
properly baked in the kiln. 

Black-lead crucibles are made of 2 parts graphite, and 1 of fire- 
clay, mixed Avith water into a paste, pressed in moulds, and well dried, 
but not baked hard in the kiln. This compound forms excellent 
small or portiible furnaces. 

» Malleable Cast Iron.— The gTeat secret of this sort of work is 
the annealing, which if not done properly the castings aj-o of no use 
at all. The best mode is to take an iron pan, say one foot square ; 
init in a layer of charcoal, then some of the castings, then another 
layer. When the pan is full cover it over with some sand, to keep the 
.charcoal from burning away. Put on an old piece of iron for a lid to 



MA^cniNiSTS, engineers', &c., receipts. 503 

rover all, put it in the annealing furnace, and get the licat up quilo 
slow and gradually, talcing care not to get tlie licat up too quicJc. 
After you have got it to the proper heat, Avhich is this, the castings 
BQust he red hot through ; keep it at this heat for 5 or G hours, tlicu let 
your fire die gradually out, or, if you Avaut to take some out and put 
more in, take them to a corner and bury them, pan and all, — let them 
lie there till properly cooled. Kegardiug the melting, procure not 
less than two good sorts of No. 2 pig iron, Avhich you may mix witb 
Bosne good scrap if you choose ; the casting, melting, and mouldmg aro 
conducted in the same manner as common cast-iron, only the metal 
"being hard, when casting, you have to make properly constructed 
runners and risers, or liow gates, if the article is likely to sink, for 
you cannot pump it Avell. 

Japanning Castings. — Clean them well from the sand, then dip 
tliera in or pauit them over with good boiled linseed oil ; when 
moderatelj' dry, heat them in an oven to such a temperature as Avill 
turn the oil black, without burning. The stove should not be too hot 
at first, and the heat should be gradually raised to avoid blistering ; 
the slower the change in the oil is effected the better will be the 
result. The castings, if smooth at first, will receive a fine black and 
polished surface by this method. 

Hardening Axletkees and Boxes. — Tlie method now used in 
the manufacture of ]\Iuri)hy's axlctrees is to use Avrought iron and 
"WcId two pieces of steel into the lower side, where they rest upon the 
"Wheels and sustain the load. The work is heated in an open forgo 
fire, in the ordmary way, and when it is removed, a mixture, princi- 
pally prussiate of potash, is laid upon the steel ; the axletree is then 
immediately immersed in water, and additional water is allowed to 
fall upon it from a cisteni. The steel is considered to bo very ma- 
terially hardened by the treatment, and the iron around the same is 
also partially hardened. One very good way to chill axletree boxes is 
to mould from wooden patterns on sand, and cast them upon an iron 
core which has the effect of making them very hard. To form the 
annular recess for oil, <a ring of sand, made in an appropriate core- 
box, is slipped upon the iron mandrill, and is left behind when the 
after is driven out of the casting. 

CosrposiTE Ikon Kailincs. — The process by which this light, ele- 
gant and cheap fabric is manufactured, is as follows : — ^Rods and barr? 
of wrought-iron are cut to the lengths desired for the pattern, and 
subjected to a jirocess called crimping, by which they are bent to the 
desired shape. These rods are then laid in the form of the design, 
and cast-iron moulds are affixed at those points where a comiection is 
desired ; the moulds are then filled with melted metal, and immedi- 
ately you have a complete railing of beautiful design. Casting in 
iron moulds has this great advantage over the old sand moulding, it 
does not require any time for cooling, as the metal is no sooner run 
than the moulds may be removed and used again immediately on 
another section of the work ; and besides, it is so much more easily 
effected. By the combination of wrought and cast-iron in this pro- 
cess, the most curious and complex designs may bo produced with 
great rapidity and cheapness. 

To Galvanize Cast Iron Through. — To 50 lbs. melted iron add 1 
lb. pulverized pure zinc. Scatter the zinc powder well over the ladle, 



504 MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 

then catch tho melted iron, stir it up with an iron rod and pour at 
once. 

To OBTAIN CoMMERCiATi Antemoxy. — Fusc together 100 parts sul- 
phuret of antimony, 40 parts mefcillic iron, and 10 parts dry crude 
s^ulphate of soda. This produces from (>0 to 05 parts of antimony, 
besides tlie scoria? or asli Avliich is also valuable. Metallic Antimony . 
]\Iix 16 parts sulphuret of antimony and 6 parts cream of tartar, botli 
in powder ; put the mixture, in small quantities at a time, into a 
vessel heated to redness ; when reaction ceases, fuse the mass and 
after 15 minutes, pour it out and separate the metiil from the slag. 
Tho product is nearly pure. 

Holes in Millstones are filled with melted alum, mixing burr 
sand with it. If the hole is large, put some pieces of burr mill stones 
in it first, and pour in melted alum. These pieces of block should be 
cut exactly to fit. There should be small joints, and fastened witli 
plaster of Paris. These holes should be cut at least 4 inches deep ; 
there is then no danger of their getting loose. 

Pitting a New Back on an Old ]\Iillstone. — Block your 
stone ui) with a block of wood, having its face doAvn initil it lies eVen, 
Folid, and perfectly level ; then pick and scrape off all the old plaster 
down to the face blocks, so that none remains but what is in the joints 
of the face blocks ; then wash these blocks, and keep them soaked 
Avitlt water. Kee]) a number of pieces of burr bloclcs, at the same 
time, soaked with water. Take a pail half filled with clean water, 
and mixed with 2 tablespoonfals of glue water, boiled and dissolved ; 
mix in Avith your hand plaster of Paris until it be thick enough that 
it will not run ; and, breaking all the lumps, pour this on tlio stone, 
rubbing it with your hand ; tlie stone being at the same time damped ; 
and place small pieces of stone all over the johits of the face blocks ; 
you then, with more jilaster, mixed in tho same way but more stiff, 
Avitli this and pieces of burr stones, build walls round the eye and 
verge 4 or 5 inches high, leaving the surface uneven and the eye 
larger, as it will be brought to its proper size by the List operation. 
It is better to build up the wall of the running stone roimd the verge 
lor 3 inches without any spalls, so that the holes may be cut in to 
balance it. If you wish to make your stone heavier, you will take 
small pieces of iron, perfectly clean and free from grease, and lay 
them evenly all around the stone in the hollow place between tho 
two walls just built ; and, with plaster mixed a little thicker than 
milk, pour in under and through all the crevices in the iron mitil the 
surface is nearly level with the two walls. If the stones do not re- 
quire additional weight added, instead of iron, use pieces of stone 
Ihc same way, leaving the surface rough and uneven. Again, as 
before, build walls round the verge of the stone, and round the eye of 
Ihe stone, until they are within 2 inches of the thiclcness you want 
your stones to be, the wall round the eye being 2 inches higher than 
that round the verge, and filling the space between the walls with 
stones ; and pouring in plaster again, make it nearly level with the 
walls, but leavmg the surface rough and jagged, to make the next 
plaster adliere well to it. Let it stand until the back is dry and 
l-.erfectly set, when you raise the stone upon its edge, and, with a 
trowel, plaster round the edge of the stone neatly, giving it a taper of 
Iialf an inch from the lace to the back of the stwie. Wlieu wiseU 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEir XS. 505 

iromid m tliis "way, lay the stone down on the cock-head ; it bemg in 
the balance ryne, but the driver off, then raise the spindle, and 
i)alance the stone as already directed before puttmg on the remainder 
of the back. Then have a tin made the size of the eye, and to reach 
from the balance ryne to the thickness 3^011 want the stone to be at the 
eye. This tin should be exactly fitted to its.placc, and made fast ; then fit 
a hoop of wood or iron roimd the verge, having the upper edge of the 
thickness from the face you want the stone to be at the verge, and equal 
all round. This hoop should be greased; and, all the cracks round it, 
and the tin in the eye, being stopped, 3'ou i)our thin plaster (witli 
more glue water than in previous operations, to ijrevcnt it from setting 
so quickly, and to give time to finish of£ the back correctly) until it be 
level with the hoop round the verge, and with a straight edge, one 
cud resting on the hoop, and the other end resting on the tin at the 
eye ; then, by moving it round, and working the plaster Avith 
a trowel, make the surface of the back even and smooth between 
these two points. The hoop is then taken off, and the back and edges 
planed smooth ; then lower the spindle until your runner lies solid, 
and pat your band or hoop on, it being first made nearly red hot, and 
taking care that it is of sufficient size not to require too anuch drivmg ; 
if fitting too tightly, it may loosen the back in driving it to its proper 
place ; it may be cooled gently by i)ouring water on it; and, Avlien 
cool, it should fit tight. 

B.xxAxcixG A MiLLSTOXE. — First, take off the driver, t!iat t]ie 
stone may have full play on the cock-head ; then raise the spindle so 
that there may be room between the stone to see the balance. Find the 
lieaviest parts, and near the verge lay on sufficient weight to balance 
it Cut a hole in the back of tlie stone, as deep as you can make it 
and as near the verge as possible that the binding iron hooj) of the 
stone may keep the lead in its i)lace. This hole should be wider at 
the bottom than the top m order to retam the lead when the stone is 
in motion, and into this the melted lead should be poured until it 
brings the stone coraisletely into balance. When the lead is cold, 
cover over with mixed plaster, even with the back of the stone. 

CoiirosiTiON TO Keep Millstones Cle.vn. — Hot water, 1 gal ; 
borax, 2 oz ; washing soda, ^ lb. and 3 balls of the size of a hazel 
nut each, of sal prunel. Mix and apply it to the burrs with a 
scrubbing brush. When gruiding garlic wheat it is not necessary to 
talce up the burrs at all. It is sufficient to drop through the eye of 
the burr twice per day one of the above described balls of sal prunel, 
and that will keep the burrs sharp and clean, enabling the miller at 
all seasons to use the No. 13 bolt, to make finer flour and in greater 
quantity than usual. 

Mill Dams. — ^^Vhen building a dam, you should select the most 
suitable place. If you can, place it across the stream near a rocky 
bluff so that the end of the dam may run into the bluff. This 
will prevent the water running by at the ends of the dam. Build 
your dam very strong ; if this is not done, they are breaking up 
often, causmg ruinous expense in money and loss of time. 

Flouk Mill Machixery. — For each pair of 4 feet stones, with all 
the necessary dressing machinery, etc., there is required 15 horses' 
i»owei. Stones, 4 ft. diam., 120 to 140 revolutions per minute. 
Dreoniuf/ Machines, 21 ins. diam., 450 to 500 revolutions per minute. 



506 MACHINISTS, engineers', &c., receipts. 

Elevator, 18 ins. diam., 40 revolutions per minute. Creepers, 3^ ins. 
pitch, 75 revolutions per minute. Screen, 16 ins, diam., 300 to 350 
revolutions per minute. 788 cubic feet of water, discharged at a 
velocity of 1 foot per second, arc necessary to grind and dress a bushel 
of wheat per hour=1.40 horses' power per bushel. 2000 feet per 
minute for the velocity of a stone 4 feet in diam. may be considered a 
maximum speed. 

Rock Dasis are incomparably the best in use, if there is plenty of 
material at hand for building, and Ji rocli bottom to the stream; if 
there is not a rock bottom you should dig a trench in the bottom, deep 
enough, so that the water cannot undermine it. Tliis should bo tlio 
same as if you were building the foundation of a large building. Tlio 
wall to be built should be of a small circular form, so that the back of 
the circle should be next to the body of water, which mav by its 
liressure tighten it. To secure the water from leakmg through at tlio 
ends of the dam, dig a ditch deeper than the bottom of the river ; then 
fill this with small pieces of rock, and' pour in cement. This cement 
is made of liydraulic cement, and is made of one part of cement to 
five parts of pure sand. It will effectually stop aU crevices. A rock 
dam if well built Avill be perfectly tight Use as you conveniently can 
move ; building this wall 4 to G feet thick, according to the length of 
the dam, vatli jam or buttressess every place Avhere they are needed 
to strengthen it ; make true johits to these rocks, especially on the ends 
so that they may join close together. When you have the outside walls 
laid in cement for every layer fill the middle up with pieces of small 
rock, pouring in your grout, so that there may not be a crevice but 
what is filled. If there is any crevice or hole left open, the water will 
break through, wearing it larger and larger. If the stream is wide and 
large, it is necessary to build the dam in two sections, which should 
be dividec. by a waste way, necessary for the waste, or surplus water, 
to rmi over, to keep the head in its proper place or height. Let each 
•section, next to where the water is to be run over, be abutments, built 
to strengthen the dam. The last layer of rock, on the top where the 
waste Ava'er runs over, should project 5 or G inches over the back of 
the dam jSo that the water may not undermine it. This last layer 
should b J of large rocks and jointed true ; then laid in hydraulic 
cement, in proportion of 1 of cement to 3 of sand. When the dam is 
guilt, the front should be filled up with coarse gravel or clay ; this is 
best dou'j with teams, for the more it is tramped the more durable it 
become?. 

Frame-Dams. — ^In building a frame dam, commence with a good 
foundation, laying the first sills in the bottom, of sufficient depth. 
They should be large square timbers that will last in the water with- 
out rotwiag. Where there is a soft foundation, the bottom should first 
be made level ; then dig trenches for the mudsills, about 7 or 8 feet 
apart, lengthways of the stream, and 10 or 12 feet long. Into these 
first sills other sills must be framed, and put crosswise of the stream, 
(> or 8 feet apart, to reach as far across the stream as necessary. Then 
two outside siUs should be piled down with 2-uich plank driven down 
to a depth of 4 or 5 feet. If this can be done conveniently, they are to 
be jointed as closely as possible. It would be better to line with some 
stulf 1 inch thick ; then with posts their proper length, about 12 or 14 
inches square, which should be framed into the uppermost sill, in both 



MACHINISTS, EXGIXEEKS', &C., RECEIPTS. 507 

Bides, and all the -way across tlie dam, from bank to bank, at a distance 
of G feet apart. Then, -with braces to each post, to extend two-thirds 
of the length of the post, where they should be joined together with a 
lock, instead of a mortise and tenon, with an iron bolt 1 or 1^ inches 
in diameter, going through both, and tightened Avith a screw and nut. 
"When mortises and tenons arc xased, they often become rotten and 
useless in a few years. These braces should be set at an angle of 50 
or G0° Avith the other end mortised into the mud sill. These braces re- 
quire to be arbout (3 to 8 inches, and as long as you find necessary ; be- 
ing covered with dirt it Avill not decay for a long time, as the air is 
excluded. Tiiesc posts should be capped from one to the other, plate 
fashion. The posts should bo Imed with 2 or 2^ mch plank on the in- 
side, pinned to the x)lank, and should, in the middle, be filled in with 
dirt. 

If the stream is large and wide, the dam should be built in two sec- 
tions, -Nvhich should be divided by a waste-way for the surplus water, 
which should be in the centre of the dam, and sufficient for all the 
waste-water to run over. Let each section of the dam form an abut- 
ment next to the waste-way, placing cells or sills 4 feet apart the 
length of the waste-way ; in each of these sills, posts should be framed 
with a brace for the sides. These rows of posts, standing '^'^ross tlic 
dam, will form the sectional abutments ; the middle one maybe con- 
structed by being lengthways of the stream, with short brace's, so that 
tliey wUl not be in the way of drift-wood passing doAvn the stream ; 
it being necessary for strong pieces for a bridge. Then cover the sills 
with an apron of 2-inch plank joined perfectly straight, to extend SO 
or 40 feet below the dam, to prevent undermining of the dam. The 
plamis wAich are used for the purpose of lining the posts which 
form the abutments of each section of the dam, and the ends of tlic 
waste-way, should be truly pointed, so as to prevent any leakage. 
The dam being built, the dirt should be filled in with teams, as the 
more it is tramped the better. Clay or coarse gravel is the best. 
Then place your gates on the upper side of the waste-way, the size 
that is necessary to a level with low- water mark ; which gates are not 
to be raised except in times of high water, as the proper height of the 
mill-pond should be regulated by boards placed over the gate for the 
desired head, as the water should be allowed pass at aU times freely 
over them. To strengthen the dam, if you think necessary, 2-inch 
plank may be used in lining the front side of the dam, long enough to 
reach from the bottom of the stream (on an inclined plane, and next 
to the body of water to the top of the dam, and filled up nearly to 
the top of the dam with clay or gravel well trampled down. 

BiiUSH OR Log Dajis are very often used in small, muddy streams 
When the bottom of the stream is of a soft nature, take a flat boat 
where you want to fix your dam, and drive piles the whole length of the 
stream, about 3 or 4 feet apart, as deep as you can. Take young oak 
saplings pointed at the end, for the purpose. If you can, construct a 
regular pile-driver, similar to those in use for making trestle-work on 
the railways. This weight may be pulled up by horses instead of an 
engine. When you have finished driving piles, make some boxes or 
troughs of 2 or 3 inch planlc, about 3 feet wide and as long as the 
plank is. Sink these in the water the length of the dam, close to the 
piles, by loading them with rock, until they arc at the bottom of tJio 



508 MACHINISTS, engineers', &c., keceipts. 

stream, filling in the front part of the dam ■u'ith dirt and brusli, nearly 
to the height you Avaut it. This kind of a dam will last a long time. 

Whenever there is a small break in the dam or race, cut np some 
■willows and brush, put them in the break along witli some straw and 
dirt, and ram them down Avitli clay. 

In regard to the flume, the greatest care must be taken to instiro 
strength and durability combined with tightness. Every step «iken 
iu its construction must be of such a nature as to unite these qualities 
in the highest possible degree, otherwise the Avhole is, in a manner, 
labor lost. 

Bkonzing Cojipositions, 32Kixd.'?.— 1. Silver xohite Bronzing Pow- 
der. — Melt together 1 oz. each, bisnmth and tin, then add 1 oz. quick- 
Kilver, cool and powder. 2. Gold colored Bronze Foioder. — Verdigris, 
8 ozs. ; tutty powder, 4 ozs. ; borax and nitre, of each 2 ozs. ; bichloride 
of mercury, \ oz. ; make into a paste with oil and fuse them together. 
Used in japanning as a gold color. 3. Beautiful Bed Bronze Powder. 
— Sulphate of copper, 100 parts; carbonate of soda, GO parts; apply 
heat until they unite into a mass. 4. Acid Bronze. — Cobalt, 4 lbs. ; 
pulverize; sift through a fine sieve; put in a stone pot; add ^ gal. 
nitric acid, a little at a time, stirring frequently for 24 hours; then add 
about, 5 gals, muriatic acid, or until the work comes out a dark brown. 
5. Alkali Bronze. — Dissolve 5 lbs. nitrate of copper in 3 gals, of water; 
and 5 lbs. pearlash; add 1 or 2 pts. potash water; then add from 2 to 3 
lbs. sal ammoniac or until the work comes out the required color. G. 
Coating Dip. — Sulphate of zinc, 8 lbs. ; oil of vitriol, 5 gals. ; aquafor- 
tis, f gal. To use, warm up scalding hot. 7. Quick Bright Jnpping Acid* 
for Brass whichhas been Orinolned. — Sulphuric acid, igal. ; nitric acid, 
Igal. 8. Dipping Acid. — Sulphuric acid, 12 lbs. ; nitric acid, Ipt. ; nitre, 
. 4 lbs. ; soot, 2 handf uls ; brimstone, 2 ozs. ; pulverize the brimstone 
and soak it in water 1 hour, add the nitric acid last. 9. Good Dip- 
ping Acid for cast Brass. — Sulphuric acid, 1 qt. ; nitre, 1 qt. ; a little 
muriatic acid may be added or omitted. 10. Ormolu Dipping Acid 
for Sheet ISrass. — Sulphuric acid, 2 gals. ; nitric acid, 1 pt. ; muriatic 
acid, 1 pt. ; nitre, 12 lbs. ; put in the muriatic acid last, a little at a time, 
and stirring the mixture with a stick. 11. Dipping Acid. — Sulphuric 
acid, 4 gals. ; nitric acid, 2 gals. ; • saturated solution of sulphate of iron 
1 pt, ; solution of sulphate of copper, 1 qt. 12. Ormolu Dipping Acid 
for cast Brass. — Sulphuric acid, Igal.; sal ammoniac, loz, ; sulphur (in 
Hour) 1 oz. ; blue vitriol, 1 oz. ; saturated solution of zinc iji nitric 
acid, 1 gal. ; mixed with an equal quantity of sulphuric acid. 13. 
Vinegar Bronze for Brass. — Yinegar, 10 gals. ; blue vitriol, 3 lbs. ; 
muriatic acid 3 lbs. ; corrosive sublimate, 4 ozs. ; sal ammoniac, 2 lbs, ; 
alum, 8 ozs. 14. Antique Bronze Paint. — Sal ammoniac, 1 oz. ; cream 
of tartar, 3 ozs. ; common salt, G ozs. ; dissolve iu 1 pt, hot water; then 
add nitrate of copper, 2 ozs.; dissolve in ^ pt. water; mix well and 
apply it to the article in a damp place with a brush. 15. Bine Bronze 
on (jopper. — Clean and polish -well, then cover the surface with a fluid 
obtained by dissolving vermillion in a warm solution of sodium, to 
which some caustic potash has been added. IG. Bronze Dip. — Sal 
ammoniac 1 oz. ; salt of sorrel, (binoxolate of potash) ^ oz. ; dissolved 
in vinegar. 17. Parisian Bronze Dip. — Sal ammoniac, ^ oz. ; common 
salt, ^ oz. ; spirits of hartshorn, 1 oz. ; dissolved in an English qt. of 
vinegar, a good result Avill bo obtained by adding ^ oz, sal ammoniac 



MACniXlSTS, LXGlXEEliS', <£C., IIECEH'TS. 509 

instead of spts. of licartshorn; tlic piece of metal being well clear .ed 
is to be rubbed with one of these sohitions, then dried by friction Avitli 
afresh brush. 18, Green Dip. — Wine vinegar, 2 qts. ; verditer green, 
2 ozs.-; sal ammoniac 1 oz. ; salt, 2 ozs. ; alum, ^ oz. ; French berries, 
8 ozs. ; boil the ingredients together, li). Aqxiafortis Dip. — Nitric acid, 
8 ozs. ; muriatic acid, 1 qt. ; sal ammoniac, 2 ozs. ; alum, 1 oz. ; salt, 
2 ozs. 20. Olive Bronze Dip for Brass. — Nitric acid, 3 ozs.; muriatic 
acid, 2 ozs. ; add titanium or palladium, when the metal is dissolved 
add 2 gals, pure soft water to eacli pt. of the solution. 21. Brown 
Bronze Paint for Copper Vessels. — Tinct. of steel, 4 ozs. ; spts. of nitre 

4 ozs. ; blue vitriol, 1 oz. ; water, ^ pt. ; mix in a bottle, apply it witli 
a fine brush, tlic vessel being full of boiling water. Varnish after the 
api)lication of the bronze. 22. Bronze for ail kinds of Metal. — Muriate 
of ammonia, (sal ammoniac) 4 drs. ; oxalic acid, 1 dr.; vinegar, 1 pt; 
dissolve the oxalic acid first; let the work be clean, put on the bronze 
with a brush, repeating the operation as many times as may be 
necessary. 23. Green Bronze. — Dissolve 2 ozs. nitrate of iron, and 2 
ozs. liyijosulpliate of soda in 1 pt. of water; immerse the article until 
the required shade is obtained, as almost any shade from brown to 
red can be obtahicd according to the time of immersion, then well 
wash with water, dry and brash. 24. Pale Deep Olive Green 
Bronze. — Perchloridc of iron, 1 part ; water, 2 parts. Mix and immerse 
tlie brass. 25. Dark Green. — Saturate nitric acid with copper and im- 
merse the brass. 26. Dead Black for Brass Work. — Rub the surface 
first Avith tripoli, then wash it with a solution of 1 part, neutral nitrate 
of tin, with 2 parts, chloride of gold, after 10 minutes Avipc it off witli 
a wet cloth. 27. Best Bronze for Brass. — Take 1 lb. of nitric acid, and 
\ lb. of white arsenic, x)ut them into an earthen vessel and then proceed 
in the usual manner. 28. Another Bronze for Bra^^. — 1 oz. muriate 
of ammonia, ^ oz. alum, \ oz. arsenic, dissolve together in 1 pt. of 
strong vinegar. 2i). Black Dip for i?rass.— Hydrochloric acid (com- 
monly called smoking salts,) 12 lbs. ; sulphate of iron, 1 lb. ; and pure 
white arsenic 1 lb. This dip is used in all the large factories in 
Birmingham, but the dip used in the London trade is 2 ozs. corrosive 
sublimate, in 1 pt. of the best vinegar, cork both air tight in a bottle, 
let it stand 24 hours ; tlicn it is fit i'or use. 30. Q.uick Bright Dip for 
Brass. — Use strong nitric acid in sufficient quantity, dip your brass in 
the liquid for an instant, withdraw, and immediately inamerse it first 
in cold water, then in boiling water, for a short time only in each 
bath, then allow it to dry, repeat the process if necessary. 31. Ap- 
plication of Bronze Poicder. — The proper way is to varnish the article 
and then dust the bronze powder over it after the varnish is partly 
dry. 32. Black color for Brass Work. — Make a strong solution of 
nitrate of silver, in one dish and nitrate of copper, in another. Mix 
tlie two together and plmige in the brass. Now heat the brass evenly 
till the required degree of blackness is acquired. UnrivaUed as a 
beautiful color on optical insruments. 

Graham's Quick Bronzing Liquids. — For immediate action on 
Copper, Brass, or Zinc. — 1. Broion or Dark Bronze for Copper, 
Brass, or Zinc. — Dissolve 5 drachms nitrate of iron in 1 pt. water; or, 

5 drs. perchloride of iron in 1 xjt. Avater. A black may also be ob- 
tained from 10 ozs. muriate of arsenic in 2 pts. permuriate of iron, 
and Ipt. water. 2. Brown or Red Bronzing for Brass. — Dissolve IG 



510 MACniXISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTo. 

drs. nitrate of iron, aud IGdrs. hyposiilpliate of soda, in 1 pt. water, 
or, 1 dr. nitric acid may be substituted for tlie nitrate of iron. 3. 
Jied Brown Bronzing for Brass. — Dissolve 1 oz. nitrate of copper, and 
1 oz. oxalic acid in 1 pt. -water, brought to the boil and then cooled, 
4. Dark Broion Bronzinr/for Brass. — Mix 1 oz. cyanide of potassium, 
and 4 drs. nitric acid, with 1 pt. water. 5. lied Bronzing for Brass. 
Mix 30grs. tersulphate of arsenic, G drs. solution of pearlash, and 1 
pt. water. G. Orange Bronzing on Brass. — Mix 1 dr. potash solu- 
tion of sulphur witli 1 pt. water. 7. Olice Green Bronze for Bi'ass. — 
Dissolve 1 pt. permuriate of iron in 2 pts. Avater. 8. JS late-colored 
Broruing for Brass. — Dissolve 2 drs. sulphocyanide of potassium, and 
5 drs. perclilorido of iron, in 1 pt. water. 9. Steel Grey Bronzing for 
Brass. — Mix 1 oz. muriate of arsenic with 1 pt. water, and use at a 
heat not less than 180° Fahr. 10. Bright lied Bronzing for Copper. 
Mix 2 drs. suliDhide of antimony, and 1 oz. pcarlash Lu 1 pt. water. 
11. Dark Red Bronze for Copper. — Dissolve 1 dr. sulphur and 1 oz. 
pcarlash in 1 i)t. water. 12. Oppper Colored Bronzing for Zinc. Agi^ 
tite the articles in a solution of 8 drs. sulphate of copper, and 8 drs. 
hyposulphate of soda in 1 pt. Avater. 

OoprER Plates or Rods may be covered with a superficial coat- 
ing of brass by exposing to the fumes given off by melted zinc at a 
lit temperature. The coated plates or rods can then bo rolled into 
tiui, slieets, or drawn into wire. 

Solution of Copper or Zixc. — Dissolve 8 ozs. (Troy) cyanide of 
potassium, and 3 ozs. cyanide of copper or zinc, in 1 gal. of rain 
water: To be used at about 1G0° F., with a compound battery of 3 
to 12 cells. 

Brass Solution. — Dissolve 1 lb. (Troy) cyanide of potassium, 2 
ozs. cyanide of copper, and 1 oz. cyanide of zinc, in 1 gal. of ram- 
water ; then add 2 ozs. of muriate of ammonia. To be used at 1G0° 
F., for smooth work, with a compound battery of from 3 to 13 
cells. 

Brassing Iron. — Iron ornaments are covered with copper or brass, 
by properly preparing the surface so as to remove all organic matter 
which Avould prevent adhesion, and then plunging them into melted 
brass. A thin coating is thus spread over the Iron, and it admits of 
bemg polished or burnished. 

Ormolu Coloring, Lacquers, &c. — 18 kinds. — Ormolu Color- 
ing. — 1. Alum, 30 parts; nitrate of potassa, 30 parts; red ochre, 30 
parts; sulphate of zinc, 8 parts; common salt, 1 part; sulphate of iron, 
1 part. It is applied with a soft brush. The articles are placed over 
a clear charcoal fire until the salts, melted and dried, assume a 
brown aspect. They are then suddenly cooled in nitric acid water, 
containing 3 per cent, of hydrochloric acid, afterwards, washed in 
abundance of water and dried in sawdust. 2. To Prepare Brass 
Work for Ormolu Dipping. — ^If the work is oily, boil it in ley, and if it is 
finished work, filed or turned, dip it in old acid, and it is then ready 
to be ormolued, but if it is unfinished and free from oil, pickle it in 
strong sul]3huric acid, dip in pure nitric acid, and then in the old acid, 
alter which it wiU be ready for ormoluing. 3. To Repair Old Nitric 
Acid Ormolu Dips. — If the work after dipping appears coarse and 
spotted, add vitriol till it answers the purpose : if the work after dip- 
ping appears too smooth, add muriatic acid and nitro till it gives the 



MACniKISTS, HXGINEEKS', &C., KKCEIPTS. 511 

right appearance. Tlic other ormolu dips should be repaired accord- 
ing to tlie receipts, putting in the proper ingredients to strengthen 
them. They should not be allowed to settle, but should be stirred 
often while using. 4. Directions for making Lacquer. — Mix the in- 
gredients, and let the vessel containing them stand in the sun, or in 
a place slightly -warmed, 3 or 4 days, shaking it frequently till gum is 
dissolved, after whicli let it settle from 24 to 48 hours, when the clear 
liquor may be poured oi'f for use. Pulverized glass is sometimes used 
in making lacquer to carry down the impurities. 5. Lacquer for Dip- 
j}ed Brass.— Alcohol, (Do per cent.) 2 gals. ; seed lac, 1 lb. ; gum copal, 

1 oz. ; English saffron, 1 oz. ; annatto, 1 oz. G. Lacquer for Bronzed 
Brass. — To 1 pt. of the above lacquer add gamboge, 1 oz., and, after 
mixing it, add an equal quantity of the first lacquer. 7. Deep Gold 
Colored Lacquer. — Best alcohol, 4 ozs. ; Spanish aimatto, 8 ozs. ; tur- 
meric, 2 drs. ; shellac, ^ oz. ; red sauders, 12 grs. ; wlien dissolved, add 
spts. of turpentine, 30 drops. 8. Deejj Gold Colored Lacquer for Brass 
not Dipped. — Alcohol, 4 gals. ; turmeric, 3 lbs. ; gamboge, 3 ozs. ; gum 
sandarac, 7 lbs. ; sheUac, 1^ lbs. ; turpentine varnish, 1 i)t. 9. Gold 
Colored Lacquer, for Dipped Brass. — Alcohol, 36 ozs. ; seed lac, 6 ozs. ; 
amber, 2 ozs. ; gum gutta, 2 ozs. ; red sandal wood, 24 grs. ; dragon's 
blood, 60 grs. ; oriental saffron, 3G grs. ; pulverized glass, 4 ozs. 10. 
Gold Lacquer, for Brass. — Seed lac, G ozs. ; amber or copal, 2 ozs. ; best 
alcohol, 4 gals. ; pulverized glass 4 ozs. ; dragon's blood, 40 grs. ; ex- 

, tract of red sandal wood obtained by water, 30 grs. 11. Lacquer, for 
Dipped Brass. — Alcohol, 12 gals. ; seed lac, 8 lbs. ; turmeric, 1 lb. to a 
gal. of the above mixture; Spanish saffron, 4 ozs. The saffron is to 
be added for bronzed work. 12. Good Lacquer. — Alcohol, 8 ozs. ; 
gamboge, 1 oz. ; shellac, 3 ozs. ; amiatto, 1 oz. ; solution of 3 ozs. of 
seed lac in 1 pt. alcohol. When dissolved, add ^ oz. Venice turpen- 
tine, :J oz. dragon's blood, will make it dark." Keep it in a Avarm 
place 4 or 5 days. 13. Pale Lacquer, for Tin Plate. — Best alcohol, 8 
ozs. ; turmeric, 4 drs. ; hay saffron, 2 scrs. ; dragon's blood, 4 scrs. ; red 
sauders, 1 scr. ; shellac, 1 oz. ; gum sandarac, 2 drs. ; gum mastic, 2 
drs.. Canada balsam, 2 drs. ; when dissolved, add spts. turpentine, 
80 drops. 14. Bed Lacquer for Brass. — Alcohol, 8 gals. ; dragon's 
blood, 4 lbs. ; Spanish annatto. 12 lbs. ; gum sandarac, 13 lbs. ; tur- 
lientine, 1 gal. 15. Pale Lacquer, for Brass. — Alcohol, 2 gals. ; cape 
aloes, cut small, 3 ozs. ; pale shellac, 1 lb. ; gamboge, 1 oz. IG. Best 
Lacquer, for Brass. — Alcohol, 4 gals. ; shellac, 21bs. ; amber gum, 1 
lb. ; copal, 20 ozs. ; seed lac, 3 lbs. ; saffron to color ; pulverized 
glass, 8 ozs. 17. Color for Lacquer. — Alcohol, 1 qt. ; annatto, 4 
ozs. 18. Gilder's Pickle. — Alum and common salt, each, 1 oz. ; nitre 

2 oz. ; dissolved in water, ^ pt. Used to impart a rich yellow color to 
gold surfaces. It is best largely diluted with water. 

To Heduce Oxide of Zinc. — The oxide may be put in quantities 
of 500 or GOO lbs. weight into a large pot over the fire; pour a sufti- 
ciont quantity of muriatic acid over the top, to act as a flux, and the 
action of the fire will melt the dross, when the imre metal will bo 
found at the bottom of the pot. 

To Separate Tm from Lead.— If the lead and tin arc in solu- 
tion, precipitate the former by sulphuric acid, and tlie latter with sul- 
phuretted hydrogen gas. In an alloy the lead will dissolve in nitric 
acid, leaving the tin as an oxide. 



512 MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 

To Frost and Cloud Small Brass-wokk. — Scour the brass 
tlioroaglily with strong ley, aud hold the work agahist a circular 
scratch- brush of fine brass wire, secured in a lathe aud driven at a 
high speed, as in frosting watch plates, seepage o26; for cloudiim 
brass work, see page 515. 

Cement for Brass and Wood.— The best cement for this pur- 
pose is a glue composed of best gelatine, 1 part; glacial acetic acid, 1 
l)art. Soak the gelatme in cold water until it has swollen up and be- 
come quite soft. Throw away the water aud dissolve the gelatine in 
the acetic acid, applying gentle heat if necessary. 

Yellow and Light Hed Bronze. — 1. Copper bronze powder, 1 
oz. ; mix thoroughly with japauner's gold size, adding turpentine 
during its use suflicient to keep it at the consistency of cream. Mix 
Avith a pallet knife on glass or porcelain; if made too tliin it is liable 
to be removed by the brush as fast as put on. Apply with a ^olt 
brush. 2. A (jold bronze color is obtained by using t^- gold bronze 
and h, copper bronze powder, or other beautiful colors may be obtained 
by varying the mixtures. 3. A Dark Brown Bronze is produce J by 
the addition of burnt umber to the above named mgredients. 4. A 
Bark Green Bronze is obtained by mixing green bronze and terra yertc 
with gold size, addiug as much ivory black as may be required to im- 
part the depth of tmt required. Fiiiish with a coat of fine shellac var- 
nish. 4. Tor a Verde Antique shade, apply the bronze coat as above, 
varnish Avith shellac, allow it to get firm and hard; then coat the" 
depressed parts Avith gold size thinned with tur-pentine. Previous to 
drying, dust the article with dry paint, of light yellow or blue color, 
and gently remove all that can be easilj^ rubbed off with a rag moist- 
ened with turpentine. 6. Broion Bronze for Ilardicare. — ^]Muriatic 
acid, 2 lbs. ; iron scales, 2 lbs. ; arsenic, 2 oz. ; zinc (a solid mass to 
be kept in only when the solution is in use), 1 lb. 4 oz. Previous 
to immersion in the bath, cleanse the articles thoroughly in acid 
pickle. 7. Green Bronze on HarcUcare. — Apply a varnish composed 
of ground tin or bronze powder mixed up Avith honey in gum water, 
then wash with a solution of vinegar, 1 pt; spts. hartshorn, 1 oz. ; sal 
ammoniac, \ oz. ; salt, h, oz. Place the articles m the sun for a day or 
two; then giA'e them another coat, 8. Black Stain on Brass. — ^^'ater, 
80 parts; hydrochloric acid, 4 parts; sulphuric acid, 1 part. 9. Aii- 
otlier. — Hydrochloric acid, 12 pai-ts; arsenic by weight, 4 iDarts; applj"- 
brighten, dry, and lacquer. 

Magic Polish for Brass. — Add to sulphuric acid half its bulk of 
pulverized bichromate of potash; dilute with an equal weight of 
Avater, and apply well to the brass, swill it well immediately in water, 
wipe dry, and polish with pulverized rotten stone. 

To Bronze Polished Steel. — Methylated spirits, 1 pt. ; gum 

shellac, 4 oz. ; gum. benzoin, it oz. Set the bottle hi a warm place, 

with occasional agitation. When dissolved, decant the clear part for 

fine work, and strain the dregs through muslin. Xow take 4 oz. 

, powdered bronze green, varying the color wjth yellow ochre, red 

1 ochre, and lampblack, as may be desired. Mix the bronze powder 

with the above varnish in quantities to suit, and apply to the work 

^ after previously cleansing and warming the articles, giving them a 

second coat and touching off with gold powder if required, previous to 

varnishing. 



MACHINISTS, ENG:NE1iRs', etc., RECEIPTS. 513 

Dead Black for the Phass Work of Lenses. — The bmss 
work must be made quite clean aud the I'ollowing preparation applied 
with a camel's-liair pencil: bichlorid of platinum, 4 diams; nitrate of 
silver, 1 grain; water, G oz. When you get the right depth, wasli 
with clean water, dry, and finish with plumbago. 

To ISoLDEK Ger:.ia>' Silver.— Dissolve granulated zinc in spirits 
of salts in an earthen vessel. Cleanse the part to be soldered, and 
apply the spirits of salts. Next put a piece of pewter solder on the 
iomt and apply the blow-pipe to it. Melt German silver, 1 part, aud 
zinc m thin sJieets, 4 parts, then powder it for solder. 

Silvery Appearance on Iron Wire.— Suspend a piece of zinc 
in hydrochloric acid, and immerse the wire in it. Next, place it in 
oontivct with a strip of zinc, in a bath of 2 parts of tartaric acid dis- 
solved in 100 parts of Avater, to Avhich is added 3 parts cf tin salts and 
o ijarts of soda. Let it remain two hours in the bath ; then brighten 
by polishuig or drawing through a draAving iron. 

Permanent Brassing on Iron Wire.- Place the Avire, thor- 
oughly cleaned, in a solution of sulphate of copper, Avhen it immedi- 
ately becomes covered with a thin film of copper; noAV cover with a 
paste of pure oxide of tin, and heat hot euongh to fuse the copper. 

To Clean Smooth Tarnished Brass.— Use a saturated solution 
cf oxalic acid in A\ater ; apply Avith a stiff roll of clean flannel briskly 
Msed; then rinse the object in plenty of water to remove the acid. 
•After drying with a warm cloth, polish up with chamois-skin and 
preiiared chalk or the finest Avhitiug. 

To Clean Embossed or Undercut Brass. — Boil the objects in 
a strong solution of caustic soda or ley, and immerse them in a mix- 
ture of hydrochloric acid, G parts; Avater, 2 parts; aud nitric acid, 1 
part, until they become covered with a dark deposit. Take them 
from the mixture and remove the black matter Avith a fine scratch- 
brush : when thus cleansed, swill in hot Avater aud dry in hot saw 
dust. A fine orange-yellow tinge may be given to the brass by sub- 
stituting an equiA'alent weight of poAvdered alum for the nitric acid 
in the solution. 

Dead Appearance on Brass. — Immerse the objects in a mix- 
ture of nitric acid, 200 parts; sulphuric acid, sp. gr. 1.845, lOOpaits; 
common salt, 1 part; sulphate of zinc, 2 parts. Einse thoroughly; 
this imparts the dead appearance styled mat, by the French. For 
large work use nitric acid, 3 parts; sulphuric acid, 1 part; water, 1 
part; sulphate of zinc, h part. Repeat dipping and rinsing the objects 
till the proper color is brought out. 

To Lacquer Brass. — For flat work, cleanse thoroughly by boil- 
ing the articles in strong potash water; if you wish to heighten the 
color of the brass, dip it in hydrochloric acid, rinse well in cold and 
hot Avater alteniately, using a fine brush to remove any blackness, 
.".nd dry in hot sawdust, burnishing afterwards if desired." Place the 
AAork on an iron i)late, kept at a low heat, and pass the lacquer regu- 
larly and rapidly over the surface with a good sized fine camel' s-hair 
brush, keeping the iron plate wami until the work is dry Small 
circula: work, after being well cleansed, and burnished if'^need be, 
and slightly heated in a stove or over a charcoal fire, should have the 
lacquer thinly and evenly applied Avhile in motion in the lathe, hold- 
ing a charcoal brazier under the work for a short time, to avoid ccol- 
ing too soon. 

83 



51-4 MACHINISTS; engineers', &C., KECLIPTS. 

Contrast Colors for Painting M achinf;rv. — 1. Deep blue and 
golden brown; 2, Black and Avarin brown; ;>, Chocolate and light 
blue; 4, Violet and lijjht rose color; 5, Violet and pale green; (3, Deep 
red and gray; 7, Claret and biitT; 8, Maroon and Avarni green; 0, 
chocolate and peagreen ; 10, Deep blue and pink; 11, Black and Avarm 
green ; 13, Maroon and deep blue. 

Varnish for Loom Harness. — Linseed oil, 2 gals. ; gum shellac, 
2h lbs. ; red lead, 1 lb. ; umber, 1 j lbs. ; litharge, 2 lbs. ; sugar of lead, 
1^ lbs. ]\Iix and thoroughh^ incorporate together. 

Water-proofing for Nets and Fishing Lines. — Soak the nets 
or lines in a mixture of 2 parts boiled linseed oil iind 1 pait gold size; 
expose to the air, and dry. 

Winter Fishing on the Western Lakes. — A small portable 
house is erected on large runners, like those of a sled, Avitli a hole cut 
in the centre of the floor. This house is moved to any desired spot; a 
hole is cut in the ice, so as to be directly under the apeiture in the 
floor; the lines are dropped through the hole, and the fish are drawn 
in while the fishermen are seated by a warm stove. 

Paint for Metaes, Proof against Hot Water.— Prepare the 
metal by cleaning it with turpentine, ley, or beuzine ; then apph' two 
thin coats of a mixture of white lead, spts. turpentine and carriage 
varnish, and follow at once with a thick coat of carriage varnish and 
white lead. 

Draughtmen's Colors for Mechanical Drawing. — The ioU 
lowing are the names of different materials, together with the pig- 
ments used to represent them: 1, Bed brick, Indian red; 2, Yelloio 
brick, Indian yellow or cadmium, tinged Avith Avhite; 3, Wrotir/Jit iron, 
Prussian blue or cobalt; 4, Cast iron, Paine' s graj^ and a little India 
ink, or Prussian blue and India ink; 5, Steel, a purple color by the ad- 
mixture of crimson lake and Prussian blue; G, Gun metal or brass, 
gamboge or yellow cadmium; 7, Copper, Indian red mixed Avith a little 
lake; 8, Wood, burnt umber; 9, \Vater, broken, irregular straig' t 
lines, with liquid copperas; 10, Stone color, Chinese Avhite and India 
ink, tinted Avith yellow. 

Tracing Paper, to Stand Washing.— Saturate Avr'ting paper with 
benzine, and folloAV at once with a slight coat of the foUoAving A'amish : 
Boiled bleached linseed oil, 20 oz.,- oxide of zinc, 5 ozs. ; lead shaA^- 
ings, 1 oz. ; Venice turpentine, ^ oz. Boil all for 8 hours, cool, and 
add gum-copal 5 ozs., gum sandarac ^ part. 

Tracing Paper.— Dissolve castor oil in strong alcohol ar.d apply 
the mixture to the paper with a sponge. The alcohol will volatilize, 
leaA'ing the paper dry. Proceed to finish your tracing, and then you 
may, if you A\ish to do so, restore the paper to its original state,' by 
immersion in strong alcohol, thereby absorbing the castor oil from 
the pa])er. 

To Solder without Heat. — Brass filings, 2 oz. ; steel filings, 2 
oz. ; fluoric acid, \ oz. Put the filings in the acid, and apply the 
solution to the i^arts to be soldered, after thoroughly cleaning the 
parts in contact; tlien dress together. Do not keep the 'fluoric acid in 
glass bottles, but in lead or earthen vessels. 

Easy Soldering of Brass. — Cut a piece of tin foil the size of 
the surface to be soldered; then pass over the surface a solution of 
sal ammoniac for a flux, ])lace the tin foil between the pieces, and ap- 
pl}^ a hot iron until the foil is melted. 



MACHINISTS, EXGIXEERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 515 

To Tin CorrKU axd Brass. — Boil G lbs. cream of tartar r.iul 4 
gals, of water and 8 lbs. of grain tin or tin sbaviugs. After the mate- 
rial has boiled a sullicieiit time, the articles to be tinned are put 
therein and tlie boiling continued, Avhen the tm is precipitated on the 
goods in metallic form. 

IMixTUKE FOR SiLVERiNr,. — Dispolvc 2 ozs. of silver with 3 grs. of 
corrosive sublimate; add tiirtaric acid, 4 lbs. ; salt, 8 qts. 

To SF-rARATK SiLVKR FitOM CoiTER. — ]Mix sulphuric acid, 1 
part; nitric acid, 1 jiart ; water, 1 ]iart; boil the mctiil in the mix- 
ture till it is dissolved, throw in a little salt to cause the silver to sub- 
side. 

To "Writk IX SiT.vER. — !Mix 1 oz. of the finest pewter or block tin, 
and 2 ozs. of quicksilver together till both become lUiid, then grhid it 
Avith g\un Avater, and write with it. The writing will then look as if 
done Avitli silver. 

Ti>'>'iN(i Acin, FOR Brass or Zixc. — IMuriatic acid, Iqt. ;zinc, 
G ozs. To a solution of this, add Avatcr, 1 qt. ; sal-ammoniac, 2 
ozs. 

To Clean and Polish Brass. — "Wash with alum boiled in strong 
lye, in the proportion of an ounce to a pint; afterwards rub with 
strong trii:)oli. Not to be used on gilt or lacquered Avork. 

Bronze Paint, for Iron or Brass. — Chrome giecu, 2 lbs. ; 
ivory black, 1 oz. ; chrome yelloAv, 1 oz. ; good japan, Igill; grind all 
together, and mix with linseed oil. 

To Bronze Iron Castings. — Cleanse thoroughly, and afterwards 
immerse in a solution of sidi)hate of copper, Avhen tlie castmgs will 
acquire a coat of the latter metal. They must be then washed in 
water. 

liEJioTiNG Zinc and Iron Fro:m Pli::mbers' Solder. — ^Digest 
the metal in grains in diluted sulphuric acid. The acid will dissoh'O 
the zinc first, the iron next, and all traces of these metals by subse- 
quent Avashing. 

Tinning Cast Iron. — ^Pickle your castings in oil of \itriol ; then 
coA'cr or immerse them in muriate of zinc (made by putting a suffi- 
cient quantity of zinc in some spirit of salt) : after which dij) it in a 
melted bath of tin or solder. 

SitA'ERiNG BY IIeat. — Dissolvc 1 OZ, silvcr in nitric acid; add a 
small quantity of salt; then wash it and add sal-ammoniac, or G ozs. 
of salt and AA-hite vitriol ; also ^ oz, corrosive sublimate; rub them 
together till they form a paste; rub the piece Avhich is to be silvered 
Avith the paste ; Jieat it till the silver nms, after AA-hich dip it in a 
weak vitriol pickle to clean it. 

Zincing. — Copper and brass vessels may be covered with a firmly 
adherent layer of pure zinc by boiling them m contact with a solution 
of chloride of zinc, luire zinc turnings being at the same time present 
in considerable excess. 

To Cloud ISIetal AYork. — Metal work may be clouded by put- 
ting a piece of fine emery paper under the thumb or finger and work- 
ing it over a surface of the metal with a spiral motion. 

Silvering Powder. — Nitrite of silver and common salt, of each 
r>0 grs. ; cream tartar, 3^ drs. ; pulverize finely and bottle for use 
Unequalled for polishing copper and plated goods. 

To Clean and PoLisn Brass.— Oil of vitriol, 1 oz. ; sweet oil, ^ 



516 MAcnixisTs, engineers', &c., keceipts. 

gill; pulverized rotten Ftone, 1 gill; rain -^ater, 1^ pts. ; nii:^ all 
and shake as used. Apply -witli a rag and ])olish -svitli bnckskin or 
all woolen. Kotteu stouc, followed by Paris white and rouge is very 
good also. 

I'ASTE FOR Clea^ttng Met als. — Talce oxalic acid, 1 part; rotten 
Ftone, G parts ; mix with equal parts of train oil and spts. turpentine 
to a paste. 

To Prevent Iron or Steel from Rusting.— TTarm your iron 
or steel till you cannot bear j'our hands on it Avithout burning your- 
self, then rub it with new and clean white wax. Put it again to the 
lire till it has soaked in the wax. "When done rub it over with a 
piece of serge. This prevents the metal from rusting afterwards. 

liRONZiNG Liquids for Tin Castings, — Wash them over, after 
being avcII cleansed and wiped, with a solution of 1 i)art of sulphate 
of iron, and 1 of sulphate of copper, in 20 parts of water; after- 
wards, with a solution of 4 parts verdigris in 11 of distilled vinegar; 
leave for an hour to dry and then polish with a soft brush and 
colcothar. 

Fancy Colors on Metals. — ^. Dissolve 4 ozs. hypo-sulphite of 
soda, 1| pts. of water, and then add a solution of 1 oz. acetate of lead 
in 1 oz. Avater. Articles to be colored are placed in the mixture, 
which is then gradually heated to the boiling point. This will give 
iron the color of blue steel, zinc becomes bronze, and copper or brass 
becomes, successively, yellowish, red, scarlet, deep blue, light blue, 
bluish Avhite, and finally white, with a tinge of rose. 2. By replac- 
ing the acetate of lead in the solution by sulphate of copper, bras;; 
becomes, first, of a fine rosy tint, then green, and lastly, of an irri- 
descent brown color. 

Coating Iron Castings with Gold or Sil-\t:r. — The articles 
to be gilded are well cleaned and boiled in a porcelain vessel, to- 
gether with 12 parts of mercury, 1 of zinc, 2 of iron vitriol, 1^ of mu- 
riatic acid of 1.2 specific gravity, and 12 parts of water ; in a short 
time a layer of mercury will deposit upon the iron, and upon this the 
gold amalgam may be uniformly distributed. Iron to be silvered is 
first provided with a coating of copper, upon which the silver is ap- 
plied either by means of amalgam or silver leaf. 

Brunswick Black for Grates, &c. — Asphaltum, 5 lbs. ; melt, 
and add boiled oil, 2 lbs. ; spirits of turpentine, 1 gal. Mix. 

Bronze Paint for Iron. — Ivory black, 1 oz.; chrome yellow, 1 
oz. ; chrome green, 2 lbs. ; mix with raw linseed oil, adding a little 
japan to dry it, and you have a very nice bronze green. If desired, 
gold bronze may be put on the prominent parts, as on the tips or 
edges of an iron railing where the paint is not quite dry, using a piece 
of velvet or plush to rub on the bronze. 

TiN^NiNG Iron. — Cleanse the metal to be tinned, and rub with a, 
coarse cloth, previously dipped in hydrochloric acid (muriatic acid,) 
and then rub on French putty with the same cloth. French putty is 
made by mixing tin filings with mercury. 

Tinning. — 1. Plates or vessels of brass or copper boiled with a 
solution of stannate of potassa, mixed with turnings of tin, become, 
in the course of a few minutes, covered with a firmly attached layer 
of pure tin. 2. A similar effect is produced by boiling the articles 
with tin-filings and caustic alkali, or cream of tartar, "in the above 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &c., keceipts. 5J7 

•vrar, chemical vessels made of copper or brass may be easily and 
pcrlectly tinned. 

New Tln^nixq Process. — Articles to bo tinned are first covered 
■With diluted sulphuric acid, and, when quite clean, are placed in -warni 
■water, then dipped in a solution of muriatic acid, copper, and zinc, 
and then plunfred into a tin bath to ■>vliich a small quantity of zinc 
luirt been added. When the tinning is finished, the articles are taken 
out^ and plunged into boiling Avater. The operation is completed by 
]>klciug them in a very warm sand-bath. This lust process softens tho 
iroii. 

To Recoter the Tin fro:m Old Brttaxnia.— ;Melt the metal, and 
■while hot sprinkle sulphur over it ; and stir it up for a short time, 
t'.iis bums the other metals out of the tin, which may then bo used 
for any purjiose desired. 

Kustitien's ]\Ietal for Tixxtsr.. — ^falleablo iron, 1 lb., licat 
to whiteness ; add 5 ozs. regains of antimony, and Molucca tin, 
L'4 lbs. 

Galvaxtzing Irox. — Tho iron plates are first immersed in a 
cleansing bath of equal parts of sulphuric or muriatic acid and water 
Tised warm; they are then scrubbed with emery or sand, to clean 
them thoroughly and detach all scales if any are left; after which 
they are immersed in a " preparing bath " of equal parts of saturated 
solutions of chloride of zinc and chloride of ammonium, from which 
bath they are directly transferred to the fluid "metallic bath," con- 
sisting, by weight of 640 lbs. zinc to 10(3 lbs. of mercury, to which aro 
added from 5 to G ozs. of sodium. As soon as the iron has attjiined 
the temperature of tliis hot fluid bath,which is 080° Fahr,, it may be re- 
moved, and will then be found thoroughly coated with zinc. A littlo 
tallow on the surface of the metallic bath Avill prevent oxidation. 

rREVENTiNG OF RusT. — Cast iron is best preserved by rubbing it 
vith blacklead. For polished work, varnish with wax dissolved ia 
Kinzine, or add a little olive oil to copal varnish and thin with spts. 
turpentine. To remove deep-seated rust, use benzine, and polish ofE 
with fine emery, or use tripoli, 2 parts; powdered sulphur, 1 part. 
Apply with soft leather, Emery and oil is also very good. 

To Purify Zns'C. — Pure zuic may be obtained by precipitating its 
pulphate by an alkali, mixing the oxide thus produced with charcoal 
powdered, and exposing the mixture to a briglit red heat in a covered 
crucible in which the i^urc metjil will be found as a button at tho 
bottom when cold. 

Transparent Blue for Iron or Steel. — Demar vamisb, igal. ; 
fine ground Prussian blue, h oz. ; mix thoroughly. Makes a splendid 
apiiejirance. Excellent for bluing watch-hands. 

IjEAd Shot are cast by letting the met;il run throngh a narrow 
Flit into a species of colander at the top of a lofty tower; the metal 
escapes in dro^js, whicli, for the most part, assume the spherical form 
before they reach the tank of water into which they fall at the foot 
of the tower, and this prevents their beuig bruised. They are af- 
terwards riddled or sifted for size, and afterwards churned in a bar- 
rel with black lead. 

BijACK Bronze on Iron or Steel. — The following mixtures are 
employed : liquid No. 1. A mixture of bichloride of mercury and sal-am- 
moniac. No. 2. A mixture of perchloridc of iron, sulphate of copper, 



518 MACHINISTS, engineers' &C., RECEirXb. 

nitric acid, alcohol and water. No. 3. Pcrchlorido and protocliloride 
of mercury niLxed with nitric acid, alcohol and water. jSo. 4. A weak 
solution of sulphide of potiissiuin. Clean your metal well and apply 
a slight coat of Ko. 1 Avith a sponge; Avlien quite dry, ajijily another 
coat. Remove tlie resulting crust of oxide with a wire brusli, rubtho 
metal with a clean rag, and repeat this operation after eacii applica- 
tion of tlieso liquids. Now apply several coats of No. 2, and also of 
Ko. 3, with a fiill sponge ;tlien, after drying for ten minutes, tlirow tlio 
pieces of metal into water lieated near the boiling point; let them re- 
main in the water from 5 to 10 minutes, according to their size. After 
being cleaned, cover again with several coatiiigs of No. 3, afterwards 
with a strong coating of No. 4; then again , immerse in the bath of 
hot water. Kemove froni the bath dry, and wipe the pieces with 
carded cottoii dipped hi liquid No. 3, diluted each time with an ui- 
crcased quantity of w.ater; then rub and wipe them with a little olive 
oil ; again immerse in a water bath heated to 140° l-'ahr., remove them, 
rub brisldy with a woolen rag, and lastly, with oil. Unequalled for 
producing a beautiful glossy black on gun-barrels, steel, iron, &c. 

Paint for Sheet Ikon S^ioke PirE. — Good varnish, ^ gallon; 
boiled linseed oil h gallon; add red lead sufficient to bring to tfie con- 
sistency of common paint. Apply with a brush. Applicable to any 
kind of iron work exposed to the weather. 

To CorrER the Suiiface of Lrox, Stefx, or Irox Wire. — 
Have the article perfectly clean, then wash with the following solu- 
tion, and it presents at once a coi^percd surface, llain water, 3 lbs. ; 
sulphate of copper, 1 lb. 

To Join Broken Lead Pipes during Pressure of "»Vater. — 
It frequently happens that lead pipes get cut or damaged when the 
water is' running at a high pressure, causing much trouble to make 
rei^airs, especiaUyif the water cannot be easily' turned off. In this 
case plug both ends of the pipe at the break, place a small jnle of bro- 
ken ice and salt aroimd them. In a few minutes the water in the 
pipe will freeze ; next, withdraw the jilugs and insert a new piece of 
pipe; solder j)erfectly, thaw the ice, and it will be all right 

To Repair small Leaks in Lead Pipes. — Place the pomt of a 
dull nail over the leak, give it a gentle tax) "^th a hammer and the 
How will cease. 

To Prevent Corrosion in Lead Pipes. — ^Pass a strong so- 
lution of sulphide of potassium and sodiuni through the inside of the 
■^f[)e at a temperature of 212°, and allow it to remain about 10 or 15 
minutes. It converts the uiside of the pipe into an insoluble sulphide 
of lead and prevents corrosion. 

To Bend Copper or Brass Tubes. — ^Run melted lead or rcsui 
into your pipe till full, and you may then bend it gradually into any 
desired shape ; the pipe may then be heated and the lead or resin 
melted and run out. 

To Join Lead Plates.— Tlic joints of lead plates for some pur- 
poses are made as follows : The edges are brought together, ham- 
mered doAvn into a sort of channel cut of wood and secured with a 
few tacks. The hoUow is then scraped clean with a scraper, rubbed 
over with candle grease, and a stream of hot lead is poured into it, the 
surface being afterwards smoothed with a red hot plumber's iron. 

To Join Lead Pipes. — "Widen out the end of one pipe vrith a ta- 



MACniXISTS, EXGIXEEIIS', &C., RKCEIPTS. bl'J 

nci wood rift, nnd scrape it clean inside ; scrape the end of the other 
jiipe outside a little tapered, and iuseit it in the former : then solder 
it with common lead solder as before described ; or, if it requires 
to be strouj?, rub a little tallow over, and cover the joint witli .1 
ball of melted lead, holding a cloth (2 or 3 plies of greased bedtick) 
on the under side ; and smoothing over with it and the plumber s 
ii"on. 

Tkvnixg Interior of Lead Pepes. — This invention consists in 
applyuig a flux of gi'ease or muriate of zinc or any other llux that will 
Ijrotect the lead from oxidation, andinsiu-e a perfect coating of tin, 
when the tin is poured through the pipe or the pipe dipped into the 
bath of tin ; after the lead pipe has been made, place the same in a 
vertical or nearly vertical position, and pass down through the same a 
fitrong cord, to which a weight is attached to draw the cord through 
the pipe; and at or near the other end of the cord, a sponge or piece of 
otlier porous or elaf^tic material, is attached of a size to fill the pipe, 
and of any desired length, say G inches more or less. The sponge or 
l)or(>ns wad being saturated with the flux, is drawn through the pipe, 
and l)y its lengtli ensures the covering of the entire inside surface of 
the inside of the pipes with the flux, so that the melted tin, sub- 
sequently applied, will adhere to all parts with uniformity and firm- 
ness. 

To Pretext Lead Exploding. — Many mechanics have had their 
patience sorely tried when pouring melted lead around a damp or wet 
joint to find it exj^lode, blow out, or scatter from the effects of steam 
generated by the heat of the lead. The whole trouble may be stopped 
by putting a piece of resin the size of the end of a man's tliumb into 
the ladle and allowing it to melt before pouring. Simple as the secret 
is, many have paid $>20 for the privilege of knowing it. 

Tabular View of the Processes of Soldering. — Hard solder- 
iin/. The hard soldei-s most commonly used are the spelter solders, 
and silver solders. The general flux is borax, marked A on the 
table, and the modes of heating are the naked fire, the furnace or 
niufile, and the blow pipe, marked a, h, g, applicable to nearly all 
metals less fusible than the solders ; the modes of treatment are 
nearly similar throughout. Note. — The examples commence with 
the solders (the least fusible first) followed by the metals for 
Avhich they are commonly employed. Fme gold, laminated and 
cut into shreds, is used as the solder for joining chemical vessels 
made of platinum. Silver is by many considered as much the best 
solder for German sUver, for silver solders, see Jewellers' alloys 
Copper cut in shreds, is sometimes similarly used for iron. Gold 
solders laminated are used for gold alloys, see 333 and 338. 
Spelter solders, granulated whilst hot, are lised for iron, copper, 
brass, gun metals, German silver, &c., see bcloAv. Silver solders 
laminated, are employed for all silver works and for common gold 
work, also for German silver, gilding metals, iron, steel, brass, gun 
metal, &c., when greater neatness is required than is obtained from 
spelter solder. 

White or button solders, granulated, are employed for the white 
alloys called button metals; they were introduced as cheap substi- 
tutes for silver solder. Hard Soldering. — Applicable to nearly all 
the metals; tlie modes of treatment are very different. The soft sol- 



520 MACHINISTS, engineers', AC, RECEirXS. 

(Icr mostly used is two parts tin and one of lead; pometiraes, from 
motives of economy, much more lead is employed, and 1^ tin to 1 lead 
in the most fusible of the group, unless bismuth is used. The fluxes 
B to G, and the modes of heating, a to i, arc all used with the soft 
solders. 

Note. — The examples commence "with the metals to be soldered. 
Thus in the list, zinc, 8, c, /, implies, that ziuc is soldered with No. 8 
alloy, by the aid of the muriate or chloride of zmc , and the copper 
bit. Lcitd, 4 to 8, F, d, e, implies that lead is soldered with alloys 
varjing from Xo. 4 to 8, and that it is fluxed with tallow, the heiit 
bein,; applied by pouring on melted solder, and the subsequent use 
of t'le lieated iron, not tinned; but in general one only of the modes 
of 1 cjiting is selected, according to circumstances. Iron, cast-iron 
and steel, 8, B, D, if thick, heated by a, b, or c, and also by r/. Timied 
iron 8, G, D, /. Gold and silver arc soldered with jnire tin, or else 
with 8, E, a, g, or h. Copper and many of its alloys, namely brass, 
gilding metal, gun metal, &c., 8, B, C, D; when thick, heated by o, 
6, c, e, or g, when thm, by /, or g. Speculum metal, 8, B, C, D, the 
heat should be cautiously applied; the sand bath is perhaps the be.<t 
mode. Zinc, 8, C ,/. Lead and lead pipes, or ordinary plumber's 
worlc, 4 to 8 F, d,oT e. Lead and tm pipes, 8, D, and G, mixed, g, and 
also/. Britamiia metal, C, xJ, g. Pewters, the solders mnst varj' in 
fusibility accordmg to the fusibility of the mebil, generally G, and /, 
are used, sometimes, also G, and g or/. Lead is united without sol- 
der by ])ouring on red hot lead, and employing a red liot iron, d. e. 
Iron and brass are sometimes burned, or united by partial fiuiion, by 
ix)uring very hot metal over or around them. 

Alloys a>t) theik IMeltino Heats. Fluxes. 

A. Borax. 

B. Sal-am. or mur. of aram. 

C. Muriate or chlor. of zinc 

D. Common resin. 

E. Venice turpentine. 

F. Tallow. 

G. Gallipoli oil, or common 
[sweet oil. 

Modes op Atpi.ying He^^t. 
«. Naked fire. 

b. Hollow furnace or muffle. 

c. Immersion in melted solder. 
?ahr. d. Melted solder or mefcU 

poured on. 
" e. Heated iron, not tin'd. 
" /. lieated copper tool, 

tinned. 
" g. Blow Pipe flame. 
" h. Flame alone, genendly 
alchohol. 

18 3 " 5 " 2 " 202 " i. Stream of heated air. 

Cheap Mosquito Bak. — Drop a small quantity of petroleum ur 

kerosene oil on a piece of cotton, squeeze out the excess as much .as 

pKjssible, then rub the cotton over the face, hands, &c., and these;" ea- 

tiferous injects will not alight where tiie scent has been left. 



>. 1 




1 Tm 25 Lead 258 Fahr. 


2 






" 10 




541 




3 






" 5 




511 




4 






" 3 




482 




5 






" 2 




441 




(J 










370 




7 




IV 






331 




8 




2" 






340 




<J 




o 






350 




10 




4 






305 




11 




5 






378 




12 




i) 






381 




13 


4 Lead 4 Tin 1 Bismuth 


320 


14 


3 


(( 


3 " 


1 


(( 


310 


15 


2 


(( 


2 " 


1 


<( 


292 


10 


1 


(< 


1 " 


1 


(( 


254 


17 


2 


(< 


1 " 


2 


(( 


230 



MAcnixisTS, engineers', &c., keceipts. 521 

Solders 33 kinds. — 1. Plumbers' solder. — Lead, 2 parts; tin, 1 
part. 2. Tinmen's solder. — Lead, 1 part; tin, 1 part. Zinc solder. 
—Tin, 1 part ; lead, 1 to 2 parts. 4. Pcicter solder. — Lead, 1 part ; 
bismuth, 1 to 2 parts. 5 Spelter solder. — Equal paits copper and ziuo. 
■(). Pewterers' soft solder. — Bismuth, 2 ; lead, 4 ; tin, 3 jjarts. 7. An- 
other. — Bismuth, 1 ; lead, 1 ; tin, 2 parts. 8. Another pewter snldrr. 
— Tin, 2 parts ; lead, 1 part. 9. Glazier's Solder — Tin, 3 i)arts ; Iwid, 

1 part. 10. Solder for Copper. — Copper, 10 parts ; zinc, 9 parts. 3 1. 
Yclloio Solder for Prass or Copper. — Copper, 32 lbs. ; zinc, 29 lbs. ; 
tin, 1 lb. 12. Prass Solder. — Copper, C1.25 parts ; zinc 38.75 pnits, 
13. Prass Solder Yellow and casihj fusible. — Copper, 45; zinc, 55 
parts. 14. Prass solder, White. — Copper, 57.41 parts; tin, 14.G0 parts; 
zinc, 27.99 paiis. 15. Another Solder for Copper. — Tin, 2 parts ; 
lead, 1 part. When the copper is thick, heat it by a naked fire ; if 
thin, use a tinned copper tool. Use muriate or chloride of zinc, as a 
ilux. The same solder will do for iron, cast iron, or steel; if tlie 
pieces are thick, heat by a nalvcd fire, or immerse in the solder. KJ. 
Plack Solder. — Copper, 2 ; ziuc, 3 ; tm, 2 parts. 17. Another. — Slicct 
brass, 20 lbs. ; tin, G lbs. ; zinc, 1 lb. 18. Cold Praziw) without Fire 
or Lamp. — Fluoric acid, 1 oz. ; oxy muriatic acid, 1 oz. ; mix in a lead 
bottle. Put a chalk mark each side -where you want to braze. Tliia 
mixture will keep about 6 months in one bottle. 19. Cold Solderinrf 
without Fire or Lamp. — Bismuth, ^ oz. ; quicksilver, ^ oz. ; block tin 
filings, 1 oz. ; spirits salts, 1 oz. ; all mixed together. 20. To Solder 
Jivn to Steel or either to Prass. — Tin, 3 parts ; copper, 39.^ ji^irts ; 
zhic, 7^^ parts. When applied in a molten sttite it will firmly nnito 
metalsfirst named to each other. 21. Plumbers' Solder. — Bismuth, 1 ; 
lead, 5 ; tin, 3 parts ; is a first class composition. 22. White Solder for 
raised Pritannia Ware. — Tui, 100 lbs. ; hardening, 8 lbs. ; antimony, 
8 lbs. 23. Hardening for Pritannia. — (To be mixed sejiarately from tho 
other ingredients). Copper, 2 lbs. ; tin, 1 lb. 24. Pest soft solder for 
cast Pritannia Ware. — Tin, 8 lbs. ; lead, 5 lbs. 25. Pismnth solder. 

Tm, 1 ; lead, 3 ; bismuth, 3 pai-ts. 2G. Solder for Prass that will 
.^fand Hammering. — Brass, 78.2G pai-ts ; zinc, 17.41 parts ; silver, 4. 
33 parts ; add a little chloride of potiissium to j'our borax for a flux. 
27 Solder for Steel Joints. — Silver, 19 parts ; copper, 1 part ; brass, 

2 parts. ]\ielt all together. 28. Hard Solder. — Copper, 2 parts; zinc, 1 
part. Melt together. 29. Solder for Jirass. — Coi)]i)er, 3 parts ; zinc, 
1 part ; with borax. 30. Solder for Copper. — Brass, G parts ; zinc, 1 
part ; tin, 1 part ; melt all togetlier well, and pour out to cool. 31. 
Solder for l^latina. — Gold with borax. 32. Solder for 2ivn. — The 
best solder for iron is good tough brass witli a little borax. 

N. B. In soldering, tbo surfaces to be joined are made perfectly 
dean and smooth, and then covered with sal ammoniac, resin or other 
fhux; the solder is then applied, bemg melted on and smoothed over 
by a tinned soldering iron, 

SoLDKRiNG Fluid. — Take 2 oz. muriatic acid; add zinc till bubbles 
cease to rise; add ^ teaspoonful of sal-ammoniac. 

Black VAiixisrt Foil Coal. Buckkts.— Asphaltum, 1 lb.; lamp- 
blaclc, ^ lb. ; rc«in, ^ lb. ; spirits of turpentine, 1 qt. Dissolve the 
asi^haltum and resin in tlie turpentine, then rub up the lami>-black 
with liuseed oil, only sufficient to form a paste, and mix with the 
©thscr. Apply witli a brush. 



b2'2 MACHINISTS, engineers', &c., receipts. 

SIZES OF TIN-WARE OF DIFFERENT KINDS. 

{For Diameters, d'c. of Circles see Tables. ) 



Dippers. - - 

Coffee Pots. 
Pa^'s. - - - 



Pie Pans ------ 

Large Wash Bowi. - - 
Small Wash Bowl - - 
Milk Strainer - - - 
Pails and Dish Kettles 



Colander. 



Measures for Druggists, Beer, &c. • 



Measures of other forms. 



i gal. 

1 pt. 

1 gal. 
3 qts. 

20 qts. 

1() qts. 

1-1 qts. 

10 qt.s. 

6 qts. 

2 qts. 

3 pts. 
1 pt. 



14 qts. 

10 qts. 

G qts. 

2 qts. 

2 gal. 
1 gal. 
Jf gal. 
l" qt. 
1 pt. 

h pt. 

1 gal. 
igal. 
1 qt. 
1 pt. 
h pt. 



Diam. 
of bot. 



inches 
4 

3f 
7 

13 

% 

11 
9 
() 

4 

n 

9^ 
7 

5i 
4*^ 



4 

3f 
()| 



of top.peig't 



inches 
(ih 
4| 
4 
3^ 

li)!- 

18^ 
15i 
14^ 
12| 
9 

9 
11 

dh 

9.t 
13" 
lU 



6: 

11* 

9.t 



13 
4" 

94 



inches 
4 
23 



Tin Cans. — Size of Sheet, for from 1 to 100 Gallons. 

For 25 gallons, 30 by 5(5 inches. 
" 3() by (53 " 
" 40 by 70 " 
" 40 bv 84 " 
" 40 by 98 " 

This includes all the laps, seams, &e., which will be found sufficiently 
correct for all practical purposes. 

Patent Lubricating Oil. — Water, 1 gal.; clean tallow, 3 lbs.; 
jmlm oil, 10 lbs. ; coniniou soda, h lb. Heat the mixture to about 
210° Falir, ; stir well until it cools "down to 70° Fnlir., when it ia fit 
iov use. 



Pur 1 g 


allou, 


7 by 20 


inches. 


For 25 


^h 




10 by 28 




40 


5 




12 by 40 




50 


C 




14 by 40 




75 


10 




20 bv 42 




100 


15 




30 by 42 







MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. i>23 

Exi^lanation of Diagrams for Sheet Metal Workers, &c. 




Eight-Angled Elbow.— i^Vr/. 1.— Strike out the length and depth 
of the elbow as shown in the above diagram, drawing semicircles at 
the end as exhibited above. Then draw seven horizontal linos as 
};ho\vn extending along the small figures. Divide the circinnfercnco or 
length into IG equal parts by drawing 15 vertical lines as in diagrnm. 
IJow draw a line from h to 7c and d; directly opposite draAv aifothcr 
line along the letters v r p ; for the top SAveep set the compasses on 
the fourth line from the bottom, and sweep two of the spaces; and 
do the same at the corner. On space for the two remaining sweeps 
ret the compasses so as to intersect in the three corners of the spaces 
designated by the small cross marks. The drawing does not include 
eeams or laps, these must be added. 

Elbows for Gutters fob Eaves of Roofs. — ^Eave troughs pos- 
sess a form resembling the undivided half of a pipe divided length- 
ways, therefore by describing one half of one end of the elbow of a 
pipe whose size is equal to the size of the gutter at the top, you have 
the requisite pattern ; extra allowance to be made for bead. ' 

Croxzixg Gas Fittings.— Boil the Avork in a strong ley, and 
scour it free from all grease or old lacquer. Pickle it iu dilute nitric 
acid until quite clean, and then dip it into .strong nitric acid to make 
it bright, swilling it in the water immediately after. Sometimes this 
latter dipping in strong acid requires to be repeated two or three times, 
but the work must always be rinsed Immediately after dipping. 
Bind it very loosely romid Avith iron wire, and let it stand for a few 
minutes in the water you have used for swilling. This will de- 
posit a layer of copper on the Avork. Agaui wash Avell, drv iu box- 
Avood dust, and brush over with equal parts of blacklead and Bag- 
nell's red bronze. 

To Separate Gold From Sila'er— The alloy is to be melted and 
poured from a height into a vessel of cold Avater, to which rotary mo- 
tion le communicated. By this means the allov is reduced to a finely 
granulated condition. The metallic substance Is then treated with 
nitric acid and gently heated. Nitrate of silver ic produced, Avhich 
can bo reduced by any of the ordinary methods; Avhile metallic gold 
remains as a black mud, Avhich must bo washed and melted. --/S'czcn- 
tiflc American, 

To Tin CorpER Stew Dishes, tc— Wash the surface c f t::c arti- 



524 



MACHINISTS, ENGINEERS , &C., IlECEIPTS. 



cle to be tinned with sulpliuric acia, .ind riio^lio surface well, so c.a 
to liav3 it smooth and free of blackness caused by the acid; then 
sprinkle calcined and finely pulverized sal-ammoniac upon the sur- 
face, holding it over a fire, when it will be sufficiently hot to melt a 
bar of solder which is to be rubbed over the surface. Any copper 
dish or vessel may be tinned in this way. ■ 

Parker's Copper Hardening process consists in introducing ca 
admixture of a minute quantity of phosphorus into the metal. ,- 




To Stuike out CoMMOiT Flaring Yessels, Cones, &c.—Fif/. 2, — 
Form a right angled paralellogram H K D V, H K equal to the cir- 
cumference of the wide end of the diagram, and N P equal to its cir- 
cumference at the indicated points, KD being the elevation; draw 
the light lines H JST B and K P R; from R as a basis lay out arcs from 
H to K and N P, calculating proper allowance for backs. To Strike 
Out a Cone,— Form a paralellogram as in the diagram; the space 
from H to K equivalent to the diameter of the cone ; K to D equiva- 
lent to the elevation; next draw lines from H and Iv to the centre 



MACHINISTS, ENGINEERS , AC, RECEIPTS. 



525 



of the line D V, and from this as a base or centre dcscrihe a segment 
of a circle from H to K. 

Flux fok Welding Copper. — Boraoic acid, 2 parts ; phosphr.to 
of soda, 1 part; mix. This welding powder should be strewn over tlio 
surface of copper at a red heat; the pieces should then be heated u;) 
to a full cherry red, or yellow heat, and brought immediately under 
the hammer. Heat the copper at a flame, or gas jet, where it will 
not touch charcoal or solid carbon. 




To StpwIke OCT A CmcuLAp Elbow.— JP/r/.s, 3 and 4.— Lay out two 
carv-cd Imes F I and G D to suit the desired length of elbow; the 
ppace from F to G equivalent to the intended diameter of the pipe ; 
lay off the circles F D, G I into as many divisions as youdesire ; con- 
struct the paralellogram, Fig. 4, the length equivalent to the diame- 
ter of the pipe j-ou are making, the width equal to C B in Fig, 3; lay 
off a segment of a circle equivalent in diameter to the pipe, touchuT;T 
the point H; divide the segment into any desired number of equ::l 
divisions; draw Ihies across tliO dots parallel to Y V; open the com- 
passes 1\ times the diameter of the pipe, and describe the Ime from 
V to the intersection of the Imes P P and R R, draw cunilinear lines 
to the crossmgs of the other Imes to the pomt H, this will furnish 
one side of a section. 



526 



MACHINISTS, engineers', £^C., RECEIPTS. 



To Strike out Ovals, Oval Flartn-g Vessels, Scc.—Ft{/. n.— 
Construct the paralellograin H K D V; HK equivalent to the long 
aixl K D to correspond to the short diameter; divide it into lour equal 
parts by drawing the lines P R and N N; mark the point L one-third 
the distance from N to ; then describe the arcs I S I, I S I, and from 
the line N N describe the segment INI. To describe an egg-shaped 
oval with ends of unequal magnitude, construct the frustrum of a 
cone that will embrace the oval and proceed as in Fig. 5. To Strike 




out an oval Flaring Vessel in four subdivisions, find the circumference 
of the arcs I S I and INI for the bottom of the pieces ; form a paral- 
cllogram the length of which shall be equal to "the circumference of 
the top of either division, and operate as in Fig. 2. The same allow- 
ance must be accorded for flare on the side parts as on the ends, 
allowing for burrs and locks. 

Gold Lacquer for Tin — Transparent, All Colors. — Alcohol 
in a flask, 1 jit. ; add gum-shellac, 2 ozs. ; turmeric, 1 oz. ; red s?.nd- 
crs, 1^ ozs. Set the" flask in a warm place, shake frequently for 12 
hours or more, then strain off the liquor, rinse the bottle, and return 
it, corking tightly for use. When this varnish is used, it must be ap- 
l)licd to tiie work freely and flowing, and the articles should be liot 
when applied. One or more coats may be laid on, as the color is re- 
quired more or less light or deep. If any of it should become thicl: 
from evaporation, at any time, thin it with alcohol. And by the fol- 
lowing modifications, all the various colors are obtained : 1. JRoseColor. 
Proceed as above, substituting 1 oz. of finely ground best lake in place 
of the turmeric, 2. J3lue. The blue is made by substituting pulverized 
Prussian blue, 1 oz., in place of the turmeric. 3. Pw^jle. Add a little 
of the blue to the first. 4. Green. Add a little of the rose to the first. 

Cracked Stoves. — ^Equal parts of wood ashes and salt ; mix 
to a paste with water j with this fill the cracks. - 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &c., keceipts. 527 




To Describe a Heakt.— i'/c/. 6.— Draw the straight line H D K 

equal to the breadth of the 
heart; laj-off the segments 
H D and D K, then with the 
dividers extended from H 
to K, describe the arcs H K 
and K V. 

4 To find the circxmxfcraicc 
of a circle, the diameter be- 
ing known, multiply the di- 
ameter by 3.1410, and to 
find the diameter of a circle, 
the circumference being 
known, divide the circum- 
ference by 0.141G. 

To Stiuke out OvAii 
Wash Boiler Covers. — 
Firf. 7. — Describe the lino 
V R equal in extension to 
half the length of the boiler ; 
from the central ]ioint D lay 
off the circle M R N, equiva- 
lent in diameter to the 
breadth of the boiler outside the wire around the rim; describe the 
line H K so as to cross the line V R in the manner shown in diagram ; 
make V S three-eighths of an inch higli more or less as you desire it 
for tlie pitch of the cover; place the corner of the measuring square 
on the line H K, laying the fiat part touching the point S; then de- 
scribe the lines H N, H""S, S K and K ]M, which, with the proper al- 
lowance for locks and edges, completes the cover. 

Japanners' Gold Size. — Gum ammoniac, 1 lb.; boiled oil, 8 ozs. ; 
spirits turpentine, 12 ozs. Melt the gum, then add the oil, and lastly 
spirits turpentine. 

jArA>->'iNG. — Nearly 30. formula for varnishes will be found on 
page 1G2, among them Japanners Copal Varnish, and this, together 
with oil, alcohol, shellac, or any other transparent varnish, admits of 
being mixed with coloring matter to produce different shr.des. 1. 
For Scarlet. Ground vermUion may be used, but being so glaring it 
is not beautiful unless covered over with rose-pink, or lake, Avhich 
have a good effect when tlius used. 2. Bright Crimson. Use saff- 
flower or Indian lake dissolved in alcohol; in place of this lake car- 
mine may be used, as it is more common. 3. Yellow. Turmeric dis- 
solved in spirits of wine, strained through a cloth, and mixed with 
l)ure seedlac varnish, makes a good j-elloAV ja])an; saffron will answ- 
er applied in the same way, and chrome yellow is excellent. Dutch 
pink forms a cheap yellow japan ground. " If dragon's blood be added 
to th* yellow japan, a most beautiful and rich salmon-colored varnish 
is the result, varied according to the quantity of the ingredient used, 
4. Orange. Use j- ellow mixed Avith vermilion or carmine, just as a 
bright or inferior color is" desired. 5. Purple. Add to the varnish a 
mixture of lake and Prussian blue, or carmine, or for an inferior 
color, vermilion. 6. Bhie. Use bright Prussian blue ; it may bo 
mixed with sheDac varnish and bronp;lit to a polishing state by 5 or G 



528 



MACHINISTS, ENGINEERS 



itC, liECEirTS. 



coats of Tarnish of seedlac ; mix -with the purest varnish when a Wpit 
blue is desired. 7. Black. Prussian blue 1 oz., asphaltum 2 ozs., 
spirits turpentine 1 pint ; melt the asphaltum in the turpentine, rub 
up the blue with a little of it; mix ar.d strain, then add the whole 
to 2 pints of the varnish. 8. Green. Llix equal parts of the blue and 
yellow together, then mix Avith the varnish until the color suits the 
lancy. 9. Pink. Mix a little of the blue to more in quantity of the 
red and then add to the varnish till it suits. 10. White, One white 
ground is made by the following composition : white flake or lead 
washed over and ground up with a sixth of its weight of starch, then 
dried and mixed with the finest gum, ground np in parts of 1 oz. 
gum to ^ oz. of rectified turpentine mixed and ground well together. 
This is to be finely laid on the article to be japanned, dried and then 
varnished with 5 or G coats of the following : 2 ozs. of the whitest 
geed-lac to 3 ozs. of gum-anime reduced to a fine powder and dis- 
solved in 1 qt. alcohol. For a softer varnish than this, a little turpen- 
tine should be added and less of the gum. 




To Strike out Can Tops and Bevel Covers for Vessels. — 
Fig. 8.— Describe the circle K K K for the size of the can or cover; 
allow the space between K K K and D D D for edges to the same, 
rrd the distance between V \ V and D D D for the Hare; span the 



MACniNISTS, ENGINEERS , &C., KECEIPTS. 



529 



<Tividers from R to K and divide the curvilinear lino V Y V into six 
equal divisions ; cut out the pieces H H H, D D D leaving edges for 
locks parallel to H V. For the opening in the can head or top, describe 
the curvilinear line H H H equal in magnitude to the circumference 
of the opening. To have your can tops one-third pitch, span the di- 
viders two-thirds of the diameter of the can: lay out a circle and uso 




t'vo-thirds of it. For one-quarter pitch, span the dividers thrcc- 
i'jiirths of the diameter of the can, lay out a circle and use three- 
quarters of it. For one-half pitch, lay off the circle twice the diamc- 
tor of the can and use half of it. Remember to grant full allowance 
lor locks only. 

Different Styles of Filing.— To file a surface true, it isneces- 
rary on commencing, to t;queczo the file tightly between the third and 
fourth fingers and palm of youv hnnd until you become used to it. 
Your position in filing should bo half left face to your work, with 
the middle of your right foot fifteen inches behind your left heel ; 
imd to file your work true or square, it is necessary to reverse your 
Avork often, as by this means you are enabled to see the whole surface 
Tou are filing, and see while filing whether you are filing true or not. 
NVhen, however, your work is so ho.i ^y that you cannot reverse it 
you had better file first to the right and then to the left, as by this 
means you can i)lainly see the file marks, and this again assists you 
in filing true. 

To Crystallize Tin. — Sulnhuric acid, 4 ozs.; soft water, 2 to 3 
ozs., according to strength of the acid; salt 1^ ozs. Mix. Heat the 
thi hot over a stove, then Avith a sponge ap])ly the mixture, then 
wash off directly with clean water. Dry the tin, and varnish with 
dcmar varnish 

Compression of an India-Rubber Buffer of Three Inches 
Stuoke.— 1 ton, 1..3 inches. 1^ tons, 1:^ inches. 2 ton,3, 2 inchoa. 
3 tons, 2^- inchc;3. 5 tons, 2^ inches. 10 tonj, 3 iaclioj. 

Si 



530 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 




To Strike a Set of Patterns for Tiin Envelope of a Coke. — 
d'iy. 9.— Lay off the lines H N aud K o^T ; the .space from H to K concs- 

pouding to the circiinifereuce 
of the cone at the largest end; 
11 N equal to the sloping 
height; Ironi N as a basis de- 
scribe the segments H K, D D, 
V V, li K, aud P P; each of the 
paits between these segment;] 
Avill compose a section of the 
covering if allowance be made 
for the laps. To lay off the 
frastrmii of a cone, see Pig. 2. 
2o find the Area of a Circle, 
multiply the circumference by 
one-fourth the diameter. To 
find fke Area of a Section of a 
Circle, multiply the length of 
tl:c juc by half the length of 
the radiuf5. 

To Strike out Strainer 
Bucket and Coffee Pot 
Lips (Eastern Style).— Fig. 10.— Describe tlic triangle H K D, H K 
equivalent to the shuiting height; from D lay out ithc section H K; 

describe sections of circles 
from K to D and H to D ac- 
cording to the dimensions of 
the vessel. In coffee jwts, 
the section extending from 
H to K should be regulated 
according to the style in 
which it is to be constructed. 
In describing Tea-kettle 
AND Tea-pot Spouts, pro- 
ceed as in Figs. 1 and 4, mak- 
ing the breadtli of the paral- 
eliogram commensurate or 
equal to the nngle you desire 
to cut, and the length equiv- 
alent to the circumference of 
the spout. 

To Strike out Lips For 
Measures, &c.— Lay out a 
circle the dimensions of the 
toT) of the vessel; describe a 
pne through the centre of the circle and divide it into four equal sec- 
tions; span the compasses on the line one quarter the distance from 
the end, and descri'^iea semi-circle touching the opposite end of the 
line; pass the compasses the breadth of the lip desired, and layout 
an arc until it approaches the semi-circle, which will allow the de- 
sired lip. The annexed Sector ij> appended to enable mechanics to 
obtain angles when required ; 




MACUixiSTS, ENGINEERS , &c., u::c::irTS. 







Adjusting Locomotive Val^tss. — A correspondent of the Scien- 
tific American jjives the following method of setting slide valves of 
locomotives : — Make a steel tram, about 5^ in. long, with two points 
at the right angles with the straight bar, one point to be 2^ in. in 
Icngtli, and the other 1^ in. Both points are to be sharp. Take a 
centre punch, and make a centre-mark on the to^D of the steam-chest 
]iacking-box ; then take a strip of tin and put it in the steam-port. 
Draw the valves slowly back until you can just move the tin be- 
tween the edge of the valves and the edge of the steam-port (which 
is now closed except as to the thickness of the strips of thi. ) 
Take tlue ti'am, place the short point in the centre-mark on the 
]iacking-box ; then make a scratch on the valve stem, and go 
through Avith the same process with the opposite steam-port. Kow 
you have marks on the valve-stem just where the valve begins to open. 
The valve-stem must next be got into radius (as we term it), which 
is to show the ])roper length for the valve-stem. It is done thus : 
Cover the steam-ports equally with the valve, put the centre of the 
rock shaft and the rocker pin at a right angle with the bore of the 
cylinder: and when the valve-stem is adjusted to this, it is of the 
proper length and should not be altered. To adjust the valves in for- 
ward motion, hook the reverse lever in the forward notch, take the 
dead points for centres, and alter the eccentric rods until the 
spaces arc equal on the valve-stem, which is determhied by the use 
of the tram. Take the forward centres and give 1-lCth. lead to the 
valve, for either passenger or freight engines. By adopting this plan 
the engine Avill reverse her action promptly. Hook the reverse lever 
in the" back motion, and repeat as above. If the job is to be done 
quickly and the eccentrics are in the proper position, it can be done 
by the' travel, in this way : Move the engine slowly forward witli 
steam, take the tram, and trace the movement of the valve on the 
valve-stem until the stem stojos ; then trace the return movement 
until that stops. Take a pair of dividers and measure each distance 
from the valve mark on the stem to the extreme of the travel lino 
(or Avhere the valve stopped). Alter eccentric rods until the spaces 
are equal. Bv thesQ means you do not require to take the steam 
chest covcry o£f. 



532 FACTS FOR GAS COMPANIES AND CONSUMKIIS. 

Facts for Gas Companies and Consumers. — The following 
different volumes of gas have been obtained from various kinds of 
coal. Cannel coal, 15,000 cubic ft. ; Wigau canuel, 15,42(j; Boghead 
cannel, 13,334; Cape Breton " Cow Bay," etc., l),500; Pictou and Sid- 
ney, 8000; English, mean, 11,000; Newcastle from 0,500 to 10,000; 
Pittsburg, 9,520, Scotch, from 10,300 to 15,000; Wallsend, 12,000, Vir- 
ginia, 8,900; Western, 9,500. Pine wood will evolve 11,000 cubic It. 
per ton. Rosin 15,000. Oil and 'grease 23,000 cubiclt. Each retort 
should produce about 000. cubic ft. of gas in 5 hours, with a charge of 
1^ cwt. of coal, or 2800 cubic feet in 24 hours. One ton of coal should 
produce about 9000 cubic ft. of gas, 1 chaldron of coke and about 11 
gals, of tar, and 9 of ammoniacal liquor. D)nj purifiers require 1 
"bush, of lime to 10,000 cubic ft. of gas, and loet purifiers an admix- 
ture of water, 48 bushels, and lime, 1 bushel for each 10,000 cubic ft. 
of gas. One per cent, of carbonic acid in gas diminishes its illumin- 
ating power one-tenth. Defective burners should be changed with- 
out delay, as all smoking, roaring, irregular, ragged, and pronged 
flames caused a great waste of gas with deficient light ; a smoky 
flame indicates loss of gas as well as loss of light. One good gas 
light is better economy than a number of small ones. The standard 
offjas burninfj is a 15 hole Argand lamp, interior diameter '44 ins., 
chimney 7 ins. high, consuming 5 cubic ft. per liour, evolving a light 
from common coal gas of from 10 to 42 sperm candles of G to the 
pound, with cannel coal from 20 to 24 candles, and with Pennsyl- 
vania coal from 14 to 16 candles The advantage gained by employ- 
ing a 30-hole argand instead of the standard is a greater production 
of light, the increase being from 20 to 30 per cent., for if the standard 
consumes 5 ft. j)er hour, and evolves the light of 12 candles, the 30- 
hole burner, consuming 7 ft. per hour, will give the light of 22 can- 
dles. An Argand burner with two chimneys, one within the other, 
with air space between in which the air becomes heated during its 
downward movement towards the flame, for an equal amount of 
light, causes a saving of gas equal to 33 per cent. , and for an equal 
consumption of gas. the gain in light is equal at 62 per cent. 

Burners are made so as to produce all shapes of flame, and are of 
diiiferent materials, lava, iron, steel, porcelain, steatite, brass, plati- 
num lined, etc. The bore from which the flame of the gas issues 
should be arranged, as regards its width, for the quality of the gfts 
consumed^ cannel coal gas for instance, being provided with narrower 
openings than those for common coal gas. We have single jet burn- 
ers, double jet burners, bat's wing, fishtail, cockspur, and other 
varieties ; also Argand burners of various sizes, bored with 6 to 30 or 
48 holes, or as in the Dumas burner, a slit instead of a hole. The 
best gas burners are made of lava, and the kind known as fishtail 
burners consume from 4 to 5 ft. of common coal gas per hour; large 
burners require from 6 to 10 cubic ft. per hour, in proportion to size ; 
sheltered lights consume about 4 cubic ft. per hour, out door lights 
about 5 cubic ft. ; street lamps in cities consume from 3 to 5 cubic ft. 
per hour, according to size of burner used. A 13 candle-gas, con- 
sumed in an Argand burner, evolves an illuminating power of 13 cau- 
dles ; if burnt in a batwing or fish-tail burner the same gas will pro- 
duce only the illuminating power of 9 candles. The deficiency of 
light is caused by an admixture of atmospheric air mingling largely 
With the thin jets of gas, increasing the heat, but dissipating the light, 



FACTS FOU GAS COMPANIES AND CONSUMERS. Ooo 

and imparting a blue tinge to the flame. Bat-wing bnmers axe the 
best adapted for all ont-door lights. Wlienever economy in gas and 
good light are main objects, the larger kind of bat-wing burners are 
preferable ; a bat-wing burner consuming 3^ ft. of gas per hour 
yields only the light of 6 candles, whereas a burner consuming G ft. 
per hour evolves a light equal to 15^ candles, the pressure being 4- 
lOths of an inch at the point of ignition. Nearly the same results are 
obtained by the use of the fishtail burner. The carcel burner, with 
a perforated disc at the lower part, and two orifices at the upper, 
Avhere the flames unite and spread into one, each side of this united 
..flame being supported by two curved levers or arms, is paid to be 
equal if not superior to the Argand or fishtail bui*ners in the power 
of evolviug a soft, steady, mellow light. 

Loss TO THE Diffusion of Gas Light by Glass Globes. — 
Clear glass, 12 per cent. ; glass globe engraved with oniaments, 24 per 
cent, ; half ground globe, 35 per cent. ; globe obscured all over, 40 per 
cent. ; opal globe, (iO per cent. ; painted oi)al globe, G4 per cent. No 
glasses of any kind are ever used with the bat-wing burner owing to 
the Avidely extended flame, but for fish-tail burners they are in com- 
mon use. Globes as usually made, are of faulty construction and 
cause needless obscurity and a great loss of light. The Trudeau 
globe, invented and jiatented by Mr. Trudeau, of Ottawa, Canada, is 
constructed on correct scientific principles, with spacious and roomy 
apei*tures, which tend to promote a low temperature in the glass, 
thus preventing fracture from the heat, and the accumulation of 
smoke and dust. The burner being properly adjusted, the height of the 
globe being low, and the openings wide, the gas is easily ignited, and 
bums at an exceedingly low pressure, with a clear, steady flame, with- 
out flickering, and diffuses a flood of soft, brilliant light, which forqiian- 
tity and quality is really surprising to one accustomed to the old fashion- 
ed globes. If 1 per cent, of air is mixed with gas, the illuminating power 
is diminished about G per cent.; if one-fifth of air be mixed with four- 
fifths of gas, no servicable light can be derived from the mixture. 
The greatest light and least heat is produced when the gas is not ex- 
posed to too great a current of outside air, and the most heat and 
least light is evolved by permeatmg the gas largely with external air; 
in every case an insufficiency of air supply will cause smoke and ob- 
scurity of light with any kind of burner. Large burners under a low 
pressure produce a greater amount of light than small burners under 
a high pressure, each kind consuming equal quantities of gas in a 
given time, and a greater volume of light is emitted from a large 
burner than from two small ones consuming the same quantity of gas 
as the one large. All burners, no matter what the size may be, re- 
quire a certain quantity of gas to produce the largest amount of light, 
which is as much lost through the use of too little gas as by the use of 
a surplus. 

Explosion of Gas. — Seven parts of air and one of gas is considered 
to be the most dangerous compound, but much depends on the purity, 
&c., of the gas, Compounds of less than 3 of air to 1 of gas, or above 
11 of air to 1 of gas, will not explode, Gas unmixed with oxygen or 
atmospheric air, extinguishes flame, and while in this state cannot ex- 
plode. The terrific gas explosion during the summer of 1870 in Cin- 
cinnati, was caused by a lighted pipe belonging to a laborer employed 
ou the top of the "gas liolder; tho heat generated by the' flash 



534 FACTS FOR GAS COMPANIES AND CONSUMERS. 

"was nearly 2,500°, or about the temi^eratare of melted f^teel; one 
party at the distance ot half a mile from the explovsion eoiupaied 
his experience to the inhalation of a stream of hot air from a furnace; 
the time occupied by the explosion was about the ^rd pait of a second. 
An explosive mixture of gas, v;hUe vncler prcufture, Avill only ignite at 
the exterior orifice of the pipe or holder; but if the j^rcssare is removed, 
the flame penetrates to the interior, and exi)losion ensues. On per- 
ceiving the odor of escaping gas, instant action should be taken to de- 
tect and stop the leak, but there is great temerity in applying a light 
in such cases; the best way is to turn off the gas for 3 or 4 hours, and 
allow it full time to dissipate into the open air through the doors, Avin- 
dows, &c., before using'tlame in any form. If a light is required at 
the open end of a pipe while making a new connection, gas-fitters 
should in every case tarn the outlet tap off, or disconnect the outlet 
union of the meter, in order to avoid the hazard of exploding the me- 
ter. 

Pressure. — According to Mr. Haswell, "The pressure with which 
gas is forced through pipes should seldom exceed 2^ inches at the 
works, or the leakage, wall exceed the advantages to be obtained fiom 
increased pressure. When pipes a,re laid at an inclination either 
above or below the horizon, a correction will have to be made in esti- 
mating the supph^, by adding or deducthig 1-100 of an inch from the 
initial pressure for every foot of i-ise or fall in the length of the pipe. 
By cxi>eriraent 30,000 cubic feet of gas, sp. gr. "42 were discharged 
in an hour through G inches in diameter, and 22.5 feet in length, 
and 852 cubic feet, specific gravity "398 were discharged under a head 
of 3 ins. of water, through a main 4 ins. in diam. and G miles in 
length. Loss of volume "of discharge by friction, in a j)ipe 6 ins. 
diam. and 1 mile in length, is < stimated at 95 per cent. In distilling 
5G lbs. of coal the volume of gas produced in cubic feet when the 
distillation w^as effected in 3 hours was 41.3, in 7 hours 37.5, in 20 hours 
33.5, and in 25 hours 31.7." The exinration of the breath from the 
lungs in the gentlest manner, is about equal to the pro}>er pressure for 
the most favorable consumi:)tion of gas, while a slight blowing force 
is equal to the highest pressure in the mains of gas companies; the 
first example is about equivalent to two or three-tenths pressure, and 
the 83:;ond to from 3 to 5 ins, pressure. 

'ilie orifices of gas burners should be well proportioned, not too 
small, to require increased pressure to expel the gas, thus seriour^ly 
CLirtailing the light, as shown by the following experiments with '4 
Argands, all of one size, each having 15 holes, but the orifice of each 
graduated so that only 5 cubic feet of gas per hour could pass under 
the resj)ective pressures here intimated : — 

Gas issvinr/ trith Pressitre in tenths cf incJics. 
1-lOth yielded the ligiit of 12 candles, 
5-lOths " " G " 

lO-lOths " " 2?r " 

40-10ths " " 1-t) " 

On the other hand, if the orifice of an Argand burner is too large, 
the llame will smoke offensively and thus entail waste and loss. Grade 
the size of the orifice by the qiiality of the gas to be consumed ; for 
poor gas the holes may bo largo; for good gas, smaller holes may bo 
used. In every case bo careful to effect a correct adjustment in order 
to obtain the best results. 



FACTS FOR GAS COMPANIES AND COXSUMFRS. OuJ 

Volumes of Gas Discharged peu Hocr Uxoeii a Pkessi itii 
OF Half a>- Ixch of Water— Specific Grayitv of Gas -4^. 



Diam. of 
opeuiug. 






[Diam.of; 



Diaiu.ofi 



i Diam.of 



Volume. , op'nmg. Volume, op iiing. ; Volume, lop'iiiiig. Volume. 



Cubic ft. 
80 
31il 



Ijis. 

% 
1. 



j Cubic ft. 
723 

I 1287 1 



lus- 
IV4 



Cubic ft. 
1625 
2010 



lus. 
IV2 



Cubic ft. 
288. 
40,150 



Diameter axd Lo-gth of Gas Tipes to Transmit Givex Volujie 
of Gas to Bkaxcii Pipes.— i>r. ire. 



iLenjrth 



Volume 


Diam- 




Voluntc 


Diam- 




Volume 


Diam-1 


p. ho ir. 


eter. 


Length, 


p. hour. 


etor. 


Length. 1 p. hour. 


eter. !. 


Cub. ft. 


Ins. 


Feet. 


Cub. ft 


Ins. 


Feet. 


Cub. ft. 


lus. i 


50 


4. 


lOJ 


1,00 J 


u.l'o 


1.000 


2,000 


7. 1 


250 


I. 


20) 


1,.50) 


3.87 


1.000 


0,000 


J . 1 j 


500 


1.97 


GO^ 


2,0M 


5.32 


2,000 


C.OOO 


!)._l 1 


700 


2.60 


lOJO 


2,J0O 


6. .33 


4,00J 


. ,000 


.s.a*) i 



Feet. 
G,00D 
l.OJO 
2.000 
1,000 



To Determine tre Size of Gas Pipe IlKQriuri)— London Ri;le — 
For 200 lights, 2 inch lubo; 12') lights, n^. iuch: 7:) li-Thta, n^ iuch; 50 
lights, 1 inch; 25 lights, % iuch; 12 lights," ^ 2 inch; G lights, % iucli; 2 
lights, 1/4 iuch. 

Diameter and Extreme Length of Tubing and XumpjEr of Burn- 
ers Allowed- American Standard. 



Diam. 


Feet 1 


of 


iu 1 


tube. 


length j 


V4 


6 


% 


20 
30 


40 


% 


50 



No. of Capa"- 

buni- ity ot 

ers. niet'r.^. 



1 
3 

6 
12 
20 



i Slights. 

j5 " 
10 " 
1 20 " 
130 " 



No. of 


Diam.f 


burn- of tub- 


ers. 1 ing. 


G 


1 


10 


IV4 


20 


IV2 


40 


2 


GO 





;th| No. ("fjCapac- No. of 
burn- ity of burn- 
feet, era. imet'rs ! ei's. 



L'ng 
ill 



70 
100 
150 
200 



35 

GO 

100 

200 



45 li'ts. 
GO •• 
100 " 



00 
120' 
230 



Diameter and Length of Pipe from the Main, together with 

THE Number of Lights allowed in hie Gas Service 

for Lamps.* 





Dia- 1 




tauce ! 


No. of 


from 1 


lamps. 


mam in 




fviet. . 


2 


40 


4 


40 


G 


60 



Diam- 
eter of 
pipe. 



% 

% 



No. of 
lamps. 



10 
lo 

20 



Dis- 
tance 
from 
main iu 
feet. 



100 
130 
150 



Diam- 
eter of 
pipe. 



•^4 
1 

IV4 



No. of 
lamps. 



25 
30 



Dis- 
tance 
front 

main 
iu ft. 



180 
200 



Diam- 
eter of 
pipe. 



1% 

IV2 



III experiments conducted bv Mr. Pattinson, analytical chemist 

whn^w fh T ^''''''' ^'' ''''"^ -'-^^'^ ^^Slit eqnivalentto 17^ candles; 
« iile, AMth the same quantity of gas, some burners gaye only 33 
others oh, 6, 8, and 9| candle light. ^ *' 

"«n^b*l*^'®i'^"if '^•^•.'i^''"''"''''''^"''/ •''/«•'' *^^e English law enacts that 
such gas shall with respect to its purity, l^.e so far free from am- 
monia and sulphuretted hydrogen that it shall not discolor either 
turmeric paper or paper imbued with acetate or carbonate of lead 
>vheu these tests are exposed to a current of gas, issuing for one miu- 



536 FACTS FOR GAS COMPANIES AND CONSUMEliS. 

nte under a pressure of five-tenths of an inch of water, and shall not 
contain more than 20 grains of sulphur in auy form in 100 cubic ft. of 
gas." The following enumeration shows the illuminating power of 
the common gas used in various cities and towns in Great Britain, as 
determined by Prof. Frankland, in accordance with the Government 
ftiindard: London, 12 candles, Liverpool, 22, Manchester, 22, Car- 
lisle, 16, Birmingham, 15, Edinburgh, 28, Glasgow, 28, Hawick, 30, 
Aberdeen, 35, Inverness, 25, Greenock, 28.5, Paisley, 30,3. In Berlin, 
it is 15.5, Paris, 12.3, Vienna, 9; and in the United States it varies 
from 12 to 18 candles, computing by the English standard. Gas 
nianufa( tured from cannel coal emits a light the standard of which is 
equal to 20 candles. This gas, in London, is usually supplied to the 
public buildings and the residences of the wealthy. Loudon has now 
(1876) 5,000 miles of gas mains, 54,000 street lamps, which burn 
3,000,000 cubic feet of gas each night ; on the lighting of the lamps 
and other lights the deoxydation of the atmosphere caused thereby is 
equivalent to the addition of 500,000 inhabitants to the population. 

The illuminating value of gas is enormously enhanced by causing 
it, after it has passed through the meter, to enter a Carbonizer or 
Carbureter, containing gasoline, or other light oil, Avhere it becomes 
saturated and enriched by the absorption of the carbonaceous fumes 
and vapors generated from the oil previous to emission into the ser- 
vice pipes of the building. The apparatus ought to be of sufficient 
size, and should, in its construction and location, combine every 
available appliance to ensure safety, strength, simplicity, and ease of 
manageuient, while presenting the largest possible surface for the 
proper evaporation of its contents- The economy of this carbureted 
gas is such that a tw^o-foot burner emits the light of five feet of com- 
mon gas, while the direct saving effected on the consumption of the 
latter, varies, according to the quality of the gas used, from 33 to 43 
per cent. Hydrogen, an essential component of coal gas, is the 
lightest substance in nature, being 15 times lighter than air, and 12,000 
times lighter than water, and requires for perfect combustion, 8 
times its weight, or half its volume of oxygen ; in its passage through 
the carbureter above described, it is simply the medium or vehicle to 
transmit the particles of valorized carbon from the generator to the 
burner, where on ignition it attracts to itself a sufficient portion of 
the surrounding oxygen, etc., to effect illumination, ^yhen 12 lights 
with 5 foot burners are required to furnish the desired light from 
common gas, 6 lights, with 3 foot burners and carbureted gas, is 
found to be all sufficient for the same purpose. 

Gasoline being almost a pure carbon, may be transmitted in the 
vaporized form in combination with the coal gas, direct from the gas 
works to the consumer. The Superintendent of the West Pittsburg, 
Pa., Gas Works, reports a product of 603,600 cubic feet of 20 candle 
cas from TObbls. benzine, 72 gTavity, costing $1.75 per bbl., being a 
result of 8,622 feet per bbl., at a cost, including material, labor, fuel, 
etc., of about 32 cents per 1000 cubic feet. Crude petroleum and 
heavy oil from the refineries, including gasoline, benzine, etc., were 
all tested and used with the greatest ease, the vaporizing or carbon- 
izing process being produced by means of superheated or other steam 
passing through a' coil of pipe inside a ttvnk or still contauiing the oil. 
Proportions used were: 14 candle gas. 50 per cent, oil gas, 30 per cent 
air, 15 per cent. It is worthy of note that the unusually large per- 



FACTS FOR GAS COMPANIES AND CONSUMERS. 537 

centage of air did not perceptibly diminish the illuminating power of 
the compound, used with common coal gas, 15 per cent, of air would 
have produced great obscurity in the resultant light. 

Owing to the cheapness of petroleum and its products, several 
towns have commenced its exclusive use for the production of illu- 
mmating gas, and find it much cheaper and better every way than 
the gas produced from coal. In Pittsburg, Pa., and elsewhere, sev- 
eral enterprising firms have takeu a notable step hi utilizing natural 
gas, which is conveyed in some instances many miles through pii)a*< 
from the wells, and is used in the manufacture of iron, for illumina- 
tion, the generation of steam power, etc. The gas, manufactured in 
nature's alembic, is most probably generated by the action of subter- 
ranean heat operating on an ocean of volatile ciirbonaceous matter at 
a great depth in the earth, from which it frequently issues w ith ter- 
rific noise and irresistable force ou the penetration of the crust by 
drilling or otherwise. 

Gas machines for generating gas from gasoline are now in exten- 
sive use for lighting factories, dwellmgs, offices, etc. A good illus- 
tration of a most meritorious invention of this class can be seen on the 
next page. The gas made by this machine, known as carbivetted air 
gas, is obtained by the impulsion of common air, by means of an air- 
pump, into a carbureter containing gasoline. In this receptacle the 
air becomes saturated and impregnated Avith the carbonaceous vapors 
from the gasoline, and, impelled by the action of the air-pump, it 
transmits its burden: to the burners through the sersace pipes of the 
building, yielding a beautiful, ricli, bright flame, conceded to be fully 
equal to that evolved by the best co.al gas, being free from sulphur- 
ous compounds and other impu.ities. Nearly one thousand of these 
machines are now in successful operation in the United States, Can- 
ada, etc., and the saving effected by them is almost incredible. The 
proprietors of the National Drover's Hotel, cor. 100th Street and 
3d Avenue, New York, certify that their gas bill for one year, with a 
200 light Gas Machine, was only ^550, the light obtained being every 
way more desirable, and far superior to that formerly supplied by 
the" city gas " at an annual cost of nearly $1,400. 
Diameter and Extreme Length of Pipe and Number of 

Burners allowed for Carburetted Gas, Served bv Gas 

Machine. ( Gilbert & Barker). 

Size of pipe. Greatest number of burners 

to be supplied. 

. § inch. ... 2 

J " . . . 4 

. I " ... 15 

1 " . . . 25 

. li " ... 40 

l| " . . . 70 

. 2 " ... 140 

2i " . . . 225 

. 3" " . . .300 

4 " . . . 500 

As to the quality ot carburetted air gas it possesses an illuminating 
power of from 16 to 20 candles, being nearly equal to cannel gas, and 
is characterized by perfect combustion, ease of lighting, large volume 
of flame, and perfect combination. 



Greatest number of feet 


to be 


run. 


20 feet . 


30 




50 


" . 


70 




100 


" . 


150 




200 


" . 


300 




400 


" 


500 





538 



GAS MACHINE. 




ox GAS METERS, &C. 



539 



Classificatiox of Hydrocarbons. — The grade usually ac- 
cepted by distillers stands as follows : All above 88° of Baume's 
hydrometer is styled chimogeiie, from 88° to 70° gasoline, from 70° 
to G0° naphtha, from 60° to 50° benzine, from 50° to 35° kerosene, 
from 35° to 28° lubricating oil. 

Ox Gas Meters — In distinguishing between dry and wet meters, tlie 
construction of the former is briefly as follows : In a gas-light me- 
tallic box are placed 2 or 3 bellows like vessels, which instead of being 
iufiated by air, are inflated by the gas entering from the service jiipes. 
When inflated to some extent an arrangement of sjiruigs and levers, 
forces the gas out of the bellows again into the exit-pipe leading to 
the burners. The cubic capacity of the chambers (as the bellows like ar- 
rangements are called), having been accurately adjusted, the move- 
ments of their walls is communicated to wheel-work, wliich being 
connected with dials, indicate in tens, hundreds and thousands, the 
consumption of gas in cubic feet. 




Fig. 1. Fig. 1. 

Dry meters are preferred on account as well of not being liable to 
be affected by frost as of not causing the sudden extiuguishing of the 
gas-light for want of watei* as may occur Avith wet meters. "Wet 
meters are constructed upon a plan devised in 1817, by Clegg, and im- 
proved by Crossley, and others. Figs. 1, 2, 3 and 4, are drawings of 
this kind of meter, which consists in the first place of an outer cylin- 
drical box of cast iron, closed on all sides. In this box is placed a 
drum of pure block-tin, divided into 4 compartments, bearing upon a 
bell-metal axis, and immersed for rather more than half its circum- 
ference in water. By the pressure of the gas, and the ensuing de- 
pression of the water, the drum revolves, each of its compartments 
becoming alternately filled with and emptied of gas. On the axis of 
the drum is an endless screw, which by mechanical means is connected 
with the wheel-work of the dials. The drum is very accurately adjusted, 
so that at every complete revolution a certain cubic quantity of gas 
passes through and is registered. Fig. 1 exhibits the apparatus with 



540 



ON GAS METERS, &C. 



the front plate removed; Fig. 2 shows the side of the meter; Fig. 3 is 
sectional plan; and Fig. 4 is a section through the box ; a isthelwx 
a the drum, b its axis, c the eudless screw ; bearing in the wheel d, and 
carryiug b}' means of e the movement of the drumon to the wheel-work- 
of tiie dials;/" .7 is the inlet pipe for the gas, which liowsinto the valve; 
box, /i and passing by the valve, i (kept open as long as the met^r 
contains sufficient water for action), flows through the bent tube, / 
into the bulged cover of the drum, or technically antechamber m, 




Fig. 




Fig. 4. 



and thence into the several compartments of the drum, Hence the 
gas enters the space n, to which is fitted the outlet pipe, o i is the 
valve; p the float; q the fumiel tube for fillmg the meter with water; 
r the waste water cistern ; s the plug by which the waste water may be 
run off. As long as no gas buniers are in use, the meter connected 
with them is inactive ; but whea the gas is burnt the drum rotates, and 
by its communication with the wheel-work registers the quantity of 
gsis consumed. Instead of filling wet meters with water, they may 
be filled with glycerine, which does not freeze nor evaporate, and 
they should be set perfectly level. 

Water Gas. — The manufacture of water gas essentially consists 
in forcing steam through iron or fire clay retorts filled with red-hot 
charcoal or coke. The steam is decomposed, yielding a mixture of 
liydrogeu, carbonic oxide, and carbonic acid gases, with a small quan- 
tity of marsh-gas. The purified gas, consisting essentially of carbonic 
oxide and hydrogen, is, although not luminous when burnt by itself, 
suitable for illuminating purposes under the following conditions: 
1. By placing on the burners small platinum cylinders which, by be- 
coming white-hot, yield a stiong light — Geugembre's and Gil-ard's 
plan. 2. By impregnatmg the gas with vapors of hydro-carbons, as 
above described, the original idea being due to Jobard (1832), of 
Brussels. 

(lAs Wells. — Although these remarkable wells are quite numerous 
in Pennsylvania, they are by no means confined to that locality.. In 
the neigliborhood of Fredoiiia, XewYork, a native perma)ieut source 
of gas exists, which having been accidentally discovered by tho 



GAS LIGHTING, GAS ENGINES, &C. 541 

pulling down of a mill situated on the banks of the river Canadaway, 
has been, by boring the bituminous limestone, enlarged, and a gas 
holder constructed. The native gas now serves the pur^iose of illumi- 
nating the locality. In the Szlatina salt njine, in Hungary, illuminat- 
ing gas is constiintly evolved, at a depth of 90 metres, in grejtt quan- 
tities, and subserves the purpose of lighting up the mine. The Rev. 
Mr. Iiubert, who, as a missionary, has travelled through China, states 
tliat in the province of Szu Tchhouan, where many bore-holes for rock 
salt have been made to the depth of about 1500 to KiOO feet, gas is 
l)ermanently emitted and conveyed in bamboo tubes to places where 
it is used for lighting and heating purposes, more especially the heat- 
ing of salt-pans in which the brine is evaporated. In Central Asia, 
and near the Caspian Sea, there are, at several localities, so-called 
infernal fires, Avhich are due to the constant evolution of gas from 
the soil. Similar phenomena exist at Arbela, in Central Asia, at 
Chitta-Gong, in Bengal, and other places. 

About 1780, Earl Dundonald made experiments on gas lighting at 
Culross Abbey; but it should be observed regarding these experiments 
tliat they were made with the view of obtaining tar, the gas evolved 
by tlie distillation of the coals being regarded as a curiosity. The 
real inventor of practical gaslighting is William Murdock, who, in 
1792, lit his shops at Redruth, Cornwall, Avith gas obtained from coals. 
Tlie first more extensive gas-work was established in 1802, bj^ Mur- 
dock, at the Soho Foundry, ne; r Birmingham, the property of the 
celebrated Boulton & Watt. In 1803 he illuminated two cotton mills 
in Manchester the same way. 

Gas Engines. — In Lenoir's gas engine, noAv much employed in 
France, the source of power is the expansion arising from the explo- 
si(m of gas. Air and gas are admitted to a cylinder in the proportion 
of 11 to 1; a spark from a galvanic battery is sent through it; the 
si)ark explodes the mixture, and the expansion consequent on this 
explosion drives a piston to the other end of the cylinder. Mechanism 
does all the rest; opens a slide valve to permit exit to the exploded 
mixture, drives the piston back by the momentum of a fly-Avheel, opens 
tubes for the admission of neAv air and gas, establishes connection 
again with the battery, and prepares for a renewal of the action, and 
so on continuously. These engines are costly in the first instance, 
and many precautions are necessary to prevent them being overheated ; 
but they require no fireman, and are rather cheaper to Avork than 
steam-engines; consequently they are much employed for 2 to 4 horse- 
power iDurposes. 

Products of a Cord of Pitch Pine obtained by Distil- 
lation. — Charcoal, 50 bushels; Ilhnninatinr/ Gas, about 1000 cubic 
feet; Illvminatincf Oil and Tar, 50 gals.; Rosin l^bbls. ; Pyrolifpieovs 
Acid, 100 sals. ; Spirits Turpentine, 20 gals. ; Tar^l bbl. ; Wood Spirit, 
5 gals. — Haswell. 

To Mend Iron Retorts. —Fire clay 15 lbs., saleratus, 1 lb., with 
Avater sufficient to make a thick paste. Apply to the broken part of 
the retort while at a good working heat, then cover it Avith fine coal 
dust, and charge the retort for Avorkiug. 

To Stop Leaks in Clay Retorts When at Working Heat :— 
Five parts fire clay, 2 parts white sand, 1 part of borax pressed and 
ground. Mix the Avhole together Avith as much Avater as may be ne- 



542 " MACHINISTS, engineers', <!bC., RECEIPTS. 



essaiy to bring it to the consistence of putt}-, Iloll it in the hands to 
a proper length and a^^ply it o\'er the crack, pressing it with a long 
spatula into the crack. 

To Remove Deposit of Carbon from Clay Retorts. — Leave 
the retort uncharged for 48 hours, or as long as can be spared. Put 
the lid on the mouth-piece so as to be closed at top, and open two or 
three inches at the bottom. Take out the stopper from stand pipe, 
so as to allow a current of air to pass through the retorl and oxydize 
the cnrbon ; use no bar. Put m a charge of coal after the retort hag 
L'iu idle the number of hours required, and when it is withdrawn the 
carbon comes with it. 

To Prevent Gas Meters Fro:^! Freezing. — Half a i^int of good 
glycerine "is said to prevent the freezing of 1 gal. water, though at 
least double the proportion is preferable in the country, whatever 
the temperature in the winter may happen to be. 



^"^y^^^o, ^^^^S^O^ \^'^^^0^ 




100 each: 



How To Read The Gas Meter. The figures on the index at the 
right hand denote even hundreds. "Wlien the hand completes tho 
entire circle it denotes ten hundred, and is registered bj^ the hand in 
the centre circle, pointing to one — each figure in the centre circle 
being a thousand, this entire circle being ten thousand ; and is re- 
gistered on the index of the left hand circle by the hand, there de- 
noting by each figure, ten thousand. 

The quantity of gas which passes through the meter, is ascertained 
by reading from the index at the time the amount is required to be 
known, and deducting therefrom the quantity shown by the index at 
a previous observation. 

If the whole is registered by the liands on the three circles above, 
it indicates 49.900 

Amount at previous observation, as shown by the dotted 
"lines 42.500 

Shows amount which passed through since last taken off 7.400 

The register at all times shows the quantity that has passed through 
since the meter was first set, by deducting from which the amount 
that has been paid for (without any regard to the time when,) 
shows that the difference remains unpaid. 

To Purify Gas. — The purifier is to be filled Avith millv: of lime, 
made by mixing 1 part of slaked lime with 25 parts of water. A very 
great improvement in the i3urification of gas has been effected by 
Mr. Staffer, of England, by the employment of hydrated clay along 
with the lime employed for this purpose. Hydrated clay unites with 



MACniN'ISTS, engineers', SiC, KECEirXS. 543 

the ammonia of the gas as with a base, and, at tlic same time with its 
sulphuret of ciirbon as an add, and thus removes botii of these nox- 
ious impurities from the gas exposed to its inlhience. It assists also, 
in conjunction witli tlic liuie, in removmg tiirry vapor and other 
■nipurities from the gas. The iUuminating power of the gas is posi- 
tively increased by the clay ])urilication from 22 to 33=^ per cent. 
Latterly, use is made of hydrated sesquioxideof iron for purifying gas. 

To Avoid AVastk ok Gas. — Turn the gas partly off at tlie meter ; 
much gas is burned to Avaste by too great ])ressure in certjiin localities. 
In buildings of an.y size a good regulator will soon pay for itself. To 
stop the leaJccif/e of f/as. Turn oil the gas back of the meter ; then 
take out (a screw driver is all the tool required) the ]ilug. Next light 
a wax, sperm, or j^aiaffine candle, and drop the melted wax, sjierm, 
or paraffine upon the surface of tlie plug, till it is covered witii a thin 
layer. Next, screw in the tap, and in nine cases out of ten the leak 
will be stop]ied, and remain stop])ed. 

To Re:\ikdy Scatteuing Shot Guxs. — The only remedy known 
to gunsmiths is by choke-boring, that is, boring from the breech of 
the gun, so as to have a graclual taper toward;* the nuizzle. This 
metliod of boring greatly improves the shooting qualities of the gun, 
as the charge concentrates at the muzzle. Large shot are more apt to 
Kcatter than fine, but this depends on the bore of the gun. A largo 
bored gun does not shoot fine shot so well as medium. A small 
bored, gun throws fine shot with greater force than a large bored 
cue. As a general thing, a small bored gun is not adapted to large 
f:h()t, as it does not chamber them well. Tlie length of gun also dc- 
jicnds on the size of bore — 28 or 30 implies for a gun of from 10 to 14 
gauge ; 30 to 3i, of gmis from 8 to 10 ; 20 to 28, of guns of 15 to 
18 gauge. 

BuoNzixr. Teuid fou Gcxs. — Nitric acid, sp. gr. 1.2 ]iarts: nitric 
ether, alcohol, muriate of iron, each 1 part; mix, then add sulphate 
of copper, 2 parts, dissolved in water, 10 i)arts. 

Bluing ox Kevolveks a>'d Gun Uap.iiet.s is performed by 
simply heatmg the piece to be blued in powdered charcoal over a firo 
until the desired color is obtained. 

Fine Blue Finish for Gun Baiikel<3. — Apply nitric acid and let 
it eat into the iron a little ; then the latter will be covered with a 
thin film of oxide. Clean the barrel, oil and burnish. A very fine 
appearance is given to gun barrels by treating tliem with dilute 
nitric acid and vinegar, to which has been added suli)hate of 
copper. The metallic copper is deposited irregularly over the iron 
surface ; wash, oil and rub with a hard brush. 

BiiowNiNG FOR Gun Barrels. — Spirits of nitre, 1 lb. : alcohol, 1 
lb.; corrosive sublimate. 1 oz. ; mix in a bottle, and cork for use. 
Directions: polish the barrel perfect; then rub it with quick lima 
with a cloth, Avhich removes grease and dirt; now apply the brown- 
ing fluid Avith a clean white cloth, apply one coat, and set it in a warm 
dark place for from 10 to 20 hours, until a red rust forms on it; then 
card it down with a guumaker's card, and rub off Avith a clean clotlu 
Repeat the process if you wish a dark shade. 

Browning fob Twist Barrels.— Spirits of nitre, | oz. ; tincture 
of steel, 5 oz. ; or use the unmedicated tincture of iron if the tincture 
of steel cauuot be obtained; black brimstone, ^ oz. ; blue vitriolj ^ 



544 MACHINISTS, engineers', etc., RECEirTS. 

oz. ; corrosive sublimate, | oz. ; nitric acid, Idram; copperas, ^ oz.; 
mix Avitli 1^ pinta rain water, and hottlc for use. This istobeaj)- 
plied the same as the first ; it causes the twist of the barrel 
to be visible after api)licatiou, a quality -which the other liquid does 
not possess. 

BiiowxixG Composition for Gun Barrels. — 1. Blue vitriol, 4 
oz. ; tincture of muriate of iron, 2 oz. ; water, 1 qt ; dissolve, and add 
aquafortis and sweet spirits of nitre, of each, 1 oz. 2. Blue vitriol 
and sweet spirits of nitre, of each 1 oz. ; aquafortis, ^ oz. ; water, 1 
pint. To be used in the same manner as previously described in this 
work. 

VAR^^s^ asd Polish for Gun Stocks. — Gum sheUac, 10 ozs. ; 
gum sandarac, 1 oz. ; Yenice turi^entinc, 1 dr. ; 98 per cent, alcoliol, 
1 gal.; shake the jug occasionally for a day or two, .and it is ready 
lor use. Apply a few coats of this to your guu stocks, polish by rub- 
bing smooth, and your work is complete. 

lioRiNO Gun Barrels. — Take a piece of rod, cast steel, | inch 
smaller than the interior of the barrel, and a few inches longer, beat 
one end up something larger than the size of the bore, then turn or 
file it in the sh.ape of an egg, leaviug the swell, or centreing part 
l-20th of an incli larger than the bore. With a saw file, cut longi- 
tudinal cuts, ^ inch apart, laying them the same angle as a rose bit 
countersiuk, taking care not to injure the periphery of tlie tool; 
harden and temper to straw color. 

Da3iascl's Twist and STUB-T^nsT Gun-Barret.s. — The twisted 
barrels are made out of long ribbands of iron, wound spirallj"- around 
a mandril, and welded on their edgesby jumping them on the ground, 
or ratlier on an anvil embedded therein. The plain stab barrels are 
made in this manner, from iron manufactured from .a bundle of stub- 
nails, welded together, and dra^ai out into ribbands, to insure tlio 
possession of a material most thoroughly and intimately worked. 
The Damascus barrels are made from a mixture of stub-nails and 
clippings of steel in given proportions, puddled together, made iutoa 
bloom, and subsequently passed through all the stages of the maiui- 
facture of iron, in order to obtain an iron that shall be of an unequal 
quality and hardness, and therefore display different colors and 
markmgs wheu oxidized or browned. Other twisted barrels are 
made hi the like manner, except that the bars to form the ribbands 
are twisted whilst red hot, like ropes, some to the right, others to the 
left, and which are sometimes laminated together for greater divers- 
ity. They are subsequently agam drawn into the "ribbands and 
wound upon the mandril, and frequently two or three differently pre- 
I iiared i^ieces are placed side by side to form the complex and onia- 
mental figures for the barrels of fowling-pieces, described as stub- 
twist, icire-tioist, Damascus-tioist, &c. Sometimes Damascus gun- 
barrels are formed by an-augmg twenty-five thin bars of iron and 
mild steel in alternate layers, welding the whole together, drawing 
I it down small, twisting it like a rope, and again weldmg three such 
ropes, for the formation of the ribband, which is then spirally twisted 
■ to form a barrel, that exhibits, when finished and acted upon by 
acids, a diversified, laminated appearance, resembluig, when proi)- 
erly managed, an ostrich feather. 

Damaskeening.— This is the art, now in a great measure lost, oi 



MACuixisTS, engineers', &c., eeceipts. 545 

producinc: a watcrod or wavy appearance on the steel sword-blades, 
armour, &c., or of iulaying aud eucriisting steel -with gold and silver, 
originally practised at Damascus. Various methods of damaskeen- 
ing were practised, but the most common seem to have been those of 
■welding two different kinds of steel, or steel and iron, together, or of 
cutting lines on the surface of tlie steel and lillhig them Avith gold or 
silver, which Avas either forced into the incised lines aud brought to a 
level Avitli the surface of the steel, or remained in relief above it. 
When the former method was used, a light pattern, generally in many 
line.'', was produced on a dark ground, or vice versa, and the junction 
of the metals caused the pattern to run through the entire thick- 
ness of the blade, so that it could not bo obliterated even by grind- 
ing. 

"On "Wood Crrrs and Neav Wood Types. — ^AVood cuts should never 
be Avashed with lye or Avater, benzine or camphene only should bo 
used. Large Avood letters Avhen new should be soaked iu .a mixture 
of turpentine and thin boiled linseed oil over night, and taken out of 
the bath iu the morning, and then Aviped cle;\u. Let them stand 
awhile to absorb Avhat oil, etc., may not have been removed by 
wiping, then ink them well. After they stand a few hours Avash theni 
with benzine. 

Printers' Rollers. — JVb. 1. Llach Composition, very durable and 
elastic. Genuine Irish or Buffalo glue lOV lbs., black sugar cane, or 
best maple molasses, 1 gal., purified India rubber shavings, 1 lb., 
Carolina tar, 2 ozs., glycerine, 12 ozs., strong Ainegar. 4 ozs. Soak 
the glue over night and drain in the morning by means of a covered 
colander. Boil molasses and skim for 20 minutes. Add the rubber 
shavings and stir until it combines Avitli the molasses, add the glue 
and boil G or 7 minutes, and pour. If purified rubber cannot be i^ro- 
cured add 1^ lbs. more glue and •! ozs. more glycerine. No. 1 glue, 2 
lbs. ; Baeder's glue 2 lbs. ; best sugar h.ouse molasses, 1 gal. ; gly- 
cerine, ^ i)t. For Winter use, reduce eacli glue ^ to § of a lb. Soak 
the glues Avrapped up separately iuAvnolen cloths about three hours. 
BoU the molasses 45 or 50 minutes, skimming thoroughly. Then add 
tlie glues drained of superfluous water. Boil the Avhole for 15 or 20 
minutes, add the glvcerine, boil and stir 3 to 5 minutes then pour off. 
JVo. 3. Stro7ig Middle Weather Boilers. . Temp. 00° to 70° Fahr. 
Coopers best glue, Sh lbs. ; extra syrup, 2 gals. ; glycerine, 1 pt. ; 
Venice turpentine, 2 ozs. Steep the glue in rain water until pliant, 
aud drain it AveU. Then melt it over a moderate fire, but do not 
" cook it." This wiU take fxom 15 to 25 mmutes. Next put iu the 
syrup, and boil f of an hour, stirring it occasionally and slamming off 
impurities arising to the surface. Add the glycerine and turiientine 
a few minutes before removing from the fire, and pour slowly. 
Slightly reduce or increase the glue as the weather becomes colcler or 
warmer. 

SiLA'ERiNG Solution for Electrotype Plates. — Xrtratc of 
silver 2 drs. ; distilled water, 37 drs. Dissolve, and add sal ammon- 
iac, 1 dr. ; hydrophosphite of soda, 4 drs. ; precipitated chalk. 4 drs. 
Agitate the preparation occasionally for 12 hours, when it will be 
leady for use. Apply Avith a fine sponge. 

PitiNTiNG ON Glass.— AFrenchman,"^n.amcd"Wilbaux, has taken out 
a jiatent to use an elastic type for printing on glass, with fluorspar 



546 MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 

rendered {idhesivo by some siicli material as mucilage or printers* 
ink ; sulphuric acid of suitable temperature is then allowed to act on 
that portion of the glass. Tlie hydrofluoric acid generated in tlii.-* 
way would etch the glass on tlie places prmtod on. When completed, 
the whole is washed off with warm water and lye. 

Liquid^ fob Brightening CoiMaiON Qualities of Black ob 
Colored Inks. — Demar yaruish, 1 oz. ; balsam fir, h oz, ; oil ber- 
gamot, 25 drops ; balsam of copaiba, 35 drops ; creosote, 10 drops ; 
copal varnish, 60 drops. Use in smaU quantities. The whites of 
f icsli eggs are also brighteners of colored hiks, but they must be ai>- 
plied a little at a time, as they dry very hard, and are apt to take 
away the suction of rollers if used for any extended period. 

Good Reducing Dryer. — Brown's (genuine) Japan. Use in small 
quantities. Ilardeninr/ Gloss For Inks. — Giun Arabic dissolved in 
alcohol or a weak dilution of oxalic acid. Use in small quantities, 
and mix with the ink as the latter is consumed. 

To GIVE Dark Inks a Bronze or Changeable Hue. — ^Dissolve 
Ih lbs. gum shellac in 1 gal. Go per cent alcohol or cologne spirits for 
21 hours. Then add 14 ozs. aniline red. Let it stand a few hours 
longer, when it will be ready for use. Add this to good blue, blade, 
or other dark ink, as needed in quantities to suit, when if carefully 
done they wiU be found to have a rich bronze or changeable hue. - 

Quick Dryer for Inks used on Bookbinders' Cases. — Bees- 
wax, 1 oz., gum arable (dissolved in sufficient acetic acid to make a 
tliin mucilage), ^ oz. , Brown Japan, ^ oz. Incorporate with 1 lb, of 
good Cut ink. To Renew a Hard Boiler. — ^^Vash the roller carefully 
with lye cover the surface with a thin laj-er of molasses and lay it 
aside till the next morning, then wash it with water, and let it hang 
till dry enough for using. 

Savage's Printing Ink. — ^Pure balsam of copaiba, 9 ozs. ; lamp- 
black, 3 ozs. ; indigo and Prussian blue, each 5 drams ; Indian red, £ 
oz. ; yellow soap, 3 ozs. Mix, and grind to tl^e utmost smoothness. 

Printing Ink. — Set on a fire in a large iron pot 12 gals, of clear 
linseed oil, boil, and stir until it smokes, then ignite it, remove it from 
the fire and let it burn until a sami)le will draw into stiings between 
the fingers. Put the lead on to extinguish the flame, then add 1 lb. 
of resin to each qt. of oil ; dissolve, and add gradually in slices !£ lbs. 
of soap; heat the pot until the solution is complete, Avhen the varnish 
is ready. Two sorts are kept, one thick, and the otlier thin, so as to 
mix when required; the difference is caused in the boiling and firhig 
being kept up for different periods. For large printing type a thin is 
required, as thick ink would only print in patches ; for small type very 
stiff ink is used, to prevent it rmmiug off. Yor making black inlc, 
mix together mineral lampblack, 8 lbs. ; vegetable black, 7 lbs. ; in- 
digo and Prussian blue of each 5 ozs. Indian red, 2 ozs. ; grind this 
with sufficient varnish, gradually adding as the grinding goes on. 
For colored ink use colored pigments, according to tlie required shade. 

Gum for Backing Labels. — Mix pure dextrine with boiling 
water until it assumes the consistency of ordinary mucilage. Apply 
with a full bodied, evenly made camel s hair brush. The jiaper should 
not be too thin or unsized. It will dry quickly and adhere when 
slightly wet. 

Prof. Bottger's Portable Ink. — Make the strongest possible 



MACHINISTS, engineers', AC, RECEIPTS. 547 

solution of aniline Ll.iclc in water or alcohol, and soak thick unsized 
j)aper thoroughly to iuibibe mixture, and then dry. I'ut in a botttlo 
and add water as required. 

CoLOKixG A>T) Sizing of Pater. — Paper is adulterated with plas- 
ter of Paris, sometimes to the extent of 30 per cent., to increase the 
weight. Brown paper is mixed Avitli oclire and clay, the manufac- 
turers say, to give it a nice brown color, but doubtless, the true reason 
is, to make it heavier. "White soap, gkie, starch, and dissolved resin 
with a few pounds of alum, form a good size for printing paper to mix 
with the pulp. Pour or five pounds oxide of cobalt (smalts), give a 
beautiful blue tinge to line writing paper, wheii added to 100 lbs. of 
tlie rags. AVrithig paper is sized by being dipped 5 or G sheets at a 
time into a composition made from skins and other animal substances, 
a large pile of it being afterwards pressed to force out the superfluity, 
although machines now exist making fine Avriting jiaper, sized with 
gelatine, dried, and cut into sheets, at the rate of GO feet a minute in 
length, and 70 inches wide. Almost any desired shade may be im- 
parted to paper by the use of several of the coloring pigments mention- 
ed on page 132. 'it requires great skill and judgment to rightly jiro- 
portion the various ingredients for coloring the pulp. 

To Pulp Straw i or Paper JMaking. — The straw is placed in a 
boiler, with a large quantity of strong alkali, and with a pressure of 
steam equal to from 120 to 150 iwunds per square inch, the extreme 
heat being attained in superheating the steam after it leaves the 
boiler, by passing it through a coiled pipe over a fire, and thus the 
silica is destroyed, and the straw softened to pulp, which, after being 
freed from the alkali by working it in cold water, is subsequently 
bleached and beaten in the ordinary rag machine. 

To Transfer Pictures from Paper to Wood for Re-en- 
graving. — Soak the print in a saturated solution of alcohol and white 
caustic potash to solteu the ink, then transfer to the block under rol- 
ler pressure. 

To Transfer Prints, &c. — ^Take of gum sandarac, 4 ozs. ; mastic, 
1 oz. ; Venice turpentine, 1 oz. ; alcohol, 15 ozs. Digest in a bottle, 
frequently shaking, and it is ready for use. Directions : use, if i)os- 
sible, good plate glass of the size of the picture to be transferred, go 
over it with the above varnish, beginnmg at one side, press down the 
picture firmly and evenly as you proceed, so that no air can possibly 
lodge between ; put aside, and let dry perfectly, then moisten the 
paper cautiously with water, and remove it liiecemeal by rubbing 
carefully with the fingers; if managed nicely, a complete transfer 
of the picture to the glass will be effected. 

Paper for Draughtsmen, &c. — Powdered tragacanth, 1 part; 
water, 10 parts; dissolve and strain through clean gauze; tiien lay it 
emoothljr uponi the paper previously stretched upon a board. This 
ixaper will take either oil or water colors. 

To Apply DECALCOnnNTE Pictures. — ^Varnish the pictures care- 
fully with the prepared varnish (which can be obtained with the pic- 
tures), with an ornamenting pencil,, being careful not to get the var- 
nish on the white paper. In a few minutes the picture will be ready 
to lay on the panel, and the paper can be removed by wetting it, and 
when thoroughly dry, it should be varnished like an oil painting. Br. 
pai-ticular to purchase only these transfer pictures which are cover. 



548 MACHINISTS, ENGIXEEKS', &C., KECEIPTS. 

with .1 gold leaf on the back, for tlicy will sIioav plainly on any 
colored surface, ■while the plain pictures are used only on white or 
light ground. 

ExGRAviNQ ON Wood. — In order to make this subject rightly un- 
derstood wc will state that the log of box is cut into transverse slices, 
1 inch in deptli, in order that the face of the cut may be on a 
level with the surface of tlie j)rinters' type, and receive the same 
amount of pressure; the block is then allowed to dry, the longer the 
better, as it i)revents accidents by Avarping and splitting, which some- 
times happens after the cut is executed, if too green. The slice is ul- 
timately trimmed into a square block, and if the cut is large, it is made 
in various pieces and strongly clamped and secured together. The 
upper surface of tlie wood is carefully prepared, so that no inequal- 
ities may appear upon it, and it is then consigned to the draughts- 
man to receive the drawing. He covers the surface with a light cent 
of Hake Avhite mixed with weak gum water, and the tlimner the coat 
the better for the engraver. The French draughtsmen use an abun- 
dance of flake white, but this is liable to make the drawing rub out un- 
der the engraver's hands, or deceive him as to the depth of line lie is 
cutting in the wood. The old drawings of the era of Durer seem to 
liave been carefully drawn with pen and ink on tlie wood; but the 
modern drawing bemg very finely drawn with the pencil or silver 
pohit is obliterated easily, and there is no mode of "setting" or 
sccuriug it. To obviate this danger the wood engraver covers the 
block with paper, and tears out a small piece to Avork through, oc- 
casionally removmg the paper to study the general effect. It is now 
his business to produce in relief the Avliole of the drawhig ; Avith a 
great variety of tools he cuts away the spaces, hoAvever miimtc, be- 
tween each of the jDcncil Imes, and should there be tints Avanted on 
the draAving to represent sky and water, he cuts such parts of the 
block into a series of close lines, Avhich will, as near as lie can judge, 
print the same gradation of tint; should he find he has not done so 
completely, he can re-enter each line with a broader tool, cutting 
away a small shaving, thus reducing their width and consequently 
their color. Should he make some fatal error that cannot otherwise 
be rectified, he can cut out tlie part in the A\'ood, and Avedge a plug of 
fresh wood in the place, Avhen that j^art of the block can be re-en- 
graved. An error of this kind in a Avood-cut is a A'ery troublesome 
thing; in copper engraA'ing it is scarcely any trouble, a blow AAith a 
hammer on the back Avill obUterate the error on the face, and produce 
a new surfacJe, but in wood the surface is cut entirely away except 
Avhere the lines occur, and it is necessary to cut it deep enough not to 
touch the paper, as it is squeezed through the press upon the lines in 
printing. To aid the general effect of a cut, it is sometimes usual to 
lower the surface of the block before the engraving is executed, in such 
parts as should appear light and delicate; they thus receive a mere 
touch of the paper in the press, the darker parts receiving the whole 
pressure and coming out with double brilliancy. When careful print- 
ing is bestowed on cuts it is sometimes usual to insure this good effect 
by laying thin pieces of card or paper on the tympan, of the shape 
needed, to secure pressure on the dark parts only. 

Die Sinking. — When a die is required for a coin or medals, tho 
engraver takes a piece of soft steel of suitable dimensions, generally 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 549 

3 or 4 inches iu length, and about an inch .greater in diameter tlian 
tlie coin or otlier aiticle required, on this he hollows out the exact 
■form of the desired impression by cutting away the steel by degrees, 
with small, well-tempered, case-hardened tools. As soon as this worlc 
is thoroughly accomplished the steel is hardened by being heated red 
hot in a crucible with charcoal and oil or bone-dust, and then ijlunged 
into cold water. When a great number of coins of oiis sort are re- 
quired, the original die is termed the matrix, and copies are made 
from it by fciking impressions from it in soft steel, which is in relief, 
and is called the i)uncheon, and from which, when it has been hard- 
ened, other dies are produced by pressure exactly similar to the 
matrix, and iu intaglio, which are case-hardened in tlieir turn before 
they are fit to transmit an impression to any metal used for money. 
The metal used for our comage, whether gold, silver, copper, or 
bronze is stamped in a cold and solid state; but medals and casts can 
also be produced by a method called casting en cliche, in which the 
metal is used in a soft state. For this purpose an alloy is used, con- 
sisting of ^ lead, i tin, and ^ bismutji, which fuses readily at the 
boiling i)oiut, 212° Fah. When the metal is soft, resembling paste in 
consistency, the die is placed upon it, and the impression produced by 
a smart blow from a mallet; the surface of the mefail sets instantly, 
from coming into contiict with the cold -die, and thus readily retains 
the form that has been given to it. Copies of medals may be readily 
made in this way, but each face will be obtained in a separate piece, 
and these must be joined to give representations of the coin in a com- 
plete form. Ornamental work is produced iu thin metal for gas fit- 
ting, cornices, parts of cruet-stands, trays, &c., by means of a pair "of 
dies, on one of which the pattern is formed in relief, and on the other 
in i7itaf/lio, the metal being placed between them. 

Rapid. Rule to Reckox Cost of Hay, Coal, &:c.— Multiply 
the number of pounds by half the price per ton, and remove the 
decimal point three places to the left. Example : "What is the cost of 
7G4 lbs. of coal at 814 per ton? Aus. : 85.348. 

Process : 7G4 

14 -f- 2= 7 



5.348 



To MEAsrKE Graix. — Rule. — Level the grain; ascertain the space 
it occupies in cubic feet ; multiply the number of cubic feet by 8, and 
point off one place to the left. 

Example : A box 20 ft. long, 10 ft. wide, and 5 ft. deep, how many 
bushels does the box contain? Ans. : 800 bushels. 

Process : 20x10x5=1000x8 ~ 10=800 

Or, 1000 ft 



800.0 



A?b^c.— Correctness requires tlie addition to every 300 bushels of 1 
extra bushel 



1 ton. 


1 




1 




1 




1 




1 




1 




1 





550 MACHINISTS, ENGINEKRS', &C., RECEIPTS. 

CUBIC WKIGHT TABLE. 

13 cubic feet of marble weigh 

13^ " " " gmnite '' 

34 " " " mahogany" 

39 " " " oak " 

39 '' " " ash 

51 " " " beech 

60 " '< " ehn " 

65 " " " fir " 

An acre of land is 208!^ ft. square, and contains 43,5G0 square feet 
Burning Mirrors.— One oil the most curious speculations is tluit 
of concentrating, or multiplying the heat of the sun, by plain mirrors, 
concave mirrors, or convex lenses. As one plain mirror rellects tho 
heat of the sun, so the reflection of two, three, or more, augment.; 
the heat. In this way Archimedes burnt tho Roman fleet at Syrr.- 
cuse; und. Antheonius, an architect of Constantinople, described the 
method, and so does Leonard l^g(/es, who wrote on it in the reign of 
Elizabeth, and asserts that he fired bodies half a mile distant. JJiif- 
fon combined plane glass mirrors only 6 inches by 8, and with 40 ect 
on fire a tarred beech plank 66 feet distant; with 98 at 120 feet; with 
112 at 138 feet; with 154 at 150 feet; with 168 at 200 feet; and ho 
melted all the metals at 30 or 40 feet. 

Concave burning mirrors have been made of great size and power. 

They concentrate the sun's image at half the focal length. One of 4 

feet diameter, made of copper and tin, melted iron ore in 24 seconds, 

a sixpence in 7^ seconds, a penny in 20 seconds, tin in 3 seconds, cast 

iron in 16 seconds, and slate in 3 seconds. Water boils immediately 

and evaporates, wood flames in a moment, pumice stone becomes 

glass, earth yellow or green glass. Parker made a glass lens of 3 

feet in diameter, with 6 feet 8 inches focus, and 3^ inches thick at the 

centre. It fused slate in 2 seconds, pure gold, platina, nickel and 

cast iron in 3 seconds, pure silver in 4 seconds, pebbles, barytes, and 

lava in 7 seconds, steel and bar iron in 12 seconds, limestone in 55 

seconds, volcanic clay, Cornish moor-stone, and rhomboidal spar in a 

minute. Gold retained its metallic state though exposed for hours. 

Wedge wood's pyrometric-clay ran into white enamel in a few seconds. 

The lunar rays gave no heat. The rays were concentrated about 

4,000 times, if the focus was the \ of an inch in diameter. 

I Trudaine made another, which" in the focus 11 feet, melted steel 

I in 5 minutes, and silver coins in a few seconds. A concave mirror 

I makes a focus of cold from ice, but the focus is negation, like its 

j source, and there is no cold per se more than heat per se. 

To find the focus of a concave mirror, multiply the distance of the 
object bv the radius, and divide by twice the distance iidded to the 
radius. In parallel rays or infinite distance, it is half the radius. The 
size of the image is inversely as the two distances. A simple arrange- 
inent of mirrors has been found useful in the recovery of lost articles 
in wells, mines, &c., by directing the rays of the sun so as to shed a 
powerful light on the missing objects in these otherwise dark or ob- 
scure places. 
Indelible Stencil Inks, 1. Varnish, such as is used for ordi- 



MACHINISTS, EXGIXEERS', &C., KECEirTS. 551 

nary printing ink, 1 lb. ; "black siilplmrct of mercury, 1 lb, ; nitrate of 
siJver, 1 oz. ; sulphate of iron, 1 oz. ; lampblack, 2 tiiblcspoonluls. 
Grind all Avell togetlier; thin Avitli s]it.s. turpentine as desired. 2. 
Sulphate of manganese, 2 paits; lampblack, 1 part; sugar, 4 parts; all 
in line powder and triturated to a paste in a little water. Permanent 
lied. — Vermilion, 4 parts; sulpliate of iron, 1 part; drying oil to mix. 
Any other color will answer besides red. 

Uluf, IiULiX(; Ink. — Good vitriol, 4 ozs. ; indigo, loz.; pulverize 
the indigo, add it to tlie vitriol, let it stand exposed to the air for (3 
days, or until dissolved; then lill the pots with chalk, add fresh gall, 
^ gill, boiling it before use. 

Black Kuling Ink. — Take good black ink, and add gall as for 
blue; do not cork it, as it prevents it from turning black. See 1(5 
different inks on page 215. 

To PiiiNT A riCTUiiE FROM THE PuiNT Itself. — The page or 
picture is soaked in a solution, first of potassa, and then of tartaric 
acid. This produces a pei'fect diffusion of crystals of bitartarate of 
potassa through the texture of the unprinted part of the pai)er. As 
this salt resists oil, the ink roller may now be ]\assed over the sur- 
face, without transferring any part of its contents except to the 
printed part. 

To Clean Old Oil-Paintings. — Dissolve a small quantity of salt 
in stale urine; dip a woollen cloth in the mixture, and rub the paint- 
ings over with it tiU they are clean ; then wash them with a sponge 
and clean water; dry them gradually, and rub them over with a clean 
cloth. Should the diit not be easily removed by the above prepara 
tion, add a small quantity of soft soap, lie very careful not to rub 
the paintings too hard. 

To Renew Old Oil-Paintings. — ^Tlie blackened lights of old pic- 
tures may be instantly restored to their origmal hue by touching them 
with deutoxide of hydrogen diluted with six or eight times its weight 
of Avater. The part must be afterwards washed with a clean sponge 
and water. 

Magic Paper. — Take lard oil, or sweet oil, mixed to the consist- 
ence of cream, with either of tlie following paints, the color of which 
is desired : Prussian blue, lampblack, Venetian red, or chrome green, 
either of which should be rubbed Avith a knife on a plate or stone un- 
til smooth. Use rather thin but firm paper; put on with a sponge, 
and wipe off as dry as convenient; then lay them between uncolored 
paper, or between newspapers, and press by laying books or some 
other flat substance upon them until the suq^lusoil is absorbed, when 
it is ready for use, 

RuiJUER Hand Staivips. — Set up the desired name and address in 
common type, oil the type and place a guard about | inch high around 
the form ; now mix plaster of Paris to the proper consistence, pour in 
and allow it to set. Have your vulcanized rubber all ready, as made 
in long strips 3 inches wide and ^ of an inch thick, cut off the 
size of the intended stamp, remove the plaster castfromthetj-pe, and 

{)lace both the cast and the rubber in a screw press, applying sufficient 
leat to thoroughly soften the rubber, then turn down the screw hard 
and let it i-emain until the rubber receives the exact impression of the 
cast and becomes cold, when it is removed, neatly trimmed with a 
sharji knife, and cemented to the handle ready for use. 



552 MACHINISTS, ENGINEERSV &C.j RECEIPTS. 

To Make Door PiIates. — Cat your glass the right size, and make 
it perfectly clean with alcohol or soap; then cut a strip of tin- foil suf- 
licieutly long and wide for the name, and with a i^iece of ivory or 
other burnisher rub it lengthwise to make it smooth; now wet the 
glass with the tongue (as saliva is the best sticking substance), or if 
tlie glass is very large, use a weak solution of gum arable, or the 
Avhite of an egg in half a i>mt of water, and lay on the foil, rubbing 
it do^vn to the glass with a bit of cloth, then also with the burnisher; 
the more it is burnished the better it will look; now mark the width 
on the foil which is to be the height of the letter, and put on a straight 
edge, and hold it firmly to the foil, and with a sharj) knife cut the 
foU, and take off the superfluous edges; then either lay out the let- 
ters on the back of the foil (so they shall read correctly on the front) 
by your own judgment, or by means of pattern letters, which can be 
l^urchascd for that i)urpose ; cut with the knife, carefully holding 
down the pattern or straight edge, whichever you use; then rub 
down the edge of all the letters with the back of the knife, or edge of 
the burnisher, which i^revents the black paint or japan, which you 
next i)ut over the back of the plate from getting under the foil; hav- 
ing put a line above and one below the name, or a border around the 
plate or not, as you bargain for the job. The japan is made by dis- 
solving asphaltum in just enough turpentine to cut it; apply with a 
brush, as other paint, over the back of the letters, and over the glass 
forming a background. This is used on the iron plate of the frame 
also, putting it on when the plate is a little hot, and as soon as it cools, 
it is dry. A little lampblack may be rubbed into it if you desire it 
any blacker than it is Avithout it. 

Reliable FoiiMUL^ ^0l^ Photographeks. — Xo. 1. Silver Bath for 
Albuinen Paper, for Summer use. — Crj'stal nitrate of silver, 40 grams ; 
nitrate of ammonia, 35 grains ; filtered rain water, 1 oz. ; saturated 
solution bicarbonate of soda, about 8 or 10 drops, or enough to make 
the bath sWjhtly alkaline. No. 2. For lointer use. Nitrate of silver 
2^ ozs. ; nitrate of soda 2 ozs. ; glj'cerme 3 ozs. ; pure water 40 ozs. 
lilake it a little alkaline with aquas ammonia. No. 3. Another Silver 
Bath. Silver, from 40 to 45 grs. (according to tem]ierature ;) nitrate 
of ammonia, 20 grs. ; distilled or ice water, 1 oz. Float 45 seconds to 
1 minute. No. 4. Sal Soda Toning Bath. Distilled or melted ice 
water 04 ozs. ; acid solution chloride of gold, (4 grs. to theoz.)l oz. ; 
saturated solution of sal soda, ^ oz. Make it a full half hour before 
you wish to use it, and during the cold weather use the water slightly 
warm. No. 5. Chloride of Lime Bath. Water, 40 ozs. ; chloride of 
lime, 5 grahis ; chloride of gold, 4 grs. No. G. Bicarbonate of Soda 
Bath. Chloride of gold solution (1 gr. to the oz. of water, ) 1 oz. ; hike 
warm water, IG ozs. ; bicarbonate of soda, (saturated solution,) 10 
minims. Make up fresli every time you prepare to tone. Make half 
an hour before using. Precipitate the gold in the old solutions with 
l>rotosulphateof iron. No. 7 Fixing Bath. Hyposulphite of soda, 
1 pai-t to 8 of water, and if the paper blisters in tlie washing, soap the 
prints f(^r 5 minutes in a solution of common salt. No. 8. Bath far 
Salt in;/ the Paper. Pure rain water, GO ozs. ; chloride of ammonium, 
;:()0 grs. ; gelatine, 120 grs. 

Piioror.KAPii Painting in Oil Colors. — Tims for the "First 
Painting.— Flesu. — White and Light Bed —White, Naples yellow, 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &c., receipts. 553 

nnd Tcrmilion. White, vermilion, and light red. Graij, Pearhj, 
and Half Tints. — AVhite, vermilion, and black. White and terro 
verde. White, black, Indian red, and raw nmber. Deep Shades.—^ 
Li<?ht red and raw umber. — Indian red, lake and black. Carnations. 
— ^White and Indian red (poAverful color). White and rose madder. 
White and lake. Hair. — Lic/ht JJair. — White and yellow ochre. 
White and Roman ochre. White and Vandyke brown for the dark 
])nyts. White and raw nmber for the dark parts. Dark BroicnIIair. 
— Raw and bunit umber. AVhite and raw umber. White and Van- 
dyke brow7i. Tints for the Seco^td and Third Painting. High 
Lif/hts. White and Naples yellow. Carnations. Rose madder and 
Avhite. Indian red, rose, madder, and white. Green Tints. — ^White 
and ultramarine, Avith any of the j-ellows. White and terre verte, 
Avith the addition of a little raw umber. The above green tints may 
be converted into green grays. Graij Tints. — Ultramarme, light red, 
and AA'hite. Indian red, lake, black and Avhite. White, ultramarine, 
Indian red. and raw umber. Pti.tple Tints. — Any of the lalces or red 
madders, AAith ultramarine and white. Powerful Shadow Tints. In- 
dian red, purple lake, and black. Indian red, raw umber, and black. 
Strong Glazing Colors. — Light red and lake. Erown madder. Van- 
dyke brow7i, Indian red, and lake asphaltum. Dr.vperies. — Back 
Ground Colors. — Pearh/. — White, vermilion, and blue. White, 
vermilion, and black. Wliito and black. Gra]/. — ^AVhite, Venetian 
red and black. Yelloio. Yellow oclire and Avliite. Olive. — ^Yellow 
ochre, tcrre verte, and umber. Stone. — Ra.Av umber and yellow. 
Black, white, and niAV umber. Sl'y. — French blue and Avhite. French 
blue, vermilion, and white. FAgcs cf Clouds. — ^YelloAV ochre and 
Avhite. Clouds. — Lidian red, lake, and white. Browu madder, French 
blue, and Avhite. 

PiroTOORAPii Water Colors. — ^Flesh Tints. No. 1. Fair Com" 
plexion. — Light red, a little carmine or vermilion, and Indian yeUow. 
J5o careful in using the latter, and. in the flesh tints of very fciir chil- 
dren, allow the vermilion to predominate ; carnations, rose madder, 
nnd, if the face bo full of color, add a little vermilion to it. 2. Mid- 
dling Complexion. — Much the same as No. 1, saving that the light red 
must be in excess over the other colors — carnations, rose madder, and 
Like. 3 Dark Complexion. — Light red and Indian j'ellow, or light 
red and Roman ochre, and, if the complexion be generally ruddy, you 
may add a little Indian red, but it must be sparingly used, as it is a 
l)0werful color, and likelj^ to impart a purple tone to the flesh. Car- 
nations chiefly lake, but if the complexion be warm, lake and a little 
j-ellow. The carnations for children's portraits are rose madder and 
vermilion, inclining more to the latter tint. Aged persons have roso 
madder, and a little cobalt to give a cold appearance to the color in 
their cheeks and lips. These tints, Nos. 1, 2, and 3, are indispensable 
as general washes, for the puriDose of receiving the other colors, 
which are to be Avorkcd over them to bring up the complexion to the 
liCc._ Uncolored photographic portraits vary so much in tone, that the 
beginner Avill, perhaps, find some difficulty in mixing up the tints for 
the Avashes, He must note that the Avarm-toned ones do not require 
80 much Indian yelloAv as the cold ones do. 

Kerosente or Carhon Oil ]NL\nufacture. — retroleum, or rock 
oil, is a liauid substance, of a dark color, exuding from Iho earth aoad 



554 ]VIACUl>sISTS, EXGIXEEES', »S;C., KECEirTS. 

containing certain liquid and solid hydrocarbons sucli as benzoic, or 
benzine, kerosene, paraffine, asphaltum, &c., in a state of solution, 
in different proportions. It differs greatly in composition, some sam- 
jiles containing solid parafRne and benzole in large quantities, while 
others do not. Petroleum is separated from its diiTerent products by 
careful distillation at different tempeiatures. Tlie crude material is 
first licated in a retort to a temperature of about 100° Fall. This 
causes a light oil of a strong odor to pass over into the condenser. 
The residue is then distilled at about 120° to 100°, the result being 
burning oil. When this is distilled off, steam is forced into the retort 
and a heavy oil, fit for lubricating purposes, comes over, a black, 
tarry mass being left behind. The light oil is now used for mineral 
turpentine, and as a grease solvent. It is often of a dark color, which 
is easily removed by agitation, first with sulphuric acid and afterwards 
with soda-ley and water. In many instances this light oil (benzine) 
is sold for illuminating purposes under the name of Sunlight Oil, 
Combination Burning Fluid, Lightning oil, &c. I knew a gentle- 
man in Philadelphia who paid one man over $3000 for the receipt for 
making, together with the sole right to manufacture, vend and sell, 
a compound of this kind in that city. The curious, or those interest- 
ed, will find thereceipt under thename of the " Northern Light " un- 
der the Grocer's Department in this work. Truth requires me to 
state that this article requires to be handled with great caution when 
used for lighting purposes — many lamentable accidents having re- 
sulted from a careless use of it. The heavy lubricating oil, when 
cooled down to 30° Fall., often yields paraffine in large quantities, 
which is separated by straining and pressure. The asphaltum may bo 
used for pavements, or mixed with gi-ease as a lubricant for heavy 
machinery. The most important product is, however, the burning 
oil, which is now used as a cheap and efficient iUurainating agent 
in nearly every household in this country. An average sample of pe- 
troleum contains, according to W. B. Tegetmeier, 20 per cent, of ben- 
zine or mineral tuips, 55 per cent, of burning oil, 22 per cent of 
lubricating oil, and 8 per cent, of carbonaceous and tarry matter. 

To Deodohize Benzine. — Shake repeatedly with plumbateof soda 
(oxide of lead dissolved in caustic soda), and rectify. The following 
plan is said to be better. Shako repeatedly with fresh portions of 
metallic quicksilver ; let it stand for 2 days, and rectify. 

To PuiiiFiT Petroleum or Kerosene Oil. — ^The distillate or 
crude burning oil is converted into ordinary burning oil by being 
placed into a tank when it is violently agitated by forcing air through 
it, and while thus agitated, 1| to 2 per cent, sulphuric acid is added,, 
after which the agitation is continued 15 or 30 minutes. The oil is 
then allowed to settle, when the acid and impurities are removed, 
and any acid remaining in the oil is neutralized. It is then taken to 
shallow bleaching tanks, where it is exposed to light and air, and al- 
lowed to settle. It is next heated by means of a coil of steam pipe 
running through it, to expel all gaseous vapors which will ignite at 
a temperature below 110° Fahr. The oil is now called a, fire test oil, 
and is ready to be barreled and sent to market. Kerosene oil is de^ 
colonzed, by stirring it up with 1 or 2 per cent, of oil of vitriol, which 
will carbonize the colloi-ing matter, then with some milk of lime or 
goiue other caustic alkali, jscttliug, and re-distilling. 



MACniNISTS, EXGI^'EERS , AC, RECEIPTS. 000 

To Bleach Fixed Oils. — Shake stronjrly for some minutes, 300 
parts of the oil with 40 parts water coiitaiuiug 1 part permangate of potas- 
sa ; allow the mLxture to stand m a warm place for some hours, and then 
filter. This renders the oil colorless. To jjurijy oil. Into 1000 parts 
l)y weight of oil, put a mixture of G parts solution of ammonia and (J 
parts w^ater, agitate the barrel Avell until tlie alkali is perfectly mixed, 
which may he done in 15 minutes. The barrel is tlien scaled liermet- 
ically, and after 3 days' repose, the oil is decanted and filtered. The 
residue is used for the manufacture of soap. To Clarify Coal Oil. 
— Place in a close vessel 100 lbs. crude coal oil, 25 (its. water, 1 lb. 
chloride of lime, 1 lb. soda, and \ lb. oxide of manganese. The mix- 
ture is violently agitated, and allowed to rest fur U4 hours when the 
clear oil is decanted and distilled. The 100 lbs. coal oil are to be 
mixed with 25 lbs. resin oil; this is one of the principal pohits in tlio 
manipulation; it removes the gummy paits from the oil, and renders 
them inodorous. The distillation spoken of may terminate the pro- 
cess, or the oils may be distilled before they are defecated and preci- 
pitiited. 

Oil for Fine IMechaxism. — Oil for fine mechanism can be pre- 
pared by putting zinc and lead shavings, in equal parts, into good 
Florence olive oil, and plachig in a cool place until the oil becomes 
colorless. Unequalled for sewing machines, &c. 

To Make Linseed and Cotton Seed Oils. — ^In making linseed 
oil quite a variety of machinery is used, more or less expensive ac- 
cording to the enterprise and capital of the manufacturer. The seed 
is first passed through iron rollers, to be crushed or ground, one of 
the rollers is made to revolve more rapidly than the other, which sub- 
jects each seed to a pulling, as Avell as to a crushing process. The 
meal is taken from the mill to the " chasers," when it is subjected to 
another crushing process, more severe than the first. The chasers 
are two large circular stones about 5 feet diameter, and 18 inches 
thick, rolling upon a third stone in the maimer of an old-fashioned 
bark or cider mill. These heavy stones start the oil from the seed, 
md to keep it from adhering to the chasers it is moistened with water. 
The meal is next put into an iron eylhider, which is kept revolving 
over a fire until the water is evaporated. Much of the skill of making 
oil depends upon this heating process. It must not be scorched, and 
yet it must be brought up to a high temperature, so that it will readi- 
ly give out its oil. The presses are of various structure, some of 
them are patented, and others not open to public inspection. In one, 
the vats or hoops holding about 2 bushels each, were placed opposite 
each other against two immense beams or uprights, made fast in tVo 
foundations of the building. The followers were forced dowTi upon 
the meal by 2 largo levers worked by hydraulic power. The meal is 
Icept under pressure about an hour, and the two presses work up 
about 92 bushels of seed every 24 hours, the mill being kept running 
night and day. The product is not far from 2 gals, of oil from a 
bushel of seed, a little more or less, according to the quality of the 
geed and the skill in pressing. The cakes, as taken from the press, 
are generally gold by the ton without grinding, and are generally ex- 
ported in this form, but when there is a market in the vicinity of the 
mill, the cakes are put under the chasers, gi'oun4 hito m.eal, bagged 
and gent to the feed stores, The price of the cuko is from $30 to ^U 



5oQ MACHINISTS, ENGINEERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 

per ton ; ground into meal it retails at about $2 per 100 lbs. The pro- 
cess of making the cotton seed oil and cake is nearly the same. The 
seed of the upland cotton is surrounded with a husk, to which the cot- 
ton adheres. It is surrounded with a soft down after it leaves the 
gin, and in this condition it is purchased from the planter. The seed 
makes better oil and better meal when it is deprived of this hull and 
down. The yield of oil is about 90 gallons per 100 bushels of the Sea 
Island, or 2 gals, to 5G lbs. of the hulled cotton seed. 

To M.AJtB Coal. Oil. — Break the coal or sluilc into small pieces 
and put from 10 to 10 cwt. in an iron retort, heated to a duU red color 
Lute the retort door and keep up the retort for 21 hours. By thi.s 
process a vapor is thrown off which passes through ranges of cistern,-* 
until it condauses, when it is run into cisterns. This crude oil, when 
refined and purified, is sold as parafliue oil, and solid x)arafline for 
making candles is made from it. 

Neat's Foot Oil. — Alter the hair and hoofs have been removed 
from the feet of oxen, they yield, when boiled with -water, a peculiar 
fatty matter, which is laiown as Heat's Foot Oil ; after stimduig, it 
deposits some solid fat, Avhich is separated by filtration ; the oil then 
does not congeal at 32°, and is not liable to become rancid. It is often 
mixed with other oils. Tiiis oil is used for various purposes, 
etich as harness dressing, oUiug tower clocks, &c. Tallow Oil. — ^The 
oil is obtained from tiilloAv by pressure. The tallow is melted, and 
when seimrated from the ordinary impurities by subsidence, is poured 
into vessels and allowed to cool slowl}'^ to about 80°, when the stearine 
separates in granules, which may be sei^arated from the liquid part by 
straining through fiannel, and is then i^ressed, when it yields a fresh 
portion of liquid oil. It is used in soap manufacture, &c. Lard oil is 
obtained from hog's lard by pressure, when the liquid part separates, 
while the lard itself becomes much harder. According to Braconet, 
lard yields 0.G2 of its Aveight of this oil, which is nearly colorless. It 
is emploj'ed for greasing avooI, and other jmrposes. 

Economic Lubkicatoes. — 1. India rubber, 4 lbs. ; dissolved in 
spts. turpentine; common soda, 10 lbs. ; glue, 1 lb.; water, 10 gals.; 
oil, 10 gals. Dissolve the soda and glue in the water by heat, then 
add the oil, and lastly the dissolved ruWier, 2. To Lessen Friction in 
Machinery. — Grind together black lead with 4 times its weight of 
lard or tallow. Camphor is sometimes added, 7 lbs. to the hundred 
weight. 3. Anti-Friction Grease. — Tallow, 100 lbs, ; jialm oil, 70 lbs. ; 
boil together, when cooled to 80°, strain through a sieve, and mix 
with 28 lbs. soda, and 1^ gals, water. For winter take 25 lbs, more 
oil in place of the tallow. 4, Booth's Railway Axle Gh'ease. — AYater, 
1 gal, ; clean tallow, 3 lbs. ; palm oil, G lbs. ; common soda, ^ lb. ; or 
tallow 2 lbs. ; palm oil, 10 lbs. Heat to about 212°, and stir well until 
it cools to 70°. 5. 2>n7i Lubricator. — For wrought iron, use 1 lb. 
soft soap mixed with 1 gal, of boiling water. It insures good Avork 
and clean cutting. 

To Remedy Slip op Driving Belts. — Dab on a little of tlic 
eticlcy oil which oozes away from the bearuigs of machinery. 

Blasting Powders. — liednce separately to powder, 2partsclilor;ite 
of potassa and 1 part red sulphuret of arsenic ; mix very lightly to- 
gether, or powder, separately, 6 parts chlorate of potassa; Spart;* 
Tcd suJpUnret of arsenic, and 1 i>art fcrrocyanido of iKttossiuuj 



MACXIINISTS, ENGINEEKS', &,€., EECEIPTS. 557 

(prussiate of potassa) ; mix carefully, or, mix carefully as before, 
after having seimrately reduced to powder equal parts chlorate of po- 
tassa and ferrocyanide potassium. These possess eight times the ex- 
plosive force of gunpowder and must he used with the greatest cau- 
tion. 

iJiiASTixo Rocks, &c. — ^In small blasts, 1 lb. of powder will loosen 
about 4^ tons. In large blasts, 1 lb. of powder will looseii about 2^ 
tons ; 50 or GO lbs. of powder, enclosed in a resisting bag himg or 
propped up against a gate or barrier, will demolish any ordinary con- 
struction. One nian can bore, with a bit 1 inch in diameter, from 
50 to GO inches per day of 10 hours hi granite, or 300 to 400 ins. per 
day in Hmcstone, Two strikers and a holder can bore with a bit 2 
ins. in diameter 10 feet per day in rock of medium hardness. 

To BiAKE DuALix. — Dualhi is made from paper stocic, saturated 
Avith nitrate of jDOtassium and dried in a furnace. Then gromid and 
mixed Avith nitro-glycerine. Component parts of Jiitro-r/lycerine. 
To 4| lbs. concentrated sulphuric-acid and 2J lbs. of concentrated 
nitric acid, add 1 lb. of glycerine. 

Labor on Embankments. — Slnrjle horse and cart. A horse 
with a loaded dirt cart employed in excavation and embankment, Avill 
make 100 lineal feet, or 200 feet in the distance per minute, wliilo 
moving. The time lost in loadmg, dumping, awaiting, etc,=4 min- 
utes per load. A medium laborer will load with a cart in 10 hours, 
of the following earths ; measured in the bank : Gravely earth 10. 
Loam 12, and Sandy earthli cubic yards; carts are loaded as follows: 
Descending hauling, ^ of a cubic yard in bank; Level hauling 2-7 
of a cubic yard in bank; Ascending hauling, ^ of a cubic yard in bank, 
Loosening, &c. In loam, a three-horse plow will loosen from 250 to 
800 cubic yards per day of 10 hours. The cost of loosening earth to 
be loaded will be from 1 to 8 cents per cubic yard, when wages are 
105 cents per day. The cost of trimming and bossing is about 2 cents 
per cubic yard. Scooping. A scoop load will measure 1-10 of a cu- 
bic yard, measured hi excavation. The time lost in loading, unload- 
ing and trimming, per load, is IJ minutes. The time lost for every 70 
feet of distance, from excavation to bank, and retumuig is 1 minute. 
In Double Scooping, the time lost in loadmg, turning, &c., will be 1 
minute ; and in Single Scooping, it will be If minutes. {Ullwood 
3forris. 

Hauling Stone. — A cart drawn by horses over an ordinary road 
will travel 1.1 miles per hour of trip. A 4-horse team will haul from 
25 to 3G cubic feet of lime stone at each load. The time expended in 
loading, unloading, &c., including delays, averages 35 minutes per trip. 
The cost of loading and unloading a cart, using a horse ci-am at tJie 
quarry, and unloading by hand, when labor is $1.25 per day, and a horse 
75 cents, is 25 cents per percli=24.75 cubic feet. The work done by 
an animal is greatest when the velocity with v/hicli he moves is ^ of the 
greatest with which he can move when not impeded, and the force 
then exerted .45 of the utmost force the animal can exert at a dead pull. 

Hay. — 270 cubic feet of new meadow hay, and 21G and 243 from 
large or old stacks, will weigh a ton, 297 to 324 cubic feet of dry 
clover weigh a ton. 

Ice. — ^To compute the number of tons an ice-liouse wiU contain, cal- 
culate the number of cubic feet in an icc-hoiisc, aud divide by 35 •, 



558 MACHINISTS, EXGINEEKS', ifcC.j KECEIPTS. 

this gives tlic numljer of tons tlic icc-lioiise willcontaiu it if is closely 
packed. 

Eakth Digcdtg. — Number of cubic feet of earth in a ton. Loose 
earth 24 ; coarse sand 18.G. Clay 18.G. Earth with gravel 17.8. Clay 
with gravel, 14.4. Common soil lo.G. The volume of earth and sand 
in bank exceeds that in embankment in the followmg proportions ; 
sand 1-7, clay 1-9, grasrel 1-11, and the volume of rock in embank- 
ments quarried in large fragments exceeds that in bank fully one 
half. 

Weight of Earth, Rock, &c. — A cubic yard of sand or ground 
•weighs about 30 c^vt. ; mud, 25 cwt. ; marl, 2(3 cwt. ; clay, 31 cwt. ; 
chalk, cG cwt. ; sandstone, 39 cwt. ; shale, 40 cwt. ; quartz, 41 cwt ; 
granite, 42 cwt. ; trap, 42 cvrt. ; slate, 43 cwt. 

To Determine "Weight of Live Cattle. — Measure in inches the 
girth around the breast, just behmd the shoulder blade, and the 
length of the back from the tail to the fore part of the shoulder blade. 
Miiltiply the girth by the length, and divide by 144. If the girth is 
less than 3 feet, multiply the quotient by 11. If between 3 and 5 feet, 
multiply by 16. If between 5 and 7 feet, multiply by 23. If between 
7 and 9 feet, multiply by 31. If the animal is lean, deduct 1-20 from 
the result, or take the girth and length in feet, multiply the square of 
the girth by the length, and multiply the product by 3.3G. The result 
will be the answer iu pounds. The live weight multiplied by C.05, gives 
a near approximation to the net Aveight. 

Gaugln'G Streams. — Multiply the square root of the cube of the 
height in inches of the water on the sill of the weir or gauge by the 
constant 17.13, which will give the number of gallons per minute. 
If the water has any initial velocity it must be determined by experi- 
ment, and in that case multiply the square of the height by the square 
of the velocity, and by 0.8 ; to the product add the cube of the 
lieight, extract the square root of the sum, and multiply by 17.13 as 
before. 

Stowage of Coals. — The following information wiU be valuable 
to many coal dealers and consumers who may be in doubt as to the 
capacity of their coal bins. A box 4 feet long, 3 ft., 5 in., wide, and 
2 ft., 8 in., deep, has a capacity of 36.V cubic feet, and will contain 
2000 lbs., or one ton of Beaver Meadow or Lehigh (American) coal. 
The spaces occupied by one ton of the imdermentioned Enghsh coals, 
economic weight are: — ^Ilaswell's Wallsend, 45'25 cubic feet. North 
I'crcy, Ilartley (Newcastle) 46*96 cubic feet. Balcarras Arley (Lan- 
cashire) 44*35 cubic feet. Cannel (Wigan, Lancashire) 46*37 cubic 
feet. Duffryn (Welsh) 42*09 cubic feet. PontjTpool (Welsh) 40*22 
cubic feet. Ilence, a shed 16 feet high, 20 feet broad, and 30 feet long, 
Avill hold over 212 tons of Haswell's Wallsend (Newcastle) coals, 
about 207 tons of Cannel, and 228 of Duilryn. The average space 
occuiiied by one ton of Newcastle coal, economic weight, is 44 cubic 
feet, that of one ton of Lancaslm-e coal, 44^ cubic feet, and that of 1 
ton of Welsh coal, 41 cubic feet. Therefore a shed of the above 
dimensions, would, on the average, hold 217 tons of Newcastle coal, 
216 of Lancashire, and 23^ of AVelsh. From the above data, any in- 
tending purchaser can ea&ily calculate the capacity of his coal bhis. 
sheds, &c., and in many cases secure a good bargain by laying in '. 
large stock when coals are cheap. 



MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 559 

Composition Tacks for Muntz Metal on Ships.— Copper 87 
parts, zinc 4 parts, tin i) parts. 

RESULTS OF J. H, CHEEVERS' EXPERIMENTS WITH VULCANIZED 
RUBBER BELTING AND LEATHER, DITTO. 

Rubber. Leather. 



Lbs. 

Belt slipped on Iron pulley at 90 

Leather " 128 

'* " Rubber " 183 



Lbs. 

Belt slipped on Iron pulley at 48 

" " Leatlier " 64 

" " Rubber " 128 



Deductions from the above: Rubber belts for equivalent resistances 
with leather belts, may be reduced respectively 46, 50 and 30 per cent. 

Vulcanized Rubber beltmg has greater endurance than leather, its 
resistance to slipping being from 50 to 84 per cent, greater. 

Mill for Spinning Wool and Weaving Merinos. — Nineteen 
roachmes to prepare the combed wool, havmg together 350 roUers ; 16 
mules with 3,400 spindles; one winding machine of 60 rollers to pre- 
pare the warp ; 2 warping machines ; 2 self-acting feeders ; 100-power 
looms; 2 lathes for wood and iron, and one pump require in all 30 
horsepower. Produce: 13,600 cops of woolen thread, of 45 cops to 
the pound, each measuring 32 yards. The looms make 115 revolu- 
tions per minute, and produce daily 4 pieces of double width merino 
of 68 yards each, and 4 pieces of simple merino of 1.2 to 1.4 yard 
broad, and each 88 yards long. 

Cotton Factory.— (7o7icZensm/7 Engine, Cylinder, 37 in. diam. 
Stroke of piston, 1 ft. Volume of piston space, 53.6 cubic ft. Average 
pressure of steam, 16.73 lbs. per square inch. Revolutions, 17 per 
minute. Friction of Engine and Shafting, (indicated) 4.75 lbs. per 
sq. inch of piston. Indicated Horses power, 125. Total power=l. 
Available, deducting friction=717. 

(The foregoing has reference to an English mill, for driving 22,060 Hand 
mule spindles, with preparation, and 260 looms, with common sizing.) 

Remarks. — Each additional horse's power will drive 305 hand- 
mule spindles, with preparation, 
or 230 self-acting " 

or 104 throstle " 

or 10.5 looms with common sizing. 

Including preparation : 

1 throstle spindle=3 hand-mule, or 2.25 self-acthig spindles. 
1 self-acting spindle=1.2 hand-mule spindles. 
Exclusive of preparation, taking onlj^ the spindle: 

1 throstle spiudle=3.5 hand-mule, or 2.56 self-acting spindles, 
1 self-acting spindle=1.375 hand-mule spindles. 

The throstles are the common, spinning 34 twist for power loom 
weaving ; the spindles revolve 4,000 times per minute. The self- 
acting mules are,one half spinning 36's weft, spindles revolving 4, 800; 
the other half spinning 36's twist, spindles revolving 6,200. The 
hand-mules spinning about equal quantities of 36's weft and twist. 
Weft spindies 4,700, and twist spindles 5,000 rev. per minute. Aver- 
age breadth of looms 37 ins. (weaving 37 ins. cloth), making 123 
picks per minute. All common calicoes about 60 reed, Stock])ort 
count, and 68 picks to the incli. No jwwer consumed by the sizing. 
When the ^^arn is dressed instead of sized, one horse's power cannot 



560 MAcnixiSTS, exgineers', &c., receipts. 

drivo so many looms, as the dressing machine will absorb from J.7 to 
.14 of the power. 

Size forDressikg Cotton Yarx or TVarps. — Flour 280 lbs ; tal- 
low l lb. ; add ^ to 2 per cent, of the amount of flour emploj^ed of 
paraffine. The paraflino may be made to reijlace the whole, or apart 
of the tallow employed. 

Beautiful Sizing for Linen. — Crystallized carbonate of soda, 1 
part ; white wax, 4 to 6 parts ; stearLue 4 to 6 parts ; pure white soap, 
4 to 6 parts ; fine Paris white or carbonate of magnesia 20 parts ; po- 
tato starch, 40 parts ; fine wheat starch, IGO parts ; boil Avith sufficient 
water to form IGOO parts altogether, adding, if desired, some ultra- 
marine to counteract the yellow tmtof the linen. The Imen is starched 
with this preparation, afterwards steamed and dried, then sprinkled 
with soap- water and placed in the stamj)ing mill, afterwards steamed 
and calendered. 

The Mariner's Cojipass. — The needle or magnet is said to point 
always to the north, and as a matter of course the other pomts, as 
cast, west, &c., are easily found by the needle pomting north and 
south. In certain parts of the world, however, the needle does not 
point to the north, but is drawn considerably to the right or left of 
true north. This is called the variation of the compass, and must 
be known accurately by the navigator in order to correct and steer 
the right course. For instance in crossuig the Atlantic Ocean, 
the variation of the compass amounts in sailmg vessels to 2h or 2^ 
points westerly, and the course steered must be corrected according- 
ly. Sav that j^ou wish to make a due east course, you must Ftccr 
2.^ or 2^ points south of that or to the right hand in order to make a 
direct course. 

Off the Cape of Good Hope in the South Atlantic Ocean, strange 
enough, the variation of the compass in ships bound to India or Aus- 
tralia is 2| i^oints easterly, and in order to make it due e^st course it is 
necessary to steer 2j to the north or left of her course, while again to- 
wards the equator or centre of the globe there is hardly any percept- 
ible variation of the compass at all. The Avay of finduig out how 
much the compass varies in different parts of the world, is by obser- 
vations of the sun taken with the compass, and the difference be- 
tween the true and magnetic or compass bearing is the variation, 
which must be applied as a correction to the course steered. We 
have, however, in iron ships or steamers what is called the deviation 
of the compass to attend to besides the variation. This is the local 
attraction caused by the iron, and must be carefully understood be- 
fore steamers or iron shijis attempt to go to sea. As in steamers of 
the Allan or Cunard fine, each vessel before proceeding on her first 
voyage must be carefully swung, and magnets fixed to the deck, be- 
sides .small chains placed on each side of the compasses in boxes, in 
order to counteract the attraction of the iron. Thus the compasses 
are so nicely balanced with the magnets and iron, that it is rare in- 
deed at this day that they get out of order on a trans-Atlantic passage. 
The consequences to either steamer or sailing ship whose compasses 
are astray would be terrible to contemplate, even if it were but one- 
half point, on dark winter nights apjiroaching the land. These diffi- 
culties are now happily obviated by the discoveries of modern science, 
and their application in correcting the compass at sea. 



MACHINISTS, ENGIXEERS , &C., RECEIPTS. 



561 



Heat of Water in Steam Boilers, "Warming of Buildings, &c. 
— The following table shows the temperature of water by Fahrenheit's 
nnil Centigrade scales of measurements, allowing l4.G,lbs. per square inch to 
;i:mosphere : — 



Pressure of 

Steam in 

Atmospheres. 



1 

1.5 

2 

2.5 

3 

3.5 

4 

4.5 

5 

5.5 

6 

6.5 

7 

7.5 

8 

9 
10 
11 
12 




F. 

212° 
230 
251 
264 
275 
285 
291 
300 
08 
314 
320 
326 
3.32 
.3.37 
.342 
351 
359 
367 
371 



C. 
100 
112 
121 
128 
125 
140 
145 
148 
153 

we 

160 
163 
166 
169 
172 
177 
181 
186 
190 



F. 

13! 381 

14^387 

15:393 

16 1 398 

17401 

18:409 

19414 

.8j20'418 

.1211423 

.2.22 427 

- |23'431 

.1I24'436 

.2125439 

.4',30457 

.2.35^473 



40:487 
45 1 491 
50i511 



C. 
155. 
157. 
200.5 
203.1 
206.2 
209. 
212.2 
214.4 
217 
219 
221 
224 
226 
1236 
245.1 
252.7 
2.55. 
266.1 



o '^ .- o a 



3.!: 
^ 3 



.;:; a 



<D p <0 
ft..— -•-= 






^ o o 



.5 X! 



S "4 



1 00 



fee -+? c 



® 



1-. = =* S s? 
.3 2 0) o ;s 

uH^ '^ o 



0)3^0 
;-i (-1 ;h 

!=i 3 -; 
■+J -t-= -tJ 
^ cS c^ 
P ^ ti 

ess 

<B O) <D 






O 



x: 



I 

Aho 

s 



f^H-wO)-:; Hi 



0> (V) 

4J 4) 

d y 

=«2 

"-^ fttji? 

^ c 5 

S C o 

t- a: g 

.2 © 

_2 en 0, 



Value of Fuel. — The evaporative povrer of CoZ:e in the funiace 
of a steam boiler, and under pressure, is from 7^ to 9 Ib.s. of fresh 
water per lb. of coke ; that of charcoal oh lbs. of fresh water per lb. 
Tlie evaporative power of 1 cubic foot of pine wood is equal to that of 
1 cubic foot of fresh Avater ; or, in 
the furnace of a steam boiler, and 
under pressure, it is 4| lbs. fresh 
water for 1 lb. of wood. One cord 
of hardwood and 1 cord of soft 
Avood, such as the general average 
in Canada, is equal in evaporative 
effects to 2000 lbs. of anthracite 
coal. One cord of the Icind of 
Avood used by American river 
stediners in the West, is equal to 
12 b'ushels (960 lbs.) of Pittsburg 
coal ; 9 cords cotton, asn and cypress wood are equal to 7 cords yellow 
pine. The densest woods give the greatest heat, as charcoal genc- 
r.ites more heat than flame. The evaporative power of peat in the 
furnace of a steam boiler, and under pressure, is 3^ to 5 lbs. of fresh 
water for every lb. of fuel. Bituminous coal is 13 per cent, more ef- 
fective than coke for equal weights, and in England the effects are 
alike for equal costs. In an experiment under a pressure of 30 lbs. 1 
lb. pine wood evaporated 3.5 to 4.75 lbs. Avater, 1 lb. Lehigh coal, 
7.25 to 8.75 lbs. The least consumption of coal vet attained is Ih Iba 

3G 




Return Flue Boiler. 



562 MACniXISTS, ENGINEERS*, &C., RECEIPTS. 

per indicated liorse-iiower. It usually varies in different engines from 
2 to 8 lbs.. Railway experiments demonstrate 1 ton of Cumberland 
coal, (2240 lbs.) to be equal in evaporating effect to 1.25 tons of an- 
thracite coal, and 1 ton of anthracite to be equal to 1.75 coid.s pine 
Avood; also that 2000 lbs. Lackawanna coal are equal to 4500 lbs. best 

i)ine Avood. Much depends on the kind of boiler used. The li^tum 
'''iue Boiler gives very good results in economizing heat. See diagram 
above. 

SrF.ciFic Gravity. — Is the density of the matter of wliicli any 
body is composed, compared with the density of another body as- 
sumed as the standard, or 1000. This standard is pure distilled water 
for liquids and solids, and atmospheric air for gaseous bodies and 
vapors. 'J'hus as gold is 19, and silver 10 times heavier than water, 
those numbers 19, and 10 are said to represent the specific gravity of 
gold and silver. The heaviest Icuowu subsfcxnce is iridium, used for 
jjointiug gold pens ; its specific gravity is 23. The lightest of all liquids 
has a specific gravity of O.G, it is called chimogene, and is made from 
])Ctroleum, it is exceedingly volatile and combustible, being in fact 
a li(picficd gas. Carbonic acid gas or choke damp is 500 times lighter 
than water, common air 800, street gas about 2000, and pure hydro- 
gen the lightest of all substances, 12,000 times. The heaviest substance 
has thus 23+12,000, or more than a quarter of a million times more 
wciglit than an equal bulk of the lightest; and the substance of which 
comets consist, has by astronomers been proved to be even several 
tlumsand times lighter than hydrogen gas. 

AiTKovKD Friction" Matches. — About the best known prepara- 
tion for friction matches consists of gum arable, IG parts by weight; 
phosphorus, 9 parts ; nitre, 14 parts; peroxyde of manganese, in 
powder, 10 parts. The gum is first made into a mucilage witli water, 
then the manganese, then the phosphorus, and the whole is heated 
to about 130° Fali. When the phosphorus is melted the nitre is ad- 
ded, and tlie Avholc is thoroughly stirred until the mass is a imiform 
paste. The wooden matches prepared first with sulphur, are then 
dipped in this and afterward dried in the air. Friction papers, for 
carrying in the pocket, may be made in the same manner, and by 
adding some gum benzoin to the mucilage they Avill have an agree- 
able order Avhen ignited. 

I^n'ROVED Colored Fires. — White. — Saltpetre, 2 parts; sulphur, 
2 parts; antimony, 2 parts. lied. Nitrate of strontia, 20 parts; 
chlorate of potash, 5 imits ; sulpluir, G j parts ; charcoal, 1 part. Blue. 
Chlorate of potash, 9 parts; sulphur 3'parts; carbonate of copper, 3 
parts. Yelloio. — Nitrate of soda, 24 parts; antimony, 8 parts, sul- 
jihur, G parts; charcoal, 1 part. Green. — Nitrate of baryta, 2G parts; 
chlorate of jiotash, 18 jmrts; sulj)hur, 10 parts, Violet. — Nitrate of 
Ftrnntia, 4 parts ; chlorate of potash, 9 parts; sulphur, 5 parts; car- 
bonate of copper, 1 part; calomel, 1 part. 

'Jo Re-cover IIasemers in Pianos. — Get felt of graduated thick- 
nes-s, cut it in strips the exact width, touch only the two ends with 
glue, not the part striking the strings. .. Hold in place with si^rings of 
narrow hooj) iron. 

W'atkk, — Fresh Water. — The component parts by weight and 
measure is, Oxyrjen, 88.9 by weight, and 1 by measure, IJi/drogen, 
11.1 by weight, and 2 by measure. One cubic inch of distilled water 
at its maximum density of 39°, S3, the barometer at 30 inches, weighs 



lIACniNISTS, engineers', &C., IlECEIPTS. 563 

252.6937 grs. A cubic foot weighs 62.5 lbs. Rated by the British 
Imperial standard, a cubic ft. of water at 62" Aveighs 998.224 ozs., 
35.84 cubic ft. of water weigh 1 ton, 39.14 cubic ft. of ice weigh 
Iton. Sea-Water. 1 cubic ft. weighs 64.3126 lbs. ; 34.84 cubic ft. 
weigh 1 ton and contains from 4 to 5| ozs. of salt per gal. varying in 
different parts of the globe ; carbonic acid, 62 parts in every 1000 of 
water. The saline matter in the Dead Sea is 21.722 parts in every 
100. Dr. Scoresby's observations of the height of waves in the 
North Atlantic Ocean record 24 ft., 30 ft., the highest 43 ft., and the 
mean 18 ft. in western gales. French observers in tlie Bay of Biscay 
state a height of ^-ave of 36 ft. ; Captain Wilkes writes of 36 ft. in the 
Pacific and Sir J. Ross of 22 ft. in the South Atlantic. Heights of 
waves in northwest gales off the Cai^e of Good Hoidc have been com- 
puted at 40 ft. , those off Cape Horn at 32 ft. , in the INIediterranean 
Sea at 15 ft., and in the German Ocean at 14 ft., but in the British 
waters they are only found to average 8 to 9 ft. The velocity of 
ocean storm waves was observed by Dr. Scoresby in the North 
Atlantic to be about 32 miles per hour ; Capt. Wilkes records it at 
26J miles in the Pacific, and French mariners in the Bay of Bis- 
cay at 60 miles an hour. Dr. Scoresby has estimated the distance 
between or breadth of his Atlantic storm waves at about 600 feet 
from crest to crest which is only about half of that stated by some 
others, arid Dr. S. states that the waves of 30 ft. height move at 
the rate of 32 milcs> per hour. The mean force of the Atlantic 
waves for the summer months is over 600 lbs. per sq. ft., during 
winter 2086 lbs. During a severe gale 6383 lbs. per square ft. ha^ 
been noted. Corrosive effects of Sea-Water on Metals, per square 
Joot. Steel 39 grs., irou"38, copper 9, zinc 8, galvanized iron 1.6, 
tm 2. 
Brazixg Cast Irox. — ^There are two ways of joining cast iron. 

1. Fit the broken pieces exactly together in moulding sand and pour 
melted iron over the parts to be joined. When cold chip off the 
superfluous metal and you will have a joint scarcely to be detected. 

2. Well tin the parts to be joined, fit together in sand as above, and 
pour melted brass over them. 

Macintosh Cloth. — The material is merely two layers of cotton 
cemented with liquid India rubber; but the junction is so well effect- 
ed that the three become, to all intents aiad purposes, one. The stout 
and well-woven cloth is coiled upon a horizontal beam like the yard 
beam of a loom ; and from this it is stret3hed out in a tight state and 
a nearly horizontal direction ; a layer of liquid or rather paste-like 
solution is applied with a spatula, to a considerable thickness, and 
the cloth is drawn under a knife edge which scrapes the solution and 
diffuses it equally over every part of the cloth, whidi may bo 
SO or 40 yards long. The cloth is then extended out on a horizontal 
framework to dry ; and when dried a second coating is applied in the 
game way, and a third or fourth coat if necessary. Two pieces, thus 
coated, are next placed face to face with great care to prevent creasing 
or distortion ; and being placed between two wooden rollers, they are 
go thoroughly pressed as to unite durably and permanently. Cloth, 
thus cemented and doubled and dried, may be cut and made into 



564 MAcniKiSTS, engineers', &c., receipts. 

garments which will bear many a rough trial, and many a deluging, 
before rain or water can penetrate. 

To Petrify Wood — Gum salt, rock alum, white vinegar, chalk 
and pebbles powder, of each an equal quantity. INIix well together. 
If, after the ebullition is over; you throw into this liquid any wood or 
IJorous substance, it will petrify it. 

To Construct ax JEolian Harp. — Make a box with the top, bot- 
tom, and sides of thin Avood, and the ends 1^ inch beech, form it 
the same length as the width of the window in Avhich it is to bo 
placed. The box should be 3 or 4 inches deep, and C or 7 inches 
wide. In the top of the box, which acts as a somiding board, 
make 3 circular holes about 2 niches in diameter, and an equal 
distance apart. Glue across the sounding board, about 2h inches 
from each end, 2 pieces of hard wood ^ incli thick, andl ^ inch 
high, to serve as bridges. You must now procure from any musi- 
cal instrument maker twelve steel pegs similar to those of a piano- 
forte, and 12 small brass pins. Insert them in the following man- 
ner into the beech : first commence with a brass pin, then insert a 
steel peg, and so on, placing them alternately ^ in. apart to tho 
number of twelve. Now for the other end, which j-ou mu.st com- 
mence with a steel x^eg, exactly opposite the brass pin at the other 
end, then a brass pin, and so on, alternately, to the number of 12 ; by 
this arrangement you have a steel peg and a brass pin always oppo- 
site each other, which is done so that the pressure of the strings on 
the instrument shall be uniform. Now string'the instrument with 12 
first violin strings, making a loop at one end of each string, which 
put over the brass pins, and wind the other ends round the oppo- 
site steel pegs. Tune them in unison, but do not draw them tight. 
To increase the current of air, a thin board may be placed about 
2 inches above the strings, supported at each end by 2 pieces of 
wood. Place the instrument in a partly opened window, and to 
increase the draft, open the opposite door. 

To Construct a Metronome. — Take a cheap clock movement 
and substitute for the i^endulum a wire with a sliding weight, mark- 
ing the wire with a file at the different i>omts of graduation. Used to 
indicate the proper time m music. 

To Bend Gr.Ass Tubes. — Hold the tube in the upper part of tho 
flame of a spirit-lamp, revolving it slowly between the fingers : when 
red hot it may be easily bent into any desired shape. To soften largo 
tubes a lamp with a double current of air should be used, as it gives 
a much stronger heat than tho simple lamp. 

Black Lead Pencils, — The best pencils are made by grinding 
the black lead into a fine impalpable powder, then forming it into 
blocks by compression without auj' cementing substance, and finally 
sawing it up into the square prisms, which, when placed in grooves in 
wood, form the black lead pencils of commerce. The color can be 
graduated to any desired tinge by the intermixture of very finely 
ground clay. By the process of Prof, Brodie, the most intractable 
graphite may berediiced to the finest powder with great ease. Tho 
mineral is coarsely powdered and mixed with l-15th of chlorate of 
potash, to which mixture is added twice its weight of sulphuric acid. 
Chloric acid is disengaged, and, after the mass has cooled, it is well 
washed, dried, and heated to redness. Paring the latter operation, 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 5^0 

the Llack lead sAvells and becomes reduced to so fine a powder that 
it -will swim upon water, a little fluoride of sodium is used to dissolve 
the silicious impurities. The finest quality is found near Burrowdale 
in Cumberland, England. It is nearly pure carbon, and perfectly 
free from grit. It is used principally in the manufacture of lead ]^cu- 
cils, the coarser quality being used, when ground, for polishing iron 
■work, glazing gunpowder, as a lubricator for machinery, compoimded 
Avith four times its weight of lard or tallow, and in the manufacture of 
crucibles for melting metals, as it is very intractable iu an intense 
heat. 

l^nrLLip's Fiiip: A>rNTiiiLATOR. — Consists of a case ' containing 
water, within wbich is a smaller case containmg chlorate of ix)tash 
and sugar. Dipped in the latter is a smnU tube containuig sulphuric 
acid; when this tube is broken the chlorate of potasli and sugar be- 
come ignited, throwing oil large quantities of mLxed gases which are 
non-supporters of combustion; tlie action is maintained by the water 
in the outer case becoming heated. The gases are conveyed to the 
fire by means of a flexible tube fitted with a proper nozzle and stop- 
cock. I have seen still another kind constructed of copper in quite 
an elegant style, fitted with shoulder straps, &c., for easy transporta- 
tion, in which the gases were generated by means of chemicals on the 
{)rinciple of what ma^' be seen every day iu the effervescence of car- 
bonic acid gas from the intermixture of scidlitz powders in water. 
The chemicals being introduced from white and blue paper packages 
into the water contained in the copper case, 

]\rA>XTACTUiiE OF CoKX SxAEcn. — Wcitt's Patent. — Tlie com is 
steeped in water, ranging in temperature from 70° to 140° Pah., 
for about a week, changing tlie water at least once in 24 hours. A 
certain amount of acid fermentation is thus produced, causing the 
starch and refuse of the corn to be easily separated afterwards. 
The swollen corn is ground in a current of clear soft water, and 
the pulp passed through sieves, witli the water into vats. In these 
the starch gradually settles to the bottom, the clear water is then 
run off by a tap, and tlie starch gathered and dried in a proper 
apaitment for the pur])osc. 

ItEFixixG OF Sl'gah. — Botli caue and beet-root sugar are refined 
on the same principle, by mixture with limewater, boiling with 
animal charcoal, and filtration through twilled cotton. In some 
establishments bullock's blood is used to aid in the clarifying. 
The albumen of the serum becomes coagulated on the application 
of heat, forming a network, which rises to the top of the liquor, 
carrying with it a great part of the impurities. The reddish syrup 
obtamed by the first filtration is next passed through filters into 
large vats, twelve or fourteen feet deep, upon which are laid coarse 
ticking, coarsely groimd animal charcoal, and a second layer of 
ticking, Tlie synip is allowed to flow over the surface of the filter, 
and rims slowly through the charcoal, coming out perfectly 
colorless. The concentrated syrup is then boiled in vacuo, by means 
of which two importiint results are arrived at. The viscid liquid 
would boil in air at 230° Fah., at which temperature a quantity of 
uncrystallizable sugar would be formed. By iierforming the ope- 
ration in a vacuum-^ian the boiling point is brought down to 150° 
or 100°, no formation of uncrystallizable sugar takes place, and 



566 MACniNISTS, engineers', &C.y RECEIPTS. 

a great saving in fuel is effected. "When the concentration reaches 
a certain point, the syrup is transferred to a vessel heated by steam 
to 170°, and forcibly agitated with "wooden beaters, until it forms 
tliick and granular. From the heating-vats it is transferred into 
inverted conical moulds of the well-known shape, at the bottom of 
each of which is a movable plug. The syrup is well stirred to 
prevent the formation of air-bubblea, and then left at rest for several 
liours, at the end of which time the plug is removed, and the 
iincrystallized syrup runs out. The loaves are further freed from 
ftU colored matter by a portion of perfectly colorless syrup being 
nm through them. They are then dried in a sto^-e and linishcd 
for market by being turned in a lathe. Crushed or (jranulated suf/ar 
is made by causing the granular sp'up to revolve in a perforated 
drum, by which means the uncrystaUizable poiliou is separated 
from the crystals by centrifugal force. 

Button !m^\js"ufactuke. — Metal buttons are formed of an inferior 
Icmd of brass, pe^^i^r, or other metallic compositions. For button 
metal, see a variety of alloys on pages 291 and 292. Buttons with 
shanks are usually made of these compositions, which is supplied 
to the manufacturers ui sheets of the required thickness. By means 
of fly presses and pouches, circular disks called blanks, are cut out 
of these sheets. This is mostly performed by females, who can 
furnish about 30 blanks per minute, or 12 gross per hour. Hand 
punching is the general mode of cutting out blanks, but more 
complicated machines, which cut out 8 or 10 blanks at a time, arc 
iii use. After beiug punched, the edges of the blanks are very 
sharp, and require to be smoothed and rounded. Their surfaces 
are then planished on the face by placing them separately in a die 
under a small stamp, and allowmg them to receive a small blow 
from a polished steel hammer. In this stite they are ready to 
receive tlie shanks or smaU. metal loops by which they are attached 
to the dress. They are made by a machine in which a coU of wire 
is gradually advanced towards a pair of shears which cuts off short 
pieces. A metal finger then presses against the middle of eacli 
piece, first bending it and then pressing it into a vice, when it is 
compressed so as to form a loop ; a hammer then strikes the two 
cuds, spreading them uito a flat surface, and the shank is ]Mir5hed 
out of the machine ready for use. The shanks are attached to the 
Wanks by women, with iron wire, solder and rosin. They arc then 
put into an oven, and when firmly united, form plaLu buttons. If 
a crest or inscription is wanted, it is placed in a die and stamped. 
Buttons are gilded by gold amalgam, by being put into an earthen 
pan with the proper quantity of gold to cover them, amalgamated 
with mercury iii the following manner : the gold is put into an 
iron ladle in thin strips, and 'a small quantity of mercuiy, say 1 
part of mercury to 8 of gold, added to it, the ladle is held over 
the fire till the gold and mercury are perfectly imited. This amal- 
gam beLug put into the pan with the buttons, as mucli aquafortis, 
diluted with water, as will wet them aU over, is thrown in, ana 
they are stirred up with a brush till the acid, by its affinity to the 
copper in the buttons, carries the amalgam to every part of their 
f5urface, giving it the appearance of silver ; this done, the acid id 
washed away witU clean water, Thi^j is called the quicfcin^ pro- 



MACHINISTS, EXGIXEEKS', .StC., EECEirTS. 5G7 

coss. In dn/ing of, the pan of buttons ia heated by a charcoal firo 
cxpellin,'^ the mercury in the form of a vapor, which, under tho 
improved sj'stem, is conducted into on ohlong iron flue or gallery, 
gently sloped downwards, having at its end a small vertical tube 
dipped into a water cistern, for condensing the mercury, and a 
large vertical pipe for promoting the draught of the products of 
die combustion. Tlie gold thus deposited in an exceedingly thin 
film upon the buttons, presents a dull yellow color, and must now 
be burnished ; this is etteotcd by a piece of hematites, or bloodstone, 
fixed on a handle and appUed'to the button, as it revolves in the 
lathe. 

To KEKDEB "Wood IxDESTRUCTrBi.E. — Hohbins' Process. Tho 
apparatus used consists of a retort or still, which can be made of any 
size or form, in which resin, coal tar, or other oleaginous substances, 
together with water, are jjlaccd in order to subject them to the heat. 
Tire bemg applied beneath the retort containing the coal tar, &c., 
oleaginous vapor commences to rise, and passes out through a con- 
necting pipe mto a large iron tank or chamber (which can also bo 
built of any size), containing the timber, &c., to be operated upon. The 
heat acts at once upon the wood, causing the sap to flow from every 
p.ore, which, rising in the form of steam, condenses on the body of 
t!ie chamber, and discharges through an escape pipe in the lower part. 
In this process a temperature of 212° to 250° Fahr. is suflicient to 
remove tho vSurfaco moisture from the wood; but after this tho tem- 
perature should be raised to 300° or more, in order to completely 
saturate and permeate the body of the wood with the antiseptic vapors 
and heavier products of tho distiUation. The hot vapor coagulates tho 
albumen of the wood, and opens the pores, so that a large portion of 
the oily product or creosote is admitted; the contraction resulting 
from the cooling process hermetically seals them, and decay seems to 
be almost impossible. There is a man-hole in the retort, used to 
change or clean out the contents; and tho wood chamber is furnished 
with doors made perfectly tight. The whole operation is completed 
in less than one hour, rendering tho wood proof against rot, parasites, 
and the attacks of the Teredo tiavilis or naval worm. German Stone 
Coating for Wood. — Chalk, 40 parts; resin, oO pai-ta; linseed oil 4 
parts; melt together. To this add 1 part of oxide of copper, afterwards 
1 ]\art of sulphuric acid; add this last carefully; apply with a brush. 

Ikon Tube IMaxufacture. — In the present method of manufac- 
turing the patent welded tube, the end of the skelp is bent to tho 
circular form, its entire length is raised to the welding heat in an ap- 
propriate furnace, and as it leaves tho furnace almost at the point of 
fusion, it is dragged by the chain of a draw-bench, after the man- 
ner of wire, though a pair of tongs with two bell-shaped jaws; these 
are opened at the time of introducing the end of a skelp, which is 
Avoided without the agency of a mandril. By this mgenious arrange- 
ment wrought iron tubes may be made from the diameter of 6 inches 
internally and about 1-8 to 3-8 of an inch thick, to as small as 1-4 of 
an inch diameter and 1-10 bore, and so admirable is tlie joining effected 
in those of the best description that they will withstand the greatest 
j)ressure of water, steam, or gas to which they have been subjected, and 
they admit of being bent both in the heated and cold state, almost 
witii impunity. Sometimes the tubes are made one upon the other 



5G8 jiAcnixisTS, engineers', &c;, keceipts. 

whcu great thickness is required ; but those stout pipes, and those larger 
tlian 3 inches, are but seldom required. The ^vrought iron tubes of 
hydrostatic presses whicli measure about ^ an inch intenially, and | to 
§ of an inch thick in the metal, are frequently subjected to a pressure 
otfour tons on each square inch. 

Brass Tubes. — Brass or other tubes are formed of rolled metal 
which is cut to the desired width by means of revolving discs ; in the 
large sizes of tubes, the metal is partially curved in its length by 
means of a pair of rolls, when in this condition it is passed through a 
steel hole or a die, a plug bein<j held in such a position as allows the 
metal to pass between it and tne interior of the hole. Oil is used to 
lubricate the metal, the motion is communicated by power, the draw- 
ing apparatus being a pair of huge nippers, which holds the brass, 
and is attached to a chain and revolves round a windlass or cylmder. 
The tube in its unsoldered state is annealed, bound round at intervals 
of a few inches with iron wire, and solder and borax applied along tho 
seam. The operation of soldering is completed by passing the tubes 
tlirough an air stove, heated with " cokes " or " breezes" which melts 
'he solder, and unites the two eyes of the metal, and forms a perfect 
tube; it is then immersed in a solution of sulphuric acid, to remove 
scaly deposits on its surface, the wire and extra solder having been 
previously removed; it is then draAvn through a "finishing hole 
plate" when the tube is completed. Llandril drawn tubes are draAvn 
upon a very accurately turned steel mandril, by this means the in- 
ternal diameter is rendered smooth. The tubes drawn by this pro- 
cess are well adapted for telescopes, syrmges, small pump cylinders, 
&c. The brass tubes for the boilers of locomotive engiiies are now 
made by casting and drawing without beiug soldered, aud some of 
them are dra^\^l taper in their thickness. Tubes from 1-10 iuch in- 
ternal diameter and 8 or ten inches long, up to those of two or three 
inches diameter and 4 or 5 feet long, are drawn vertically by means 
of a strong chain wound on a barrel by wheels and pinions, as in 
a crane, in Donkin's tube dra^\•ing machine, which is applicable to 
making tubes, or rather cylinders, for paper-making and other ma- 
chinery, as large as 26^ inches diameter, and G^ feet long, a vertical 
screw is used, the nut of which is turned round by toothed wheels 
driven by six men at a windlass. The fluted tubes of pencil cases are 
drawn through oramental i)lates, witlx elevations and dejjressions 
corresponding to the impressions left on the tube. 

Lead PirE, is made by forcing lead, while heated to a plastic state, 
over an annular mandril or die to form the core, by means of hy- 
draulic pressure. 

Cutlery Makueacture. — There are three kinds of steel employed 
in manufacture of different articles of cutlery, common steel, shear 
steel, and cast steel. All edge tools which require to be tenacious 
without being very hard, are made of shear steel. The best scissors, 
razors, penknives, &c., are made from cast steel, which is able to 
take a very fine polish, common steel is only used in making cheaj) 
articles of cutlery. In making good table-laiives, shear steel and 
cast steel are generally preferred. In the ordinary method of mak- 
ing knives, the blades are cut out of a sheet of steel, and the backs, 
shoulders and tangs of wrought iron, are attached to the steel 
blades by weldmg at tho forgo. Tlie knifo is then ground to tho 



MACHINISTS, ENGINEERS,' AC, RECEIl^TS. 569 

proper slia]>e, and the "blade polished and hardened. Tlie fork 
manufacture is a distinct branch of industry, and the manufacturers 
of table knives generally buy their forks from the fork makers 
ready to be put into their liandles. In malcing table loiives, two 
men"^are generally employed ; one is called the foreman, or maker, 
and the other the striker. Pen laiives are usually forged by a single 
hand, with hammer and anvil simply ; they are hardened by heating 
the blades red-hot, and dipping them into water up to the shoulder. 
Razors are also hardened in the same manner. The grinding and 
liolishiug of cutlery are generally performed by machinery, the busi- 
ness of the grinders is divided'^into grinding, glazing and polishing. 
Grmding is performed upon stones of various dimensions. Those ar- 
ticles wiiich require temper being ground on wet stones. Glazing is 
a process by which lustre is given to cutlery ; it is performed with a 
glazier, consistiug of a circular piece of wood, sometimes covered 
with leather, or an alloy of lead and tin ; it is fixed on an axis like a 
grindstone. The ix)lishiug process is the last, and is performed on a 
similar piece of wood covered with buff leather. Only articles of 
cast steel which have been hardened and tempered are subjected 
to this operation. 

On Needle Makufacture, TE^rPERrKG, &c. — This small but im- 
portant implement has to go through the hands of about 120 Avork- 
men during the process of manufacture. The steel wire, being di-awn 
to the proper size, is submitted to various tests to ascertain its qual- 
ity, and is then cut into proper lengths by shears, which, by strilciug 
21 blows in a minute, cut in 10 hours fully 400,000 ends of steel wire, 
Avliich produce about 800,000 needles. These are passed on for fur- 
ther manipulation to other workmen, who straighten and point the 
l)ieccs of mre. After pointing they are cut iu two, so as to form two 
separate needles of equal length and quality. For each different size 
a small copper plate is em^jloyed. It is nearly square, and has a 
tumed-up edge on two of its sides, the one is intended to receive all 
the points, while the other resists the pressure of the shears. On 
this plate a certain number of wires are put with their points in con- 
tact with the border, and they arc cut together flush with the plate, 
by means of a small pair of shears moved by the knee of the work- 
man. These even wires are now taken to the head-flattener. This 
workman, seated over a table with a block of steel before him about 
3 inches cube, takes up from 20 to 25 needles between his finger and 
thumb, spreading them out like a fan, with the points under tlie 
thumb, he lays the heads on the steel block, and, with a small flat- 
faced hammer strikes a few successive blows upon them so as to 
flatten them in an instant. The heads, having become hardened by 
hammering, are now aimealed by heating and slow cooung, and are 
handed to the piercer, generally a cluld, who forms the eye iu a 
eecond by laying the head upon a block of steel, and by drivmg a 
small pmich through one side with a smart tap of the hammer, and 
then exactly opposite on the other. The eyes are then trimmed by 
driving the punch through them again on a lump of lead and, after 
laying the needle with the punch sticking through it, upon the block 
of steel, hammering the head on the sides, which causes it to tike 
the form of the jmnch. Tne next operator makes the groove at tlio 
eye and roimds the head, which he does with a small file. The 



570 MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., KECEIPTS 

needles, "being thus prepared, are thrown hy the workmen pell-mell 
into a sort of drum or box, in which the^ are made to arrange them- 
selves in parallel lines by means of a lew dexterous shakes of tlio 
Avorkman's arm. They are now ready to he tempered, for which 
purpose they are ranged on sheet-iron plates, about 30 lbs. weight at 
a time, containing from 250,000 to 500,000 needles, and are placed in a 
proper furnace, where they are heated to a bright redness for the 
larger needles, and to a less intense degree for the smaller ; they are 
then removed, and inverted suddenly over a bath of cold water in 
such a way that all the needles may be immersed at the same time, 
yet separate from each other. This has the effect of making thciu 
very hard and brittle. The water being run off, tlie needles are re- 
moved for further operations. Some manufacturers heat the needles 
by means of immersion in melted lead, others throw them into a pan 
along with a quantity of grease, which, being j^laced on the fire, the 
oily matter soon ignites, and alter it burns out, the needles are found 
to be in the proper temper ; those which are twisted in the tempering 
being afterwards straiglitened by the hammer on the anvil. 

Polishing is the next and most expensive and i^rolonged operation. 
This is effected on bundles containing 500,000 needles intermixed witli 
quartzoze sand, and a little rape-seed oil. Thirty of those bundles 
are exposed to the vibratory pressure of wooden tables, which make 
about 20 horizontal double movements per minute, causing the 
bundles to run over 2 feet each time, or 800 feet per hour. This 
agitation is kei^t up about 18 or 20 hours, causing such a move- 
ment and attrition as to polish the needles in the bags or bundles. 
They are then removed from the packets into wooden bowls and 
mixed with sawdust to remove the grease and other impurities, 
placed in a cask, Avhich is turned by a winch ; more sawdust is 
introduced as required, and the turning is continued until the 
needles become clean and bright. They are then winnowed by a 
fan to clean them from the saAvdust and refuse matter, and are 
subsequently arranged in regular order on a small, somewhat con- 
cave, iron tray. The operation of making up the rolls or bags, 
polishing, winnowing and arranging them, have to be repeated ten 
times on the best needles. It is found that emery powder mixed 
with quartz and mica or pounded granite is preferable to anything 
else for polishing needles by friction in the bags at the first, emery 
mixed with olive oil, from the second to the seventh operation, 
putty, or oxide of tin for the eighth and ninth, putty with very little 
oil for the tenth, and lastly bran to give a finish. In this mode of 
operating, the needles are scoured in a copper cask studded in the 
interior with raised points to increase the friction and a quantity of 
hot soap suds is introduced occasionally to keep them clean. The 
cask must be slowly turned upon its axis for fear of mjuring the 
mass of needles it contains. They are finally dried in the wooden 
cask by attrition with saw dust, then wiped with a linen rag or 
soft leather — the damaged ones bemg thrown aside. The sorting 
is performed in dry apartments, where all the points are first laid 
the same way, and the needles arranged in the order of their polish 
with great rapidity. The workman places 2000 or 3000 needles 
in an iron ring two inches in diameter, and sets all their heads in 
one plane, then, on looking carefully at their points, he easily re- 



MACniXISTS, ENGINEERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 571 

cognizes tlic broken ones and removes them -with an instrument 
adapted for the puriMJse. These defective needles pass into the 
hands of the pointer in order to be groiuid again, when tliey form 
articles of inferior value. Those needles bent in the polishing must 
now be straightened, and the whole are finally arranged by tlio 
tact of the finger and thumb of tlie sorter, and weighed out into 
(liiantities for packing into blue papers. The bluer puts the final 
touch to them by tiikiui^ 25 needles at a time between his fore-finger 
and thumb, and pressuig their pomts against a small hone-stone 
of compact micaceous schist, quadrangular in form, mounted in a 
small lathe, turning them briskly round, giving the x>oints a bluish 
cast, while he polishes and improves them. 

Ox Fii^E MA>TrFACTUKE Files are made of bars of steel, rendered 

doubly hard by a process called double conversion, drawn the re- 
quired size at the tilt hammer, and then shaped, the square and flat 
ones by the hammer and common anvil only, but those of round, 
half-roimd, and three-angled forms, by means of bosses and dies made 
in the above shapes, which fit into a groove left for them m the anvil. 
The steel blanks having been thus formed, are next annealed, or 
softened, to render them, capable of being cut, by placing a number 
of tliem together in a brick oven, rendered air-tight by filling up all 
the interstices with sand (to prevent the oxidation of the steel, to 
which it is very liable, if air be admitted,) and then maldng a fire 
play as qqually as possible all round until they are red hot, Avhen the 
neat is discontinued, and the steel allowed to cool gradually before it is 
imcovered. The surface to contain the teeth is now rendered as 
smooth as possible by grinding or filing; the teeth are then cut with a 
caref idly ground chisel, each incision being made separately. The 
next and last process, that of hardening, is performed in various ways 
by different makers, the ordinary method, however, is to cover the 
files with a kind of composition or protectmg varnish to prevent oxi- 
dation and scalding of the steel when heated; and, lastly, they arc 
plimged in cold, fresh water to cool them as quickly as possible. Some 
file-makers coat their files, before tempering, with a composition of 
cow-dung, or pig-flour, which not only i^rotects the sharp angles of 
the cuttmgs from the action of the fire, but furnishes a highly azotized 
substance, which conduces greatly to still further harden and steelify 
the finished work. I know several file manufacturers who make use 
of a bath of melted lead for tempering purposes. Tlie files are first 
coated with a greasy composition to prevent any oxide adhering, then 
introduced for a short time into melted lead, or the "metallic bath" 
as It is called, and then plunged into the tempering liquid. The melt- 
ed lead may Idc kept covered with charcoal, or other suitable ingredi- 
ents, to prevent oxidation. In some manufactories a charcoal fire is 
kept bummg on the surface of the melted lead. 

I'EX Making. — Pens should be made of the best steel that can bo 
got, as peculiar elasticity is required in them, which could not be ob- 
tained if poor steel were used. The steel is cut into slips some 3 feet 
long and 4 inches broad ; these slips are then plunged into a pickle of 
diluted sulphuric acid so as to remove the scales from the surface ; 
next it is passed between heavy rollers by which it is reduced to the 
thickness required, and made fit to undergo tlie first process in pen 
making. This is performed by a girl, who, seated at a stamping- 



572 MACHINISTS engineers', «fcc. receipts 

press provided with'a bed and corresponding punch, speedily cut j out 
tho "blank, which is perfectly flat. The next step is to perforate tho 
hole which terminates the slit, and to remove any superfluous steel 
v/hich might interfere with the elasticity of the pen. The embryo 
pens are then annealed in a muflie, and the maker's name stamj^ed 
upon them. The pens are next transferred to another class of work- 
men, who, by means of a press, either make the pens concave, if they 
are merely to be nibs, or, if they arc to be barrel pens, they roll the 
barrel together. « The next process is termed the hardenirifj, and con- 
sists in placing a number of pens in an iron box which is introduced 
into a muffle. After they become of a deep red heat they are plung- 
ed into a tank of oil, and, when they get cool, the adhering oil is re- 
moved by agitation in circular tin barrels ; tempering is the next step, 
by heating to the necessary elasticity in ti. warm bath of oil; and, fin- 
ally, the Avhole number of pens are placed in a revolving cylinder 
along with sand, ground crucible, and other cutting substances, which 
tends to brighten them up to the natural color of the steel ; next the 
nib is ground down finely, with great rapidity, by a girl, Avho picks it 
up witli a pair of pliers, and, with a single touch on an emery wheel, 
perfects it at once. The slit is now made by means of a press. A 
chisel, or wedge, with a flat side, is affixed to the bed of the press, 
and the descending screw has a corresponding chisel-cutter, which 
passing down with the greatest accuracy on the pen, which had been 
placed on the chisel affixed to the bed, and the slit is made and the 
pen complete. They are next colored brown or blue, by placing them 
in a revolving metal cylinder, under which is a charcoal stove, and, 
by watching narrowly the different gradation of color, the requisite 
thit is speedily attained ; a brilliant polish is subsequently imparted 
by immersing the pens in lac dissolved in naphtha; they arc then 
dried, counted, selected and placed into boxes for sale. 

GoT.D Pens. — Gold pens are made much in the same manner as 
steel, with this important difference, that, as they cannot be temiDcred 
in the same way that steel is, the necessary elasticity is imparted to 
tlicm by hammering, and by rubbing them with a small hard stone 
and water, instead of the tempering, &c., in oil. As gold is too soft ' 
of itself to make a durable pen, it is found necessary to attach a min- 
ute portion of an alloy of irridium and osmium, by soldering to tho 
tips. This makes an extremely hard and durable point. 

Tinning Small Articles. — Dissolve as much zinc scraps in mu- 
riatic acid as it will take up, let it settle, then decant the clear, and 
it is ready for use, Next prepare a suitable iron vessel, set it over 
the fire, put your tin therein, and melt it, and put as much mutton 
or beef tallow as will cover the tin about ^ inch thick. This prevents 
the oxidation of the metal ; but be very careful that the tallow does 
not catch fire. The iron, or any other metal to be tinned, must bo 
well cleaned, either with scraping, filing, polishing with sand, or im- 
mersion in diluted vitriol. Proceed to wet the articles in the zinc ro- 
lution, then carefully immerse them in the talloAV and melted tin ; in a 
very short time they will become perfectly tinned, when they may bo 
taken out. 

To Tin Ikon Wire. — Clean the wire thoroughly in a pickle made 
of sulphuric acid raid water (acid, 1 part, vratcr, 2 x)art3'* cover it with 
a solution of muriate of zinc, and dip in melted tin. 



TM^^CIIINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 573 




MODERN OCEAN STEAMSHIP. 



In its ■wonderful design, vast power, and nice adaptation to successfully 
encounter the most tremendous forces in nature, the modern ocean steam- 
ship is justly entitled to rank as the proudest achievement of man in the line 
of modern engLne3ring. For the Modelling of Ve.tsels, see page 429. 

Engineers of steamships have found that the best lubricants are glycerine 
for the cylinders and castor-oil for the bearings. When castor-oil is used, 
the main beirings seldom become heated. Only the best glycerine can be 
employed with advantage ; bub when it is of a high grade, the results leave 
little to b3 desired. 

C0MPARA.TIVE Wetgiit op Iiiox AND WoOD HuLLS. — An iron hull 
weighs nearly 45 par cant, less than a wood hull. The weight of hull of a 
vessel wibh an iron frame and oak planking, compared with a hull entirely 
of wood, is as 8 to 15. 

Lubricant for Turning Tools. — It is said that eteel annealed to a straw color can 
be easily turned by using a mixbure of petroleum and turpentine as a lubricant. Alloys 
which resisted the best tempered tools have been turned by the U!=e of petroleum alone. 

PiiANER Tools. — For common planing, use a half side tool, stout and short, and 
with the point turned ur>, like a camraoii diamond point; for planing tender, as 
in slide rests, &c., use to jI-3 sharpened up to a point, with the sharp end turned up 
with a taper from the point to the thick part of about 2 inches. JFor squaring up, use 
a round point tool, cutting from the side. 

The United States G-overnment Tempering Secret. — The following proceps 
and mixtures, patented by Garman and Siegfried, and owned by the Steel Refining 
an I Tempering Co., oO Boston, Ma?s., cost the U. S. Government ^10,000 for the 
r ght oC using in their shops, and is said to impart extraordinary hardness and 
durability to the poorest kinds of steel. Siegfried's specification reads as follows : 
" I first heat the steel to a cherry red in a clean smith's fire, and then cover the steel 
with chloride of sodium (common salt), purifying the fire also by throwing in salt. 
I work the steel.in this condition, and while subjected to this treatment, until it is 
brought into nearly its finished form. I then substitute for the salt a componnd 
composed of the following ingredients, and in about the following proportions : One 
p irt by weight of each oO the following substances : chloride of sodium (salt), sulphate 
of copper, sal-ammoniac, and sal-soda, togetiher with }4 part by weight of pure 
nitrat3 of pofcassa (saltpetre), said ingredients being pulverized and mixed ; I alter- 
nately heat the steel and tre^t it by covering with this mixture and hammering it 
until it is thoroughly i-efined and brought into its finished form. I then return it to 
the fire and heat it slowly to a cherry red, and then plunge it into a bath composed 
of the following ingredients, in substantially the following proportions for the 
required quantity: of rain water, 1 gal., alum, sal-soda, sulphate of copper, of each 1>^ 
OZ3.; of nitrate of potassa (saltpetre), 1 oz., and of chloride of sodium (salt), 
6 ozs. These quantities and proportions are stated as being what I regard as practically 
the best, but it is manifest that they may be slightly changed without departing from 
the principles of my invention." 



574 MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 




OLIVER EVANS. 



Inventor of the High-Pressure Steam Engine. 

In 1793, Oliver Eviiiis, n native of Newport, Delaware, invented 
the High-pressure Engine, and in 1804 he constructed an engine in 
Philadelphia, working on the high-pressure system, and placed it on 
a large scow mounted on Avheels, as shown in the following cut. Al- 
though the whole weight was equal to 200 barrels of flour, yet his 
small engine propelled it up Market street and round the circuit to 
the Water Works, where it was launched into the Schuylkill, A 
paddle-wheel was then applied to its stern, and it thus sailed down 
that river to the Delaware, a distance of 16 miles, in the presence of 
thousands of spectators. 

Papier Machb, is used for fancy articles, such as the covers for 
albums, inkstands, blotting books, paper knives, etc., as well as for 
the cells of galvanic batteries. It is obtained from old paper made 
into a pulp with a solution of lime, and gum or starch, pressed into 
the form required, coated with linseed oil, baked at a high tempera- 
ture, and finally varnished. The pulp is sometimes mixed with clay, 
sand, chalk, etc., and other kinds are made of a paste of pulp and 
lime, and used for ornamenting wood, inlaying, etc. 



EVANS' LOCOMOTIVE, SUNDRY ITE3IS. 



575 




Priming Powder for Percussion Caps.— Reduce 40 parts of 
gunpowder to very fine dust; mix to a thin paste witli water, next add 
chlorate of potassa, 21 parts, previouslj'- reduced to a very fine powder; 
make the paste rather thin and deposit a small drop at the bottom 
of the cap. The mixture is liable to explode if iucautiouslv handled. 

Balloon Varnish.— Melt India rubber in small pieces with its 
weight of linseed oil, and thin with spirits turpentine. 

Artificial Coral.— Yellow resin, 4 parts; vermilion, 1 part; melt 
very fine for ornamental work, &c. 

Gold Beater's Skin is prepared by extending the peritoneal 
membranes of cacum, washing them first with plain water, then with 
a solution of alum and lastly with a solution of isinglass and spices. 

Home-made IMicroscope'.— Remove the bottom from a common 
pill box and insert a piece of window glass, paint the inside black, and 
make a small eye hole in the lid. In this hole insert a single drop of 
Canada balsam and allow it to cool. It possesses magnifying power. 

To Remove Tin from Copper Vessels, immerse the article in 
a solution of blue vitriol. To remove tin from plates without acid, 
boil the scrap tin with soda ley in presence of litharge. 

Sound.— In dry air at 82° sound travels 1,142 ft. per second, or 
about 775 miles per hour; in water, 4,900 ft. per second; in iron, 
17,500 ft. ; in copper, 10,378 ft. ; and in wood from 12 to 1(),000 ft. per 
second. In water, a bell heard at 45,000 ft., could be heard in the air 
out of the water but 650 ft. In a balloon the barlcing of dogs can be 
heard on the ground at an elevation of 4 miles. Divers on the wreck 
of the Hussar frigate, 100 ft. nnder Avater, at Hell Gate, near New 
York, heard the ]xiddle wheels of distant steamers hours before they 
hove in sight. The rejwrt of a rifle on a still day may be heard at 
5,300 yds. ; a military band at 5,200 yds. The fire of the English on 
landing in Egypt was distinctly heard 130 miles. Dr. Jamieson says 
he heard, during calm weather, every word of a sermon at a distance 
of 2 miles. The bell of Notre Dame, iMoutreal, Que., weighs 28,560 
lbs. ; that of the City Hall, N. Y., 22.300 lbs.; of St. Paul's, London, 
11,470; "Big Ben," Westminster, 30,350; " Great Tom." of Oxford, 
18,000; St. Peter's, Rome, 18,607; Rouen, Prance, 40,000; St. Ivan's, 
Moscow, 127,830; one unhung at Moscow, 440,000, luid one in China 
weighs 120,000 lbs. 



576 



FOEEIGX WEIGHTS AXD MEASURES. 



TABLE OF FOREIGN WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 

EEDUCED TO THE STANDARD OF THE UNITED STATES. 
(The two right hand figures are the Lundredth parts of a whole number.) 



FKAJfCE. 

Metre 3-28 feet. 

Decimetre (1-lOth metre) 3*94 inches. 

Yelt 2-00 galls. 

Hectolitre 26-42 galls. 

Decalitre 2-64 galls. 

Litre 2-11 pints. 

Kilolitre 35-32 feet. 

Hectolitre 2-84 bush. 

Decalitre 9-08 quarts. 

Millier 2-205 lbs. 

Quintal 220-54 lbs. 

Kilogramme 2-211bs. 

AMSTEllDAM. 

100 lbs. 1 centner 108-93 lbs. 

Last of grain 85-25 bush. 

Ahm of wine 41-00 galls. 

Amsterdam foot 0-93 foot. 

Antwerp foot 0-94 foot. 

Rhineland foot 1*03 feet. 

Amstersdam. ell 2'26 feet. 

Ell Qt the Hague 2-28 feet. 

Ell of the Brabant 2-30 feet. 

NETHERIi A:XDS . 

Ell 3-28 feet. 

Mudde of Zak 2-84 bush. 

Vat hectolitre 26'42 galls. 

Kan litre 2-11 pints. 

Pond kilogramme 2-21 lbs. 

HAMBURG. 

Last of grain 89-64 bush. 

Ahm of wine 38-25 galls. 

Hamburg foot 0*96 foot. 

Ell l-92feet. 

PRUSSIA. 

100 lbs. of 2 Cologne 

marks each 103-11 lbs. 

Quintal, 110 lbs 113-42 lbs. 

Sheffel of grain 1-56 bush. 

Eimar of wine 18-14 galls. 

Ell of cloth 2-19 feet. 

Foot , 1-03 feet. 

DEXMARK, 

100 lbs. 1 centner 110-28 lbs. 

Barrel or toende of corn. 3-95 bush. 

Viertel of wine 2-04 galls. 

Copenhagen or Rhine- 
land foot 1-03 feet. 

SWEDEX 

100 lbs. or 5 lispunds 73-76 lbs. 

Kan of corn 7'42 bush. 

Last 75-00 bush. 

Cann of wine 69-09 galls. 

£11 of cloth 1-95 feet. 

RUSSIA. 

100 lbs. of 32 laths each... 90-26 lbs. 

Chertwert of grain 5-95 bush. 

Vedro ofwine .. 3.25 galls. 

Petersburgh foot 1*18 feet. 

Moscow foot I'lo feet. 

Pood ne-OO lbs. 



SPAIX. 

Quintal, or 4 arrobas 101-44 lbs. 

Arroba 25-36 lbs. 

Arroba of wine 4-43 u^Hs. 

Fanega of grain 1-60 bush, 

PORTUGAL. 

100 lbs 101-19 lbs. 

22 lbs. (1 arroba) 22-2f. lbs. 

4 arrobas of 22 lbs. (1 quin- 
tal) 89-05 lbs. 

Alquiere 4-75 bush. 

Mojo of grain 23-03 bush. 

Last of salt , 70-00 bush. 

Almude of wine 4-37 galls. 

SICILY. 

Cantar ogroso 192-50 lbs. 

Cantaro sottile 175-00 lbs. 

100 lbs 70-00 lbs. 

Salma grossa of grain 9-77 bush. 

Salma generale 7-85 bush. 

Salma of wine 23-06 galls. 

NAPLES . 

Cantaro groso 196-50 lbs. 

Cantaro picolo 106-00 lbs. 

Carro of grain 52-24 bush. 

Carro of wine 264-00 galls. 

ROME. 

Rubbio of grain 8-36 bush. 

Barih of wine 15-31 galls. 

GEXOA. 

100 lbs. or peso groso 76-87 lbs. 

100 lbs. or peso sottile 09-89 lbs. 

Mina of grain 3-43 bush. 

Mezzarola of wine 39-22 galls. 

FLORENCE AND LEGHORN. 

100 lbs. or 1 cantaro 74-86 lbs. 

Moggio of grain 16-59 bu^h. 

Barile of wine 12-04 galls. 

VENICE. 

100 lbs. peso groso 105-18 lbs. 

1 00 lbs. peso sottile 64-04 lbs. 

Moggio of grain 9-08 bu^h. 

Anifora of wine 137-00 galls. 

TRIESTE. 

100 lbs 123-60 IbR. 

Stajo of grain 2*34 but^h. 

Orna or eimer of wine 14-94 galls. 

Ell for woolens 2-22 feet. 

Ell for silk 2-10 feet 

MALTA. 

100 lbs. 1 cantar 174-50 lbs. 

Salma of grain 8*22 bush. 

Foot . 0-85 foot. 

SMYRNA. 

100 lbs. (I quintal) 129-48 lbs. 

Oke 2-83 lbs. 

Quillot of grain 1-46 bush. 

Quillot of wine , 13-50 galls. 

CHINA. 

Tail....... 1-33 oz. 

16 tails 1 cattv l-as lbs. 

10ft catties 1 p'icul 133-25 lbs. 



PRINTERS AKD PUBLISHERS TABLE. 577 



PAPER TABLE FOR PRINT- 
ERS' AND PUBLISHERS' 
•USE, 

Showing the quantity of paper re- 
quired for printing looo copies, (in- 
cluding 56 extra copies to allow for 
wastage), of any usual sized Book 
from 8vo. down to 32mo. If the 
quantity required is not found in the 
f Table, double or treble some suita- 
ble number of pages or quantity of 
paper. 



•4-1 in 


. 





, 





. • 1 1000 


&I. 


00 Pi 

8 


0) 

12 


(L> 




P u 


<u 
P tJO 


Cop's. 
Rs.Qs 


I 


If 


24 


33 


I 2 


2 


16 


24 


3- 


48 


64 


2 4 


3 


24 


36 


4b 


72 


qO 


3 6 


4 


32 


48 


64 


96 


128 


4 8 


5 


40 


60 


80 


120 


160 


S 10 


6 


48 


72 


96 


144 


192 


6 12 


7 


^^ 


84 


112 


168 


224 


7 i\ 


8 


64 


96 


128 


192 


256 


8 iS 


9 


72 


108 


144 


216 


288 


9 i3 


10 


80 


120 


160 


240 


320 


ir 


Ji 


88 


132 


176 


264 


3S2 


12 2 


12 


q6 


144 


192 


288 


384 


13 4 


n 


104 


15b 


208 


312 


416 


14 6 


H 


112 


168 


224 


336 


448 


IS 8 


M 


120 


180 


240 


360 


480 


16 10 


16 


12S 


192 


256 


3«4 


SI2 


17 12 


'7 


13b 


204 


272 


408 




18 14 


13 


144 


216 


288 


432 




19 iJ 


19 


152 


228 


304 


4.S& 




20 i3 


20 


160 


240 


320 


4S0 




22 


21 


168 


252 


336 


504 




23 2 


22 


176 


264 


3S2 






24 4 


23 


184 


276 


368 






25 6 


24 


192 


288 


3«4 






25 8 


2S 


200 


300 


400 






27 10 


26 


208 


3^2 


416 






28 12 


27 


216 


324 


432 






29 14 


28 


224 


33b 


448 






30 16 


29 


232 


34ii 


464 






31 i3 


30 


240 


360 


480 






"iS 


31 


248 


372 


496 






34 2 


52 


256 


3«4 


512 






35 4 


J3 


264 


39(> 


528 






36 6 


54 


272 


408 


544 






37 8 


35 


280 


420 


560 






38 10 


3b 


288 


432 


576 






?9 12 


37 


296 


444 


';92 






JO 14 


3i> 


304 


4S6 


608 






41 16 


39 3i2| 


468 








42 iS 


40 


320| 


480 








44 



NAMES AND DIMENSIONS OF 
VARIOUS SIZES OF PAPER. 



PRINT. 

Medium 19 x 24 

Royal, (20 X 24) 20 x 25 

Super Royal 22 x 2S 

Imperial 22 x 32 

Medium and a half 24 x 30 

Small Double Medium 24 x 36 

Double Medium 24 x 3" 

Double Royal 26 x 40 

Double Super Royal 28 x 42 

Double Super Royal 29 x 43 

Broad Twelves 23 x 41 

Double Imperial 32 ,x 46 

FOLDED. 

Billet Note 6 x S 

Octavo Note 7 x 9 

Commercial Note 8 x 10 

Packet Note 9 x 11 

Bath Note 8J^x 14 

Letter 10 x i5 

Commercial Letter 11 x 17 

Packet Post ii^x iS 

Fcckcap i2j^x 16 

FLAT. 

Letral Cap 13 x 16 

Flat Cap 14 X ij 

Crown 15 X 19 

Double Flat Letter 16 x 20 

Demy 16 x 21 

Folio Post 17 X 22 

Check Folio 17 x 24 

Double Cap 17 x 28 

Extra Size Folio ig x 23 

*Medium 18 x 23 

*Royal 19 X 24 

*Super Royal 20 x 28 

*Imperial 22 x 30 

Double Demy 21 x 31 

Elephant 22%k 2-jyi 

Columbier 23 x si^^C 

Atlas 26 X 33 

Double Elephant 26 x 40 



37 



N. B. — The weight of a ream of paper 
and the price per pound being given, the 
cost per ream or quire may be known at 
once by consulting the Ready Reckoner 
Table. 



578 PASTEBOARD, PULP COLORS, &C. 

To Remove Printer's Ink form Paper Pulp.— Potash 4 lbs; dis- 
solve ill as little boiling water as possible, and add S-h lbs. tallow, boil 
for 3 hoars, and add while cooliiig and stirring, 3 gals, rain water. 
Boil the paper pnlp, Iceeping it covered with water, and to each 20 gals, 
pulp, add 1 gal. oi the above mixture; beat and .stir thoroughh^ and 
the black printing ink will rise to the surface; skim it oft" as long as it 
continues to rise. 

Colored Paper. — The papers made from colored rags are the 
brown packing paper and coarse colored paper, such as sugar and pin 
papers. According to Wagner, colored pin paper requires to every 
50 kilos (see the French measures and their English equivalents 
described elsewhere) of dry pulp the several under-mentioned sub- 
stances : — 

A''oiir>-n- I 2-^^ Kilos Acetate of Lead, 

^ ^^^^^ / 0.45 " Bicliromate of Potash, 

-Ri„^ / 2.05 " Sulphate of Iron, 

^^•^^ il.05 " Ferrocvanide of Potash, 

Green \ ^'^ " ^^^'®' " 

^^^^^ •^•••iL05 " Yellow, 

Violet 1.05 " Extract of Logwood, 

Rose 6.00 " Extract of BrazU \yood, 

-R„«. (3.00 " Oil of Vitriol, 

^^^" I 3.00 " Chloride of Lime. 

Ultra marine and aniline blue are also used in coloring. In varie- 
gated paper chemical, mineral and vegetable coloringsare used ac- 
cording to the desired colors. Body colors are rendered fluid by a 
solution of gum arable or alum in the size, which can be applied by 
a brush or sponge when only one side is to Ve colored. Variegated 
and tapestry papers are an important part of the manufacture. 

French Composition for Printer's Rollers. — For a 24-inch 
roller, take Russian isinglass, ^ oz; gelatine ^ oz; when the usual com- 
position, compounded of glue, 1 lb ; molasses 1 pt. is ready for pouring 
add the above to it; let ah. boil 15 minutes longer, then cast in the 
usual way. 

Pasteboard and other Papers. — Pasteboard is made in 3 ways : 
1. By placing the pulp in a form; form-board. 2. By pressing several 
damp sheets to foim a thick card; elastic pasteboard. 3. By pasting 
together the finished paper sheets; sized pasteboard. 1. Form-board 
is an inferior kind employed for ordinarj^ purposes of packing, book- 
binding, etc. It is made, from waste paper, refuse rags, and the 
coarse parts of the pulp. Clay or challc is sometimes present to 25 
per cent, of the weight of this pasteboard. It is made in a coarse 
ribbed form, goes through the same process of knotting as the paper 
sheet, and is dried and dressed under a roller. 

2. Elastic pasteboard is of better material, and presents a smoother 
surface ; 6 to 12 sheets of paper previously dampened are placed to- 
gether and pressed into one compact sheet. A separate and harder 
kind of pasteboard is the thick elastic board, used for binding books. 
The inner layer is made of coarse stuff, saw dust, etc. 3. Size paste- 
board, or cardboard is made of 2 to 15 sheets 6f sized paper, pressed 
and satined. There are varieties of this cardboard, such as Bristol- 
board, London-board, the former being extensively used for water- 
color drawings, mounting-board, ornamental-board, etc. 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 579 

Bronze Prtxtixg.— Take a small portion of strong lithographic 
vaniish and grind with York Brown, when well ground, thin down 
Avith thin vaniish and gold size equal parts. This wull do for letter 
press or lithograph printing, for paper, cloth, silk, &c. 

Another Way. — Print as with common printers' ink, then dust on 
or rub over with good pale or other colored bronze powder, allow it 
to set, then shake or brush of£ the superfluous bronze with a light 
soft brush. 

Gold Printing. — Have gold leaf cut the proper form to suit your 
job, and use gold size instead of ink as in the usual way on the type. 
Apply the gold leaf to the size until the impression is covered, using 
a gilders tip, or by a dexterous use of the thumb, and forefinger of 
the right hand slightly moistened, raise the gold leaf with the ac- 
companying paper and apply to the size. When all is covered dab it 
down gently with a ball or soft cushion of cotton or other proper 
material, and remove tlie superfluous gold with a soft brush, and if 
the size has been well applied it will assume a splendid appearance. 
Use a good firm roller for gold and bronze printing. 

Colored Inks for Printers. — 21 Tints. — In every case use good 
varnish, the greatest cleanliness, a good marble slab, a good mullcr 
for grinding, and never compound a surplus quantitj^ over and above 
the present requirements. Grind, blend, and finely pulverize the 
ingredients, in each and every instance. Good w-ork demandii 
smooth good ink, free from gritty particles. For a good Red, grind 
in English A-errailion, with a little lake. Deep Red use Indian red 
.ind lake. Bright Red, add carmine to pale vermilion. Deep 
CcARLET, add a little portion of vermilion to carmine. Blue, 
Prussian blue. Bright P^vle Blue, cobalt, also verditure and indigo 
for other shades of blue. Green, to pale chrome add Chinese blue; 
vary the colors by varying the proportions of the different pigments. 
Emerald Green, grind pale blue with a little Chinese blue, then 
add the emerald until the color suits. Deep Bronze Blue, Chinese 
"blue. Deep Brown, burnt umber, with a small quantity of scarlet 
lake. Pale Brow?:, burnt sienna with a little scarlet lake. Deep 
Lilac, add a little carmine to cobalt blue ; for a pale lilac, reverse 
the proportions of each. Bright Pink, crimson, lake or carmine as 
you prefer. Blue and black inks intermixed, will evolve a Deep 
Blue Ink; carmine and blue, will yield a Purple Ink; yellow and 
blue, a Green Ink; yellow and carmine, a Vermilion Ink; yellow 
and black, a Bronze Green; yellow, blue, and black, a Deep 
Green Ink ; carmine, yellow and black, a Brown Ink. 

Copper Plate Printer's Ink is made by adding Frankfort 
black in proper quantity to the usual linseed oil burnt as for common 
printing ink. See page 545. 

Gold Leaf. — According to the color, gold leaf is demoninated 
deep, medium, fine, red, pale red, deep orange, lemon, p^ale ichite, &c. 
Deep gold admits very little alloy, the quantity being usually about 
2^ of silver and 2i copper, making 5 in all. A medium kind is made of 
42 parts pure gold, 12 silver and 6 copper. The gold is first made in- 
to small ingots 1^ x f in. and 3-16 in. thick. The ingot is passed 
repeatedly between 2 polished steel rollers, until it becomes a long 
ribbon only 1-800 in. thick. The ribbon being cut into inch square 
pieces, 150 of these are interleaved with thick paper, and enclosed in 
a parchment case called a kiitch. The kutch is subjected to a long 
continued series of blows administered with a 16 lb. hammer, and to 



580 MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 

ail parts of both surfaces equally. When each piece has been stretch- 
ed out by this beating to 4 in. square, the kutch is opened, the pieces 
are cut into 4 of 2 in. square each, and these are uiterleaved in a 
book of gold-beater's skin called a shoder, the 150 pieces being now 
GOO. Another beating with a 9 lb. hammer spreads out these as be- 
fore and another cutting augments the number from COO to 24.00. 
These are separated into 3 packets of 800 each, and each of these 
packets is again beaten in a book of gold beater' s skin caDed a mould ; 
this beating, lasting 4 hours, is done with a 7 lb. hammer. The leaves 
of gold now reduced to the proper thickness, arc cut into C^ in. i^qv.r.i c 
which are interleaved in books and made up in packs. Leaf gold i3 
the thinnest substance produced in the mechanical arts, being only 
the 280.000 of an inch in thickness, a single grain covering 56 square 
ins. Dentist's gold is thicker than the ordinary leaf gold. 

Aktificiaj. Writing Slate.— Sand (fine), 82 parts; lampblack, 
8 parts ; boiled linseed or cotton seed oil, 10 parts ; boil thoroughly 
together, then add spirits turpentine in order to reduce the mixture 
for easy application to a thin piece of paste-board. When dry, apply 
another coat, dry again, give it a third coat and finish off by rubbing 
smooth with a piece of cotton waste soaked in spirits turpentine. 
Makes most superb memorandum books, &c. ; use a slate pencil. 

The Druimjiond Light is produced by directing a jet of mixed 
oxygen and hydrogen upon a pencil of pure lime, the gases being 
conveyed in separate tubes or pipes, to within a very short distance 
from the aperture at which they are to be delivered, and the flowing 
together and mixing in a very minute quantity before combustion 
takes place. This arrangement is adopted to ensure safety-. The 
gases are used in the proportion of 2 of hydrogen to 1 of oxygen, 
which form a dreadfully explosive mixture. 

To Engrave on Copper. New Method. — Coat the copper with 
any of the silvering solutions described m this work, cover this with 
colored varnish, then draw the lines with a sharp point in the manner 
of using a diamond for stone engraving, and etch them in with per- 
chloride of iron. 

To Enamel Copper Vessels. — Pulverize finely 12 parte of fluor 
spar, 12 parts unground gypsum, and 1 part borax, and fuse together 
in a crucible; when cold, mix with water to a paste, and applj^ to the 
interior with a paint brush ; when dry the vessel should be thoroughly 
baked in a muffle or furnace. 

Tempering Points of Tools.^- After being tempered the volume 
'of the tool is slightly increased, and consequently its specific gravity 
is decreased. As the expansion or increase, of volume is so very 
clight, it is quite immaterial which is plunged into the liquid first ; 
however, every moment the edge is kept out it is cooling, and the 
tempering may be rendered defective thereby. Mercury tempers 
the hardest, then water, then salt water, then oil of various kinds — 
as whale oil. As oil cools the metal more slowly, it is not tempered 
so hard but the tenacity is increased. 

Hard Tinning Compound. — An alloy of nickel, iron and tin has 
been introduced as an improvement in tinning metals, by the firm of 
Blaise & Co., Paris. In an experiment to show the tenacity of the 
nickel, a piece of cast iron tinned with the compound was subjected 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 581 

for a few minutes to a "white heat imder the blast, and, although llic 
till was consumed, the nickel remained as a permanent coating upon 
the iron. The proportions of nickel and iron mixed with tlie tin, in 
order to produce the best tinning, are 10 ozs, of the best nickel and 7 
0--:^, of sheet iron, to 10 lbs. of tin. These metals are mixed in r. 
crucible to prevent the oxidation of the tin by tlie high tcjnperaturo 
necessary for the fusion of the nickel ; the metals are covered with 1 
oz. of borax and 3 ozs. pounded glass. The fusion is comjilete in half 
rii hour, when the composition is run off through a hole made m tliQ 
ih\x. In tinning mefcils with this composition the workman proceeds 
in the ordinary manner. 

To Recover Gold from Quartz. — Pulverize the quartz rock as 
usual, and fuse the mass "with lime and oxide of iron. When fused, 
immerse thin plates of wrought iron m the mixture. The plates 
Boon become coated with a thin film of gold, and are then with- 
drawn and- immersed in a bath of melted lead, -which removes the 
adhering gold, -when the plates can at once be returned to the fused 
quartz and the operation repeated as frequently as the case may 
require. Another method, when the metal is disseminated through 
quartz pyrites or lead, is to pulverize the ore as usual and wash the 
whole with a stream of water, which carries away the hghter 
portions of sand, leaving the heavy metals behuid. It is further 
freed from impurities by being amalgamated wit> quick-silver, 
■\rhich is afterwards distiUed off. In this stiite it gc^orally contains 
from 2 to 10 per cent, of silver or tellurium. It irf further refined 
by being finely granulated and boiled with concentrated sulphuric 
acid until every other constituent is boiled out. Gold by being 
alloyed, loses much of its ductihty and malleabilitj-, but gains in 
fusibility and hardness. Gold alloys are assayed in two waj's, 
first, by rubbing the article on a touchstone (which is a velvety, 
black flinty variety of jaspar) so as to make a metallic streak, 
which is touched with aqi(a regia, and th'' effect is compared with 
that of a similar streak made by an alloy <_«. laiown comijosition. By 
this means an experienced operator civn estimate the amount of 
alloy in any mixture correctly within one per cent. Full informa- 
tion regarding the second process can be seen under the article on 
Refiking Gold and Silver. 

Gold Mentxg in Colorado. — From the veins of Gilpin County 
alone nearly 600 tons of ore are raised daily, or 180,000 tons annually. 
Nearly 500 lodes have been assayed or mapped in a circle of three 
miles in diameter ; fully a thousand lodes have been recorded, and 
more or less work performed on each. From fifteen to twenty miles 
of reputable lodes are known to exist, upon which there is not less 
than 8 miles of shafting, the deepest being 800 feet. There is not less 
than 20 miles of drifting on these veins, following the ore deposit in 
the crevices, and the official assays show the ore to be worth from 
$40 to $130 per ton. The tailings, or refuse of ore put through the 
stamps, are found to be worth $20 per ton, notwithstanding from 10 
to 20 per cent, of the precious metal passes down the stream. The 
average shipments of bullion from this one coimty verges on $2,G00,- 
000 annually. The machinery required for this immense production 
consists of 83 stamp mills, 185 engines ui place, 4367 horse power, 
and 1597 stamr)s, of which there are over 800 in use, requiring 1703 



582 MAcniNiSTs, engineers', «fcC.j RECEirXS. 

horse power. There are 30 engines used at the shafts of miDCs for 
raising ore from the vehis and keeping them free from water. These 
mills contain from 5 to 50 stamps^ mostly driven by steam. Tho 
ore, broken into fragments, is fed into a battery in which the stamps 
are raised and allowed to fall, crushing the ore fine enough to flow 
through a screen placed iu front. Mercury is fed in this battery, and 
the pulverized ore mixed with sufficient water is then made to flow 
over wide plates of copper amalgamated with quicksilver. The gold, 
or part of it, adheres, forming an amalgam with the mercury, which 
is afterwards scraped off, squeezed liard, and the lump retorted in 
a close retort of iron for the purpose of vaporizing the mercury and 
getting the gold almost j)ure ; the retorts being subsequently shipped 
to the East for minting. Each stamp is calculated to do from ^ to £ 
of a ton in 24 hours, requiring about one horse power to each stamp 
liead. Most of the ore is reduced in leased mills abandoned by com- 
panies. These mill men charge their customers between $3 and $i 
per ton for douig this Avork and returning the retort of gold. Tho 
tailmgs are partially caught in the best mills on blankets, and 
reworked at a profit ; the bulk, however, passes outside, a portion 
estopping to be shovelled into a pile, the balance going on to the stream. 
The waste is nearly or quite equal to the gross -yield in bullion. 
The most profitable branch of vein mining and reduction by the 
smdtiiif/ process was undertaken by Prof. Htll m 1867, iu comiectiou 
with some Boston and Providence capitalists, and is managed with 
much ability, energy and skill, compensated by enormous profits, of 
which the outside public know little or nothing, from the vigilance 
with which all such information is suppressed. From the road side 
you see from 20 to 30 piles of ore sending forth sulphurous emanatiour^ 
into the air. These pUes are first started on a layer of wood, and 
are run up in a pyramid form some 5 to 6 feet, with diameter at base 
of from 10 to 20 feet, and then fired, the sulphur affording the only 
fuel, after the exliaustion of the wood, to keep the fire going from 
four to six weeks. Tliis ore lias been passed through the sampling 
works and been paid for, the amount lying thus iu piles at one time 
amounting to, i)erhaps, $80,000. After roasting sufficiently to drive 
off the sulphur, and oxidize a portion of the iron, these piles are 
cooled and the ore carried to the smelting furnaces, where under a 
heavy lient, more sulphur is driven off, and the sDica or ganc/ue mat- 
ter is made to unite with the oxide of iron to form a slag. At the end 
of the smelting some 8 or 10 tons are thus reduced to one called 
" matte," containing from $1,500 to $2,000 in the precious metals, and 
from 40 to GO per cent of copper. This product is then shipped in bag."} 
to Swansea, England, for separation into the several metals contained. 
The establishment contains three smelting furnaces and three calcin- 
ing furnaces, capable of reducing from 20 to 25 tons of ore per day. 
The tailings which are concentrated along the streams, and are also 
sold to this establishment, average from $35 to $40 per ton. These 
works are doubtless the most profitable of the kind known in the 
world. In workuig tolerably high grade sulphuretted ores, if the 
facilities do not admit of sending them to England, the best way is to 
erect a common furnace, having the fire surfaces of good soap stone; 
then, to every 150 lbs. of ore, put iu one bushel of charcoal and 10 
per cent of salt. The ore will readily melt to a slag, and will bo 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 583 

pretty well dcftulphurizcd. The slapj can be drawn oiT, and Avhen 
cold can be broken up, and worked like free gold ore. 

Recovering Silvek by the Patio Puocess. — The operation 
known by this name is sometimes conducted on an inuuenso scale. 
In one instance at the hacienda of Regla near Real de Monte, tliere i.s 
an establishment the floor of which is 1:^ acres in extent, built in tlio 
most substantial manner, slightly sloped to facilitate the flow of water. 
The flooring consists of well matched pine boards, and this vast re- 
ceptacle sometimes coutams as much as 1000 tons of argentiferous 
slime, 30 tons of salt, 3 tons sulphate of copper, and 18,000 lbs. of 
mercury in various stages of the amalgamating process. The reason 
why this takes place in the well known manner is because there is an 
affinity between the different ingredients employed in the operation. 

Ox Corkespondexces. — The affinity above referred to as existing 
between different materials, arises from a nature insemhiated or im- 
planted in each substance by tlie Creator, by virtue of which such 
a mutual affinity exists between them that when an intermixture 
takes place, they, as it were attract each other, and rush together in 
mutual embrace. Closely comiected with these affinities, as sliowing 
the cause of their existence and origin, we have in the science of cor- 
respondences a most wonderfnl and instructive study, entering in 
its varied ramifications, so deeply into the inherent nature of every 
created thing, that there is nothing, and can be notliing in tlK) universe 
but what comes within its consideration. The transcendent imi)oit- 
ance of the subject is such that it is deserving of vastly more elaborate 
consideration than the transient notice of a single paragraph, but as it 
would be a violation of order to enter into an extended explanation in 
this place, the reader is referred to the appendix for further illustration. 

Mercury or Quicksilver. — The ore is cimiabar of a bright ver- 
milion color. Its specific gravity is 8098. It is produced in immenso 
quantities at the New Almaden mine in Santa Clara County, 12 milc.4 
from the town of San Jose, which is 54 miles from San Francisco, Cal. 
The process by which the fluid metal is extracted is one of great sim- 
plicity. There are G furnaces, near which the ore is deposited from 
the mine, and separated according to its quality; the larger masse!4 
are first broken up and then all is piled up under sheds near the 
furnace doors. The ore is next heaped on the furnaces, and a steady 
though not a strong fire is applied ; as the ore becomes heated the 
quicksilver is sublimed, and being condensed it falls by its own weight, 
and is conducted by pipes, which lead along the bottom of the furnace 
to small pots or reservoirs imbedded in the earth, each containing from 
1 to 2 gallons of the metal. The furnaces are kept going night and 
day, while large drops or minute streams of the i)ure metal are 
.""onstautly triclding down into the receivers; from there it is car- 
lied to the store house and deposited in large cast iron tanks or 
vats, the largest of which is capable of containing 20 tons of 
quicksilver. Seven or eight days are required to fill the furnaces, 
extract the quicksilver and remove the residuum. The miners and 
those who merely handle the quicksilver are not injured thereby, 
but those who work about the furnaces and inhale the fumes of 
the metal are seriously affected. Salivation is common, and the 
attendants on the furnaces are compelled to desist from their 
labour every three or four weeks, when a fresh set of handj i^ put 



584 MAcnixiSTS, engineeks", &c., BECEirrs. 

on. The horses and mules are also salivated, and from 20 to GO of 
them die every year from tlie effects of the mercury. 

Smelting of Coppek. — After the ore is raised from the mine, it is 
freed from its matrLx and sorted, the purest portions beiii^ broken 
into i)ieces the size of a nut. Tlie first calcination is effected in a 
reverberatory furnace, the lieat not being raised too high. At the 
end of 12 hours the ore is converted into a black powder, contain- 
ing sulphide of copper, oxide and sulphide of iron, and eaithy 
impurities. The roasted ore is next fused -with a quantity of silicioius 
slag, by which mean^ it is converted into a fusible slag, consisting 
of silicjite of iron and sulphides of iron- and copper, which e'nik 
through the slag, formmg at the bottom a heavy mass, termed a 
matt. The matt thus procured is, while melted, rim into water, 
by which it is granulated. The product obtamed is called coarse 
metal. It is roasted once more for twenty-four hours, by which 
means the larger proportion of the sulphide of iron is converted 
into oxide. It is then calcined with some copper ore known to 
contain oxide of copper and silica. The oxide of copper transforms 
any remaining sulphide of iron uito oxide, which is taken up by the 
silica to form a slag, through which the suli^hide of copper sinks. 
This matt contains about 80 per cent, of copper, and is known 
by the name of fine metal. It is cast into pigs, the lower portion.} 
of which contain most of the impurities ; the metal extracted from 
the upper jxjrtious being Icnowu in the market as best selected 
copper. The fhie metal has now to be freed entirely from sulphur 
by a final calcination, at a heat just short of that required to fuse 
it. Daring the process the metal becomes oxidized at the surface. 
The oxide thus formed decomposes the rest of the sulphide, sul- 
phnrous acid escaping, the metallic copper remaining behind. The 
metiil obtamed is run off into moulds, forming ingots full of bub- 
bles, from the escape of tlie sulphurous acid gas. These ingots, 
which are known as pimple, or blistered copper, from their peculiar 
appearance, have now to imdergo the i^rocess of refining. They 
are placed in a reverberatory furnace, and kept ui a melted state 
for upwards of 20 hours, to oxidize the last traces of foreign 
metals. Slags are formed on the surface and skimmed off, and a 
great deal of oxide is produced which is absorbed by the metal. To 
reduce this oxide, the surface of the melted metal is covered with an- 
thracite or charcoal, and towards the last a young tree is thrust in, 
Tliis process, which is called poling, disengages the whole of the 
oxygen from the oxide diffused through the mass. The above is, as 
nearly as possible, the method of copper-smelting, as employed in 
England, the processes adopted in Saxony and North America being 
nearly indentical with it, the difference merely being modifications 
to suit the various impurities contained in the ore. When the ore con- 
Bists of oxide or carbonate of copper only, it is reduced to the metallic 
state by simple fusion with charcoal and subsequent poling. 

Smelting of Lead. — The ore havmg been brought to tiie surface, 
is first sorted by hand, the purest portions being set aside ready for 
f^melting. The rest is broken by hammers into lumps as large as a 
walnut, and again sorted. The remainder is then crushed in a mill, 
and sifted through coarse sieves, the coarser portions being set aside 
for the stampers, and the finer being subjected to the process oijlf/- 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 585 

.7in.7. This consists in plungiu'^ a sieve containing the ore into Tvatcr, 
auci sliaking it dexterously, so tliat the smallest particles pass throufih 
leaving the larger pieces in tlie sieve, with the lightest and least me- 
tallic portions uppermost If the sorted galena be tolerably frco 
irom gaugue, about 1.^ tons of the ore is mixed with l-15th to 1-4 0th 
it5 "weight of lime, and heated to dull redness in a reverberatory fur- 
nace, througli which a current of air is passing. By this means a 
large portion of the sulphur is burnt off as sulphurous acid, oxide of 
lead and sulphate of lead being formed, and much of the ore re- 
maining undecomposed. When the roasting has been carried 
rafficiently far, the furnace doors are shut and the heat is raised. 
The sulphate and oxide of lead re-act on the undecomposed sulphide, 
a large quantity of sulphurous acid is formed which passes off, leav- 
ing large quantities of metallic lead behind. The iire is noAv dr.mpcd, 
and a quantity of lime thrown in, v<hich forms a very infusible slag, 
allowing the metallic lead to be dra^vn off into moulds. This is 
smelted with an additional portion of ore. Lead is refined by being 
melted in a shalloAv pan in a reverberatory furnace. By this opeiation 
any tin or antimony it may contain is oxidized and removed. When 
a ladleful of the lead under this operation cools Avith a peculiar crj^s- 
talline surface; the process is discontinued, and the metal is run off 
into pigs. For some jiurpose, such for instance as the making of red 
lead for the manufacture of flint glass, it is necessary that the lead 
should be almost chemically pure, as a jiroportion of copper for in- 
stance, amounting only to a few grains per ton, would color the glass and 
spoil the batch. Silver may be profitably extracted from lead, even 
when it contains only three or four ounces to the ton, by Pattinson's 
process. This process depends upon tlie fact that, as lead solidifies, 
the first portions that crystallize are pure lead. The operation is, 
therefore, performed by melting the metal in an iron pot and al- 
lowing it to cool gradually ; as it cools, the crj'stals of pure lead are 
removed by a perforated ladle, and the process continually repeated 
v.ith fresh portions of lead until the mass contains about 300 ounces 
to the ton. It is then submitted to c2<peUation. 

To Construct a Barometer. — Get a strong glass tube 34 inches 
long and of a smooth even bore. Close one encl by means of a spirit 
lamp and blow pipe, or Bunsen burner, and fill the tube with pure, 
clean, dry mercury, excluding all bubbles of air. Now place your 
fmger over the open end of the tube, and cautiously insert it in a 
small cistern or vessel partially filled with mercury. Do not removo 
your finger until the end of the tube which it covers is safely below 
the surface of the mercury in the vessel. When the tube is tlius in- 
serted remove your finger and the contents will fall until the height 
of the mercury is nearly 30 ins. above the level of the mercury in tlie 
cistern beneath. In the barometer the mercury never rises above 
31 inches and seldom falls below 27. The tube may be fitted into a 
grooved wooden case, the scale attached in the proper place, and the 
final adjustment made by comparison with a correct instrument. 

Smelting of tin. — ^To extract the metal, the ore is first stamped or 
Avashed to get rid of the lighter particles of sand or earth adhering to 
it. It is then roasted to free it from arsenic and sulphur, and again 
washed to carry off the sulphate of copper and oxide of iron. The wash- 
ed ore is mixed Avith from one-fifth to one-eighth its weight of poAvder- 
cd anthracite, or charcojil, and a small portion of lime to form a fusible 



586 MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS.' 

Blag with any of the reraaiiiini; £;;u\i;uc. Tlie charge is placed in tlio 
hearth of a low cro^viicd. rcverberatory furnace, and the doors arc 
closed \xp. Heat is appUed very gradually for five or six hours, care 
being taken to raise the temperature high enough to cause the Ciirbtm 
to reduce the tin without nielting the silicious gangue, which would 
form Avith the binoxide an enamel too troublesome to remove. Wheu 
nearly all the tin is reduced, the heat is raised considerably, the slags 
being thus rendered fluid and capable of floating on the surface of the 
melted metal. The tin is then run off into cast iron pans from which 
it is ladled off into moulds to form ingots. The tin thus procured is 
far from bemg pure, it is therefore submitted to the process of lignation, 
which consists in heatuig the ingots to incipient fusion. By thia 
means the purer tin, which fuses at a comparatively low heat, separates, 
rmmmg doAvu and leaving the impure portions behind. The less fusi- 
ble portion, when remelted, forms block tin, and the part which has 
run out is again melted and run out with wet stakes. The steam thus 
formed bubbles up to the surface, carrying witli it all the mechanical 
impurities contained in the tin. The mass is then skimmed and allowed 
to cool. When just about to set, the upper half is ladled out, the other 
metals and impurities having sunk into the bottom half, from the ten- 
dency thatthis metal has to separate from its alloys. The finest quality 
of tin is frequently heated to a temperature just short of its melting 
point. At this heat, it becomes brittle, and is broken up into masses, 
showing the crystals of the metal, and forming what is kno\vn as 
grain tin. The formation of crystals is to some extent a guarantee 
of its purity, since impure tin does not become brittle in this way. 
English tin generally contains small quantities of aisenic, copper, iron 
and lead. Tui fuses at 442° Fahr. , but it is not sensibly volatilized at 
that or any higher temparature. For the manufacture of tin ]ilate tlie 
best soft charcoal iron is obliged to bo used. After it has been rolled 
and cut to the requisite size, its surface is made chemically clean by 
immersion for a few mmutcs in dilute sulphuric acid. The sheets are 
tlien heated to a red heat in a rcverberatory furnace, withdrawn, al- 
lowed to cool, hammered flat, passed between polished rollers, and 
are now washed m dilute acid. This i^reparation is needed to free the 
surface of the iron from the slightest portion of oxide, to wliich the 
tin would not adhere. In order to tin them they are plunged one by- 
one into a vessel of tallow, from which they are transferred to a bath 
of tin. From this they are taken, after a certain time, allowed to 
(Train, and dipped agam. The superfluous tin at the edge of the plate 
is removed by dipping it in the melted tin once more, and detacliing 
it by giving the plate a sharp blow. 

Royal British Washing Powdek. — Soda ash, 10 lbs; carbonate 
of soda (ordinary soda), 10 lbs. ; crush uito coarse graius. Have a 
thin solution of glue, or decoction of linseed oil ready, into which pour 
the soda rnitil quite thick, and spread out on boards, in a warm a^jart- 
ment, to dry, then pack up into nice square packages for sale, label- 
ling neatly. Used to soften hard water-; finds a ready sale at a good 
profit. Another Way to soften Hard Water. Stir 1 oz. fresh lime in 
a bucket of water, pour all into a barrel of water, rummage well; 
when it settles, the water will be soft, pure, and fit for use. Seltzer 
Aperient. Calcined magnesia, 1 lb. ; tartaric acid, in ciystals, IJ lbs. ; 
loaf sugar, 1^ lbs. ; bicarbonate of soda, 1 lb. Towder aU carefully, 



:.:acuixists, exginekks', &c., receipts. 587 

dry separately, mix, and add of ess. lemon and orange, Ox each, h fl. 

dr. Cork tightly in warm dry bottles, after passing through a tine 

sieve. 1 tablespoonful to a tumbler of water acts as a mild cathartic. 

Liquid Black Lead Polish. — A good and reliable substitute for 

I)Owdered stove polish, can be tlius made: black lead, pulverized, 2 
bs. ; spts. turpentine, 2 gills; water, 2 gills; sugar, 2 ozs. ; mix. 

USEFUL ITEMS TOR DAILY KEMEMUrwAXCE. 

LT:r.AL BRI:^^TIES. — A note dated on Sunday is void. A note op- 
tained by fraud, or from one intoxicated, is void. If a note be lost 
or stolen, it does not release the maker, he must pay it. An endorser 
of a note is exempt from liability, if not served with notice of its dis- 
honor within 24 hours of its non-payment. A note by a minor is 
void. Notes bear interest only when so stated. Principals are re- 
sponsible for their agents. Each individual in partnership is respon- 
sible for the whole amount of the debts of the fnm. Ignorance of the 
law excuses no one. It is a fraud to conceal a fraud. It is illegal tc 
compound a felony. The law compels no one to do impossibilities. 
An agreement without a consideration is void. Signatures in lead 
pencil are good in law. A receipt for money is not legally conclusive. 
The acts of one partner bind all the others. Contracts made on Sun- 
day cannot be enforced. A contract with a minor is void. A con- 
tract made with a lunatic is void. Written contracts concerning laud 
must be under seal. 

A TABLE OF DAILY SAVINGS AT COMPOUXD INTEEEST. 

Cents per Hay Plt Year In Ten Years Fifty Yeai'i 

2M sS 10 $ 130 ■$ 2,i;00 

5| 20 2G0 5,800 

11 40 520 11,000 

2Th 100 1,300 29,000 

55 200 2,G00 58,000 

1.10 400 5,200 11(),000 

1.37 500 G,500 145,000 

By the above table it aiipears that if a mechanic, or clerJc saves 2| 
cents per day from the time he is 21 till lie is 70, tlie total with in* 
terest will amount to $2,900, and a daily saving of 27^ cents reaclieg 
the important sum of $29,000. Save all you can in a prudent man- 
lier for a time of possible want, but act justly by paying your debta^ 
and liberally by assisting those In need, and helping in a gooG 
cause. 

On Profane Swearing.— Let every man do his best to discoun- 
tenance tills abominable habit, and shun it as an accursed sin in every 
jjossible way. No respectable person wiU allow himself to be guilty 
of it. Business men v/ho make a practice of it will find themselves 
avoided by the best class of customers, for I know that some persona 
can suffer no mental punisliment equal to that inflicted by being com- 
pelled to listen to profane language. Besides, every man known as a 
profane swearer, will not be credited by tliose whose good opinion ig 
worth having, even when he may be speaking the truth. 

Act Well Your Part, Don't be Selfish. — Kemember that it 
ia by impaiting happiuesa to others, and makixjg oursclvca useful, 



588 MACUIXISTS, engineers', AC, RECEIPTS. 

that we receive happiness. Stind by this trutli, live it out, and al- 
ways keep doing something useful for the common good, doing it well, 
and acting sincerely. Endeavour to keep j^our heart in the attitude of 
cherishing good will to all, thinking and speaking evil of no one, and 
always with a kind word for every body. Selfishness is its own curse; 
it is a starving vice. The man who does no good gets none. lie is 
like the heath in the desert, neither yielding fruit nor seeing when 
good Cometh, a stunted dwarfish, miserable shrub: Let all your in- 
fluence be exerted for the x^urpose of doing all you can for the com- 
mon good and individual welfare of every one. 

Married Life, its Joys and Sorrows. — A good wife is the 
greatest earthly blessing. A wife never makes a greater mistake 
than when she endeavours to coerce her huband with other weapons 
than those of love and affection. Those weapons are a sure pull if 
lie has any thing human left in him. Forbear mutual upbraidings. 
In writing letters, during temporary separation, let nothing contrary 
to love and sincere affection be expressed ; such letters from a wife 
have a most powerful emotional ellect, sometimes little understood 
by those who write them. It is the mother who moulds the character 
and destiny of the child as to the exteriors, therefore let calmness, 
peace, affection, and firmness rule her conduct towards her children. 
Children are great imitators, whether they have scolding or peaceful 
mothers, they are generally sure to learn from the examples set before 
them, and thus the consequent joy or sorrow is transferred to other 
families, therefore let mothers take heed to their conduct. It is not 
X^ossible to exercise judgment and prudence too much before entering 
on the married life. Be sure that the affections on both sides are bo 
perfectly intertwined around each other, that the two as it were, form 
one mind ; this requires time, and a thorough mutual knowledge on 
both sides. Marry in your o^vu religion, and into a different blood 
and temperament from your own. Bend your whole powers to avoid 
depreciatory remarks, jibing and anger in every form, and spec- 
ially avoid everlastingly dishing up any unsuccessful past action that 
was done from a good motive and with the best intentions at the time, 
Let nothing foreign to the spirit of love and mutual affection intervene 
to cause distance between husband and wife ; to this end let self-de- 
nial rule over each, and reciprocal unselfishness. Avoid habitual 
fault-finding, scolding, &c., as you would perdition itself; many men 
tremble as they cross their threshold into the presence of scolding wives. 
Let husband and wife cultivate habits of sobriety, and specially avoid 
drunkenness in every form. \Yliat a dreadful spectacle it is to see a 
husband transformed into a demon, tottering homeward to abroken- 
iiearted wife, whose noble self-sacrificing devotion to him seems to 
partake more off the nature of heaven than of earth. Never part, even 
for a journey, without kind and endearing words, and as a kiss sym- 
bolizes union from interior affection, do not dispense with it on 
Fuch occasions, repeating it when you return. In one word, let 
love rule supreme. 

In all your dealings with woman, take a lesson from the cooing dove, 
ppeak softly, deal gently, kindly and considerately with her in every 
way. Let every husband and every wife cherish for each other the 
lieavenly flame of affection, and let no rude, harsh, or embittered ex- 
prc;ii>ioii ojj either sido chill the sacred fire. If ever adoration of tho 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &.C., KECEirTS. 589 

creature may hope for imrdon, surely the worship rendered by man 
to a kmd, pure, affectionate and lovmg wife, heaven's best gilt, may 
mvoke forgiveness. What countless millions of women have sac- 
rificed heafth, strength and life in attendance on sick and dying hus- 
bands, children and strangers ? How many have perished by rush- 
ing through fire and water to save their children, and starved theni- 
eeives that they might live ? In how many hospitals has she proved 
herself an an^el of mercy, and her sweet voice uttered words of 
comfort and cheer ? Therefore let woman have her full rights, even 
that of voting if she desires it, for a good woman's influence will ever bo 
used for a good puiijose ; but let woman act towards man as indi- 
cated in the above advice for man to act towards woman, and she would 
be all but omnipotent, for man in a manner would move heaven and 
earth to serve her, and would do unspeakably more for her than can 
ever be done by all the fussy croakers, old maids, and woman's rights 
associations and lecturers in the creation. Love in the family is the 
one thing needful to regenerate the earth and cause the wilderness to 
become as Eden, and the desert to blossom as the rose. Reversed 
love and discord have broken more hearts, and caused more sorrcnv, 
estrangement, and downright death, than war, pestilence and all other 
causes combined. It palsies energy and ambition, engenders gloom 
and despair, and transforms manhood into an icicle. Statistics prove 
that the married live longer on the average by several years, than 
the unmarried, a most satisfactory proof that the married state is pre- 
eminently the life designed for man, therefore let all interested do 
their utmost to make it the happiest. 

In reference to the maintenance of liDalth, many valuable prescriptions 
and much good advice will be found under the Medical Department 
in this work, but truth requires us to state that for the purpose of 
mitigating the pains and labour incident to woman at the most event- 
ful and critical periods of her life, notliing within the whole compass 
of nature will compare with water, in its varied applications. This 
intimation is made for the purpose of directing enlightened and in- 
telligent action on the subject as necessity may call for it. Past ex- 
perience sustains us when we say that all may enjoy the great bless- 
ing of good health in the free use of the bath, the temperate use of 
proper diet, plenty of exercise, pure air, warm clothing and ab- 
stinence from every excess inimical to health. 

Childken AisT) Hoihe Conversation. — Children hunger perpetu- 
ally for new ideas. They will learn with pleasure from the lips of 
parents what they deem drudgery to learn from books, and even if 
they have the misfortune to be deprived of many educational ad- 
vantages they will grow up intelligent if they enjoy in childhood the 
privilege of listening to the conversation of intelligent people. Let 
them have many opptortunities of learning in this way. Be kind to 
them, and don't thiiik it beneath you to answer their little questions, 
for they proceed from an implanted faculty which every true man and 
woman should take a great deUght in gratifying. 

Home after Business Hours. — ^Happy is the man who can find 
that solace and that poetry at home. AV^arm greetings from loving 
hearts, fond glances from bright eyes, and welcome sliouts of merry 
hearted children, the many thousand little arrangements for comfort 
and enjoyment, that silently tell of thoughtful and expectant love, 
tliese are the ministrations tliat reconcilo us to the prose of life. 



,590 MACHINISTS, engineers', &c., keceipts. 

Tliink of this ye wives and daiighters of business men ! Think of the 
toils, tlie anxieties, the mortification and wear that fatliers undergo 
to secure for you comfoitable homes, and compensate them for their 
toils by making them happy by their own fireside. 

Well Wokthy of Imitation. — A worthy Quaker thus wrote : — 
" I expect to pass through this world but once. If, therefore, there 
be any kindness I can do to any fellow being, let me do it noAv, let 
me not defer nor neglect it, fori will not pass this way again. " 
Were all to act thus how many would be made happy ! 

Another Sensible Qu^ucer. — A Quaker lately propounded tho 
momentous question to a fair Quakeress, as follows : " Hum ! yea 
and verily; Penelope, the spirit urgeth and moveth me wonderfully 
to beseech thee to cleave unto me, iiesh of my flesh, and bone of my 
bone." "Hum ! truly, Obadiah, thou hast wisely said. Inasmuch 
as it is not good for man to be alone, lo, I will sojourn with thee." 

Table Conversation. — Instead of swallowing your food in sullen 
silence, or brooding over your business, or severely talking about 
others, let the conversation at the table be genial, kind, social and 
cheering. Don't bring any disagreeable subject to the table in your 
conversation, any more than you Avould hi your dishes. Avoid 
scandalizing people, and never cherish a jubilant feeling over the 
infirmities or misfortunes of others. The more good company you 
have at your table the better. Hence the intelligence, refinement and 
appr()i)riate behaviour of a family given to hospitality. Kever feel that 
intelligent visitors can be anything but a blessing to you and yours. 

Keep the House Clean and Well Ventilated. — A neat, clean, 
fresh aired, sweet, cheerful, well arranged house, exerts a moral in- 
fluence over its inmates, and makes the members of a family peace- 
able and considerate of each other's feelings; on the contrary, a filthy 
squalid, noxious dwelling, contributes to make its inhabitants selfish, 
sensual, and regardless of the feelings of others. Never sleep iii a 
small close bedroom, either during summer or Avinter, without free 
ventilation from door or windows, unless otherwise supplied with 
abundance of fresh air. It will be seen that a person's house usuaDy 
corresponds Avith his character. 

Safe Business Rules. — Business jien, in bushiess hours, attend 
ONLY to business matters. Social calls are best adai)ted to tho 
SOCIAL circle. Make your business known in few words, without 
loss of time. Let your dealings with a stranger be :riost carefully 
considered, and tried friendship duly appreciated. A mean act 
will soon recoil, and a man op honour will be ESTEEaiED. Leave 
" Tricks of trade" to those whose education was never completed. 
Treat all with respect, confide in few, wrong no man. Be never 
afraid to say No, and always Prompt to acknowledge and rectify a 
wrong. Leave nothing for to-morrow that should be done to-day. 
Because a friend is polite, do not think his time is valueless. Have 
a place for everything, and every thing in its place. To preserve 
LONG friendship, keep A short credit, the way to get credit is to 
be punctual ; the way to preserve it is not to use it ranch. 
Settle often; have short accounts. Trust no man's appearances, 
they are often deceptive, and assumed for the purpose of obtaining 
credit. Rogues generally dress well. The rich are generally plain 
MEN. Be WELL satisfied before you give a credit, that those to 
whom y'OU crs'B it are safe men to be trusted. ». 



ITEMS FOR DAILY REMEMBRANCE. 591 

Habits of a Man of Busikess. — A sacred regard to tlie princi- 
ples of justice forms tlie basis of every transaction, and regulates the 
conduct of the upriglit man of business. 1. He is strict in keeping his 
engagements. 2. Does nothing tirelessly or in a hurry. 3. Employs 
nobody to do what he can easily do himself, 4. Leaves nothing un- 
done that ought to be done, and which circumstances permit him to 
do. 5. Keeps his designs and business from the views of others, yet 
he is candid with all. G. Is prompt and decisive with his customers, 
and does not overtrade his capital. 7. Prefers short credit to long 
ones; and cash to credit at all times, either in buying or selling; and 
small profits in credit cases with little risk, to the chance of better 
gaius with more hazards. 8. He is clear and explicit in his bargains. 
9 Leaves nothing of consequence to memory which he can and ought 
to commit to writing. 10. Keeps copies of all his important letters 
which he sends awaj-, and has every letter, invoice, «S:c., belonging 
to his business, titled, classed and put awaj*. 11. Xever suffers his 
desk to be confused by many i)apers lying upon it. 12. Keeps 
everything in its proper place. iS. Is always at the head of his busi- 
ness, Avell knowing that if he leaves it, it Avill leave him. 14. Holds 
it as a maxim, that he whose credit is suspected is not to be trusted. 
15. Is constantly examining his books, and sees through all his affairs 
as far as care and attention will enable him. 16. Balances regu- 
larly at stated times, and then makes outandtransmits all his accounts 
current to his customers, both at home and abroad. 17. Avoids as 
much as possible all sorts of accommodation in money matters and 
law-suits Avhere there is the least hazard. 18. He is economical iu 
his expenditure, always living within his income. 19. Keeps a memo- 
randum book in his pocket, in which he notes every particular relative 
to appointments, addresses, and petty cash matters. 20. Is cautious 
how he becomes security for any person. 21. And is generous when 
urged by motives of humanity. Let every man act strictly to these 
habits; Avhen once begun will be easy to continue in, ever remember- 
ing that he had no profits by his pains whom Providence does not 
prosper, and success will attend his efforts. Let him also remember 
that tlie true achievements of life do not consist iu making stiUtUug 
strikes, but in the solid performance of daily duty. 

How TO Make a Fortune. — Cornelius Yanderbilt, on bemg inter- 
rogated as to the best way to make a fortune, is reported to have said 
in reply, " There is no secret about it, all you have to do is to attend 
to your business and go ahead." " There' is nothing," said George 
Law, " so easy as making money when you have money to make it 
with ; the only thing is to see the crisis and take it at its flood." Alex- 
ander T. Stewart, the millionaire merchant prince of New York, who 
died April 10, 1876, once said to an anxious enquirer, "I consider 
honesty and truth great aids in makmg a fortune." This was ster- 
ling advice, and when it is supplemented by good management, 
ardent application to business, and strong self-reliance, as it was iu 
an eminent degree in Mr. Stewart's oaati case, it cannot fail to teU 
with irresistable power in favor of the man who follows it. 

True Charity. — Mr. Stewart's idea of charity was that in order 
to help men you must assist them to get work to help themselves, 
and not cherish in them a spirit of cringing dependence by giving 
them money for nothing. " Himself a man of strong self-reliance, 



592 ITEMS FOR DAILY REMEMBRANCE. 

he believed that the best service you could do uien was to teach them 
to rely on themselves — to ])reseiit them opportunities which only 
could be improved bj^ individual effort. He had no charity for idle- 
u'-^ss, or the ambition to reap when you have not sown." As observ- 
ed by his executor, Judge Hilton, "It is more charitable to furnish 
employment to men and women, than it is to destroy their self-respect 
by giving them money, as to paupers. Mr. Stewart never believed in 
helping people to live without work. We have {),G00 persons on the 
pay roll of A. T. Stewart & Co., and I think that I will best carrj^ out 
Mr. Stewart's views, and be practically charitable by maintaining the 
business which will keep those 9,600 persons in honorable employ- 
ment, so that they can support themselves and the thousands of fami- 
lies dependent upon them." Of Mr. Stewart's honesty and rigidly fair 
dealing there are numerous accounts. " What do you mean by saying 
Avhat you know to be untrue," he once demanded of a clerk who was 
trying his best to convince a woman that a piece of calico would not 
facie. " The calico won't wash, she'll demand her money back and 
she'll be right. I don't want goods represented for what they are 
not." It was this i^erfect honesty towards his customers that was Mr. 
Stewart's leading characteristic ; and it Avas his invariable custom, 
when questioned as to his explanation for his success, to reply with 
much emphasis. " Truth, truth is the talismanic word; and if I have 
one earthly wish or desire greater than another, it is that in this 
respect my example may be commended and followed by young men 
entering into business, and especially by young merchants." On this 
tirm basis of truth and integrity he conducted his colossal business, 
not by reckless risks or bargains, but by steady adherence to business, 
perfect system, and close attention to the least details as well as the 
largest. 

"It is much to be regretted that Mr. Stewart did not, during his 
long and most successful business career, see fit to inaugurate and 
cari-v out to completion anv such system of public beneficence as Avas 
at ail commensurate with the ample means at his command, and that 
the performance of such important oflfices should be delegated or in- 
trusted in an optional way, to another. Every man, prospered and 
blest Avitli the almost boundless prosperity meted out to Mr. SteAvart, 
oAves a dutv to society which should never be neglected in this Avay. 
The generous conduct of that great and good philanthrophist, George 
PeabodA^ is in this respect most Avorthy of double honor, and his es- 
teemed name will be deservedly and gratefully remembered by gen- 
erations yet unborn, for the memorable services Avhich he rendered 
ill his princely bequests to the industrious poor of London, and the 
education of the colored population of the South. 

The following extracts from a letter Avritten by Dr. Franklin to the 
Rev. George Wiiitefield (in response to a letter of thanks for relief 
derived bv the latter from the application of electricity in a case of 
l-aralysisfvery clearly defines the mutual duty of mankind to each 
other. The following is the first part of Franklin's letter :— 

Philadelphia, June 6, 1753. 

Sir : I received your kind letter of the 2d inst., and am glad to 
hear that you increase in strength. I hope you will continue mend- 
ing till you recover ypur former health and firmness. Let me know 



ITEMS FOR DAILY REMEMBRANCK. 593 

wiiether you still use the cold bath, and what effect it has. As to the 
kindness you mention, I wish it could have been of greater service to 
you. But if it had, the only tlianks I should desire is, that you would 
always be equally ready to serve any other person that may need 
your assistance, and so let good offices go round, for mankind are all 
of a family. For my own part, when I am employed in serving 
others, I do not look upon myself as conferring favors, but on paying 
debts. 

In my travels and since my settlement, I have received much 
kindness from men, to whom I shall never liave any opportunity of 
making the least direct return, and numberless mercies from God, 
wlio is infinitely above being benefited by our services. Those kind- 
nesses from men I can therefore only return on their fellow-men and 
I can only show mj' gratitude for those mercies from God, by a readi- 
ness to help his other children and my brethren. For I don't think 
that thanks and compliments, though rej^eated weekly, can discharge 
our real obligation to each other, and much less those to our Creator. 
You will see in this my notion of good works, that I am far from ex- 
pecting to merit heaven by them. B}' heaven we understand a state 
of happiness infinite in degree and eternal in duration ; I can do 
nothing to merit such rewards. He that for giving a draught of 
water to a thirsty- person, should expect to be paid with a good i^lantJi- 
tion, would be modest in his demands, compared with those Avho 
tlihik they deserve heaven for the little good they do on earth. Even 
the mixed imperfect pleasures we enjoy in this world, are rather 
from God's goodness tlian our merit ! how much more such happiness 
of heaven ! for my part, I have not the vanity to think I deserve it, 
the folly to expect it, nor the ambition to desire it, but content myself 
in submitting to the will and disix)sal of that God who made mcVho 
has hitlierto preserved and blessed me, and in whose fatherly good- 
ness I may well confide, that he will never make me miserable, and 
that even the afflictions I may at any time suffer, shall tend to my 
benefit. 

CORRESPOXDENCE OR SYMBOLIC ME-^JTIKG OF C0hORS.— lVhit& 

was the emblem of light, religious purity, innocence, faith, joy and 
life. In the judge, it indicates integrity,' in the sick, huniiUty, in the 
woman, chastity. 

Bed, the ruby, signifies fire, divine love, heat of the creative 
power, and royalty. White and red roses, express love and wisdom. 
Tlie red color of the blood has its origin in the action of the heart, 
Avhich corresponds to, or symbolizes love. In a bad sense, red cor- 
responds to the infernal love of evil, hatred, etc. 

Blue, or the sapi^hire, expresses heaven, the firmament, truth from 
a celestial origin, constancy and fidelity. 

Yelloio, or gold, is the symbol of the sun, of the goodness of God, 
of marriage, and faithfulness. In a bad sense, yellow signifies in- 
constancy, jealousy and deceit 

^jrveen, the emerald, is the color of the spring, of hope, particularly 
jf the hope of immortality and of victory, as the color of the laurel 
and palm. 

Violet, the amethyst, signifies love and truth, or passion and suf- 
fering. Purple and scarlet signify things good and true from a celes- 
tial origin. 

G8 



594 



ITEMS FOR DAILY REMEMBRANCE. 



Black corresponds to despair, darkness, eartliliness, mourning, 
negation, wickedness and deatli. 

The Best Things. — TJie best theology — a pure and beneficent 
life. The best philosophy — a contented mind. The best law — the 
golden rule — The best education — self-knowledge. Tlie best state- 
inanship — self-government. The best medicine cheerfulness and 
temperance. The best art — painting a smile on the brow 
of childhood. The best science — extracting sunshine from a 
cloudy wray. The best war — to war against internal evils and 
selfishness. The best music — the laughter of an innocent child. The 
best journalism — printing the true and the beautiful only on mem- 
ory's tablet. The best telegraphing — flashing a ray of sunshine into 
a gloomy heart. The best biography — the life which writes charity 
in the largest letters. The best mathematics — that which doubles the 
most joys and divides the most sorrows. The best navigation — steer- 
ing clear of the lacerating rocks of personal contention. The best 
diplomacy — effecting a treaty of peace with one's own conscience. 
The best engineering — building a bridge of love, faith, and trust, in 
the Divine, over the river of death. 

Save a Little. — Every man who is obliged to work for his liv- 
ing, should make a point to lay up a little "money for that "rainy 
day " which we are all liable to encounter when least expected. The 
best Avay to do this is to open an account with a savings bank. Ac- 
cumulated money is always safe ; it is always ready to use when 
needed. Scrape together five dollars, make your deposit, receive 
your bank book, and then resolve to deposit a given fuim, small 
though it be, once a month, or once a week, according to circum- 
stances. Nobody knows without trying it, how easy a thing it is to 
save money when an account with a bank has been opened. Witli 
such an account a man feels a desire to enlarge his deposit. It gives 
him lessons in frugality and economy, weans him from habits of ex- 
travagance, and is tlie very best guard in the world against intemper- 
ance, dissipation and vice. The following table is appended in order 
to exhibit the time required by money to double itself when loaned at 
the designated rates of interest : — 



Rate per cent. 



2 
2 
3 
3 
4 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 



1-3 
1-2 



1-2 



Time in which a Sum will double. 



Simple Interest. Compound Interest 



50 years. 

40 years. 

33 years 4 mouths 

28 years 208 days. 

25 years. 

22 years 81 days. 

20 years. 

16 years 8 months 

14 years 104 days. 

12 i-2 years. 

11 years 40 daj's 

10 A'Cars. 



35 j^ears 

28 years 

23 years 

20 years 

17 years 

15 years 

15 years 

14 years 

10 years 

9 years 

8 years 

7 years 



1 day. 
26 days. 

164 days. 

54 davs. 
246 days. 
273 days. 

75 days. 
327 days. 

89 days. 

2 days. 
16 days. 

100 days. 



-WAGES TABLE. 

SALARIES AXD WAGES BY THE YEAR, MONTH, AVEEK OR DAY, SHOW- 
ING WHAT ANY SU.M FROM §20 TO §1600 i'ER ANNUM, 18 PER 
MONTH, WEEK OR DAY. 



Per Year 


Per Month. 


Per Week. 


Per Day. 


Per Year. 


Per Month 


Per Week. 


Per Day 


1 


* c. 


* c. 


* c. 


$ 


$ c. 


* c. 


$ c.^ 


20 is 


1.67 


.38 


.05 


280 IS 


23.33 


5.37 


.77 


25 


2.08 


.48 


.07 


285 


23.75 


5.47 


.78 


30 


2.50 


.58 


.08 


290 


24.17 


5.56 


.79 


35 


2.92 


.67 


.10 


295 


24.58 


5.60 


.81 


40 


3.33 


.77 


.11 


300 


25.00 


5.75 


.82 


45 


3.75 


.86 


.12 


310 


25.83 


5.95 


.85 


50 


4.17 


.96 


.14 


320 


26.67 


6.14 


.88 


65 


4.58 


1.06 


.15 


325 


27.08 


6.23 


.89 


CO 


5.00 


1.15 


.16 


330 


27 ..00 


6.33 


.90 


65 


5.42 


1.25 


-18 


340 


28.33 


6.52 


.93 


70 


5.83 


1.34 


.19 


350 


29.17 


6.71 


.96 


75 


6.25 


1.44 


.21 


360 


30.00 


6.90 


.99 


80 


6,67 


1.53 


.22 


370 


30.83 


7.10 


1.01 


85 


7.08 


1.63 


.23 


375 


31.25 


7.19 


1.03 


90 


7.50 


1.73 


.25 


380 


31.67 


7.29 


1.04 


95 


7.92 


1.82 


.26 


390 


32.50 


7.48 


1.07 


100 


8.33 


1.92 


.27 


400 


33.33 


7.67 


1.10 


105 


8.75 


2.01 


.29 


425 


35.42 


8.15 


1.16 


110 


9.17 


2.11 


.30 


450 


37.50 


8.63 


1.23 


115 


9.58 


2.21 


,32 


475 


39.58 


9.11 


1.30 


120 


10.00 


2.30 


.33 


500 


41.67 


9.59 


1.37 


125 


10.42 


2.40 


.84 


525 


43.75 


10.07 


1.44 


130 


10.83 


2.49 


,36 


550 


45.83 


10.55 


1.51 


135 


11.25 


2.59 


,37 


575 


47.92 


11.03 


1.58 


140 


11.67 


2.69 


,38 


600 


60.00 


11.51 


1.64 


145 


12.08 


2.78 


,40 


625 


52.08 


11.99 


1.71 


150 


12.50 


2.88 


.41 


650 


54.17 


12.47 


1.78 


155 


12.92 


2,97 


.42 


675 


56.25 


12.95 


1.85 


160 


13.33 


3.07 


.44 


700 


58.33 


13.42 


1.92 


165 


13.75 


3.16 


.45 


725 


60.42 


13.90 


1.99 


170 


14.17 


8.26 


.47 


750 


62.50 


14.38 


2.05 


175 


14.58 


3.36 


.48 


775 


64.58 


14.86 


2.12 


180 


15.00 


3.45 


.49 


800 


66.67 


15.34 


2.19 


185 


15.42 


3.55 


.51 


825 


68.75 


15.82 


2.20 


193 


15.83 


3.64 


.52 


850 


70.83 


16.30 


2.33 


195 


16.25 


3.74 


.53 


875 


72.92 


16.78 


2.40 


200 


16.51 


3.84 


.55 


900 


75.00 


17.26 


2.47 


205 


17.08 


3.93 


.56 


925 


77,08 


17.74 


2.53 


210 


17.50 


4.03 


.58 


950 


79.17 


18,22 


2.60 


215 


17.92 


4.12 


.59 


975 


81.25 


18.70 


2.67 


220 


18.33 


4.22 


.60 


1000 


83.33 


19.18 


2.74 


225 


18.75 


4-31 


.62 


1050 


87.50 


20.14 


2.88 


230 


19.17 


4,41 


.63 


1100 


91.67 


21.10 


3.01 


235 


19.58 


4.51 


.64 


1150 


95.83 


22.06 


3,15 


240 


20.00 


4.60 


,66 


1200 


100.00 


23.01 


3.29 


245 


20.42 


4.70 


.67 


1250 


101.17 


23.29 


3.42 


250 


20.83 


4.79 


.69 


1300 


108.33 


24.93 


3.50 


255 


21.25 


4.89 


.70 


1350 


112..50 


25.89 


3.70 


260 


21,67 


4,99 


.71 


1400 


116.67 


26.85 


3.84 


265 


22.08 


5.08 


.73 


1450 


120.84 


27.80 


3,98 


270 


22.50 


5,18 


.74 


1500 


125.00 


28.77 


4,U 


275 


22.92 


5.27 


i75 


1600 


133.34 


30.68 


4,38 



Note. — If the desired sum is not in the table, double some number ; for 
instance if the salary or wages is §2000, dowWe the gums opposite SIOOQ, i\ivX »q 
oil with the rest. 



"WAGES TABLE. 

WAGES TABLE, calcctlated on A scale of TEN HOURS LABOR 

PER DAY. THE TIME, IN HOLERS AND DAYS IS NOTED IN THE 
LEFT HAND COLUMN, AND THE AMOUNT OF AVAGES UNDEll THE 
EESPECTIVE HEADINGS AS NOTED BELOW. 



Wages. 


$1.00 


$1.50 


$2.00 


$2.50 


$3.00 


$3.50 


$4.00 


$4.50 


$5.00 


$5.50 


$0.00 


g Vi 


.1 


IV4 
.2i| 


.1% 


.2 


.2% 


3 


•3% 


.2% 


.4% 


.4% 


.5 


k 1 


.1% 


.3% 


.4H 


.5 


6 


.«% 


.7% 


.«% 


.9% 


.10 


W 2 


•3% 


..'5 


.62/« 


.«% 


.10 


11% 


.13% 


.15 


.162/3 


.18% 


.20 


3 


.5 


.7% 


.10 


.12 H 


.15 


17% 


.20 


•22% 


.25 


.27% 


.30 


4 


.62/3 


.10 


.13% 


.162/3 


.20 


23% 


.26% 


.30 


.33% 


.362/, 


.40 


5 


.8% 


.12% 


.162/3 


.21 


.25 


29/6 


.33% 


.37% 


.41% 


.46 


.50 


G 


.10 


.15 


.20 


.25 


.30 


35 


.40 


.45 


.50 


.55 


.60 


7 


.11% 


.i7y« 


.23% 


.29% 


.35 


41 


•46% 


.521^ 


.58% 


.641^ 


.70 


8 


.13% 


.20 


•262/3 


.33% 


.40 


462/3 


.53% 


.60 


.662/, 


.73% 


.80 


9 


.15 


.22y2 


.30 


.37 V2 


.45 


52% 


.60 


.67% 


.75 


.82% 


.90 



Days. 


.16% 


.25 


.33% 


.41% 


.50 


.58% 


.662/3 


.75 


.83% 


.91% 




1 


1.00 


2 


.33% 


.50 


.66% 


.83% 


1.00 


1.162/3 


1.33% 


1.50 


1.662/3 


1.83% 


2.00 


3 


.50 


.75 


1.00 


1.25 


1.50 


1.75 


2.00 


2.25 


2.50 


2.75 


3.00 


4 


.66% 


1.00 


1.33% 


1.662/3 


2.00 


2.33% 


2.662/3I 3.00 


3.33% 


3.662/3 


4.00 


5 


.83% 


1.25 


1.662/, 


2.08% 


2.50 


2.912/3 


3.33% 1 3.75 


4.162/3 


4.58% 


5.00 


6 


1. 00 


1.50 


2.00 


2.50 


3.00 


3.50 


4.00 4.50 


00 


5.50 


6.00 



Wages. 


$C.50 


$7.00 


$7.50 


$8.00 
.6% 


$9.00 


$10.00 


$11.00 


$12.00 


$13.00 


$14.00 


$15.00 


i % 


.5% 


.6 


.6V4 


•7% 


.8% 


.9 


.10 


.11 


.12 


.12% 


§ 1 


.11 


.11% 


.12^2 


.13% 


.15 


.162/3 


.18% 


.20 


.22 


.23% 


.25 


« 2 


.21% 


.23% 


.25 


•262/3 


.30 


.33% 


.362/3 


.40 


.43% 


•46% 


.50 


3 


.32% 


.35 


.37 '/a 


.40 


.45 


.50 


.55 


.60 


.65 


.70 


.75 


4 


.43% 


.46% 


.50 


.53% 


.60 


.662/3 


.73% 


.80 


.862/3 


.93% 


1.00 


5 


.541^ 


.58% 


.62% 


.662/3 


.75 


.83% 


.91% 


1.00 


1.08% 


1.162/3 


1.25 


6 


.65 


.70 


.75 


.80 


.90 


1.00 


1.10 


1.20 


1.30 


1.40 


1..50 


7 


.76 f ,812/3 


•87% 


.93% 


1.05 


1.16% 


1.28% 


1.40 


1.52 


i.63y3 

1.86% 


1.75 


8 


.862/3 .93% 


1.00 


I.O62/3 


1.20 


1.33% 


1.46% 


1.60 


1.73% 


2.00 


9 


.97% 1-05 


1.12% 


1.20 


1.35 


1.50 


1.65 


1.80 


1.95 


2.10 


2.25 



Days. 


1.08% 


1.16% 


1.25 


1.331/3 


1.50 


1.662/3 


1.83% 


2.00 


2.17 


2.33% 




1 


2.50 


2 


2.I62/3 


2.33% 


2.50 


2.662/3 


3.00 


3.33% 


3.662/3 


4.00 


4.34 


4,662/i, 


5.00 


3 


3.25 


3.50 


3.75 


4.00 


4.50 


5.00 


5.50 


6.00 


6.51 


6.992/3 


7.50 


4 


4.33% 


4.662/3 


5.09 


5.33% 


6.00 


6.662/, 
8.33% 


7.33% 


8.00 


8.68 


9.33 


10.00 


5 


5.412/3 


5.83% 


6.25 


6.662/, 


7.00 


9.I62/3 


10.00 


10.85 


11.66% 


12.50 


6 


6.50 


7.00 


7.50 


8.00 


9.00 


10.00 


11.00 ' 


12.00 


13.00 


14.00 


15.00 



If the desired number of days or amount of wagea is not in tlie table, 
double or treble any suitable number of days or amount of money as the case 
may be, until you obtain the desired number of days and the wages to 
correspond. 

To Reduce the Price of Wheat, rsi Sterling, per Imperial 
Quarter, to Dollars and Cents,— Reduce the shillings per quarter 
into dollars and cents, at 24,2 cts. per shilling, and divide by 9g, the num- 
ber of United States bushels in an imperial quarter. 

Example. — Required the price of wheat per U. 6. bushel in Liverpool, 
when it fetches 68s, 6d. per imperial quarter. 58s. 6d.. equals $14 15, 
which, divided by 94, gives $J,5li the price per bushel. 

598 



INTEREST TABLE, 

AT SIX PER CENT., IX DOLIiABS AND CENTS, FROM ONE DOLLAR TO 
TEN THOUSAND. 





1 day. 


7 days. 


15 days. 


1 mo. 


3 mos. 


G mos. 


12 mo3. 


« 


§c. 


§c. 


S c. 


§ c. 


Sc 


^c. 


$c. 


1 


00 


00 


001/4 


001/0 


OlVo 


03 


OtJ 


2 


00 


001/4 


001/2 


01 


03" 


OJ 


12 


3 


00 


00^4 


00% 


0114 


041/2 


00 


18 


4 


00 


001/2 


01 


02 


m 


12 


24 


5 


00 


0014 


011/4 


021/0 


071/, 


15 


30 


G 


00 


003/4 


011/2 


03 " 


OD ' 


18 


3(3 


7 


00 


00% 


01% 


0.3i/„ 


101/, 


21 


42 


8 


00 


01 


02 


04 " 


IJ " 


2t 


48 


9 


00 


01 


O2I/4 


0*1/0 


131/2 


27 


5i 


10 


00 


011/4 


0214 


05 


15 


30 


GO 


20 


00V4 


Oil/2 


05'^ 


10 


30 


GO 


1 20 


30 


00V2 


0.31/0 


071/, 


15 


45 


90 


1 bO 


<0 


00% 


Oil/, 


10 " 


20. 


CO 


1 20 


2 40 


no 


01 


03 


121/2 


25 


75 


1 50 


3 00 


100 


oiy. 


11% 
2314 


25 


50 


1 5) 


3 00 


G 00 


100 


0! ' 


50 


1 00 


3 00 


G 00 


12 00 


oOO 


05 


35 


75 


1 50 


4 50 


9 00 


18 00 


<00 


07 


461/2 

5Si| 


1 00 


2 00 


G 00 


12 00 


24 00 


500 


08 


1 25 


2 50 


7 50 


15 00 


30 00 


1000 


17 


1 I6I/2 


2 50 


5 00 


15 00 


30 00 


GO 00 


200J 


3] 


2 3314 


5 00 


10 00 


30 00 


60 00 


120 00 


1000 


50 


3 50 


7 50 


15 00 


45 00 


90 00 


180 00 


4000 


G7 


4 66I/2 

5 83i| 
11 GGV^ 


10 00 


20 00 


GO 00 


120 00 


240 00 


5000 


83 


12 50 


i5 00 


75 00 


150 00 


300 00 


10000 


1 G7 


25 00 


50 00 


150 00 


300 00 


COO 00 



AT SEVEN PER CENT,, IN DOLLARS AND CENTS, FROM ONE DOLLAR 
TO TEN THOUSAND. 



1 


00 


00 


001/4 


001/0 


0134 


031/2 


2 


00 


001/4 
00i| 

ooi| 


001/2 


01% 
01% 


03% 

05% 


07 


3 


00 


00% 


10% 


4 


00 


01 


021/8 


07 


14 


6 


00 


003/. 


011/2 


03 


083/4 


171/0 


C 


00 


003/1 


01% 


031/2 


10% 


21 ' 


7 


00 


01 


02 


04 


12V4 


24% 


8 


00 


01 


021/4 


012A 
05% 
053^ 


14 


28 


9 


00 


01V4 


021/2 


1534 

17% 


31% 


10 


001/4 


01V4 

02% 


03 


35 


20 


002/, 

00i| 

003/4 


og 


11% 

17% 


35 


70 


30 


04 


09 


52% 


1 05 


40 


05V, 
0032 
13% 


12 


^l 


70 


1 40 


50 


01 


15 


87% 


1 73 


100 


02 


20 


581/3 


1 75 


3 60 


200 


04 


271/4 
40% 


5S 


1 16% 


3 50 


7 00 


300 


03 


871/2 


1 75 


5 25 


10 60 


400 


08 


B41/2 


1 17 


2 33% 


7 00 


14 00 


500 


10 


68 


1 40 


2 91% 
5 83% 


8 73 


17 50 


1000 


191/2 


1 36 


2 92 


17 50 


35 00 


2000 


39 


2 72% 

4 081/J 

5 44i| 

6 80U 


fi S3 


11 66% 


85 00 


70 00 


3000 


58 


8 75 


17 50 


52 50 


105 00 


4000 


78 


n «7 


23 33% 


70 00 


140 00 


5000 


97 


14 58 


29 16% 


87 50 


175 00 


10000 


X 94 


13 Gl " 


29 17 


58 33 


175 00 


350 00 



07 


It 


21 


28 


35 


42 


40 


5g 


63 


70 


1 40 


2 10 


2 80 


3 50 


7 00 


14 00 


21 00 


28 00 


35 00 


70 00 


140 00 


210 00 


280 00 


350 00 


700 00 



537 



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►« N to ^ i/lO r^W O O -' ri to ■^ mo r-»co 

££9 



READY RECKONER. 

READY RECKONER, to find the Price of any Numl^er of Pounds, Yards 
Pieces, or Bushels, from 2 cents to §3.00. 

The first column contains the NUMBER, the top columns the PRICES. 



Nos 


2ct. 


3ct. 


4ct. 

. 8 


5ct. 
.10 


6Ct. 
.12 


6V4Ct. 


7ct. 


8ct. 


9ct. 


10 ct. 


11 ct. 


2 


. 4 


. G 


.121/2 


.14 


.16 


.18 


.20 


.22 


^ 


. 6 


. 9 


.12 


.15 


.18 


.1834 


.21 


.24 


.27 


.30 


.33 


4 


. 8 


.12 


.16 


.20 


.24 


.25 


.28 


.32 


.36 


.40 


.44 


5 


.10 


.15 


.20 


.25 


.30 


.311/4 


.35 


.40 


.45 


.50 


.55 


6 


.12 


.18 


.24 


.30 


.36 


.371/2 


.42 


.48 


..54 


.60 


•66 


7 


.14 


.21 


.28 


.35 


.42 


.43% 


.49 


.56 


.63 


.70 


.77 


8 


.I'i 


.24 


.32 


.40 


.48 


.50 


.56 


.64 


.72 


.80 


.88 


9 


.18 


.27 


.36 


.45 


M 


.561/4 


.63 


.72 


.81 


.90 


.99 


10 


.20 


.30 


.40 


.50 


•CO 


.621/2 


.70 


.80 


.90 


1.00 


1,10 


11 


.22 


.33 


.44 


.55 


•66 


.683/4 


.77 


.88 


.99 


1.10 


1.21 


12 


.24 


.36 


.48 


.60 


.72 


.75 


.84 


.96 


1.08 


1.20 


1.32 


13 


.26 


.39 


.52 


.65 


.78 


.8II/4 


.91 


1.04 


1.17 


1.30 


1.43 


14 


.28 


.42 


.56 


.70 


.84 


.871/1 


.98 


1.12 


1.26 


1.40 


1.54 


15 


.30 


.45 


.60 


.75 


.90 


.933/4 


1.05 


1.20 


1.35 


1.50 


1.65 


16 


.32 


.48 


.64 


.80 


.96 


1.00 


1.12 


1.28 


1.44 


1.60 


1.76 


17 


.34 


.51 


.C8 


.85 


1.02 


I.O6I/4 


1.19 


1.36 


1.53 


1.70 


1.87 


18 


.36 


.54 


.72 


.90 


1.08 


1.121/2 


1.26 


1.44 


1.62 


1.80 


1.98 


19 


.38 


.57 


.76 


.95 


1.14 


1.183/4 


1.33 


1.52 


1.71 


1.90 


2.09 


20 


.40 


JK) 


.80 


1.00 


1.20 


1.25 


1.40 


1.60 


1.80 


2.00 


2.20 


25 


.50 


.75 


1.00 


1.25 


1.50 


1.561/4 


1.75 


2.00 


2.25 


2.50 


2. 5 


So 


•60 


.90 


1.20 


1.50 


1.80 


1.871/2 


2.10 


2.40 


2.70 


3.00 


3.30 


40 


.80 


120 


1.60 


2.00 


2.40 


2.50 


2.80 


3.20 


3.60 


4.00 


4.40 


50 


1.00 


1.50 


2.00 


2.50 


3.00 


3.121/2 


3.50 


4.00 


4.50 


5.00 


5.50 


60 


1.20 


1.80 


2.40 


3.00 


3 60 


3.75 


4.20 


4.80 


5.40 


6.00 


6.60 


70 


1.40 


2.10 


2.80 


3.50 


4.20 


4.371/2 


4.90 


5.60 


6.30 


7.00 


7.70 


80 


1-60 


2.40 


3.20 


4.00 


4.80 


5.00 


5.60 


6.40 


7.20 


8.00 


8.80 


90 


1.80 


2.70 


3.60 


4.50 


5.40 


5.021/2 


6.30 


7.20 


8.10 


9.00 


9.90 


100 


2.00 


3.00 


4.00 


5 00 


6.00 


6 25 


7.00 


8.00 


_9._00_ 


10.00 


11.00 


Nos 


12 ct. 


i2y2ct. 


13ct. 
.26 


14 ct. 

.28 


15 ct. 

.30 


16 ct. 


18 ct. 


183^ct. 


19 ct. 


20 ct. 


21 ct. 


2 


.24 


.25 


.32 


.36 


.371/2 


.38 


.40 


.42 


3 


.36 


.371/2 


.39 


.42 


.45 


.48 


.54 


.561/4 


.57 


.60 


.63 


4 


.48 


.50 


.52 


.56 


.60 


.64 


.72 


.75 


.76 


.80 


.84 


5 


.60 


.fi2y2 


.65 


.70 


.75 


.80 


.90 


.933/4 


.95 


1.00 


1.05 


fi 


.72 


.75 


.78 


.84 


.90 


.96 


1.08 


1.121/2 


1.14 


1.20 


1-26 


7 


.84 


.871/2 


.91 


.98 


1.05 


1.12 


1.26 


1.311/4 


1.33 


1.40 


1.47 


8 


.96 


1.00 


1.04 


1.12 


1.20 


1.28 


1.44 


1.50 


1.52 


1.60 


1.68 


9 


1.08 


1.121/2 


1.17 


1.26 


1..35 


1.44 


1.62 


1.683/4 


1.71 


1.80 


1.89 


10 


1.20 


1.25 


1.30 


1.40 


1.50 


1.60 


1.80 


1.871/2 


1.90 


2.00 


2.10 


11 


1.32 


1.371/2 


1.43 


1.54 


1.65 


1.76 


1.08 


2.061/4 


2.09 


2.20 


2.31 


12 


1.44 


1.50 


1,56 


1.68 


1.80 


1.92 


2.16 


2.25 


2.28 


2.40 


2.52 


13 


1.56 


1.621/2 


1.69 


1.82 


1.95 


2.08 


2.34 


2.433^ 


2.47 


2.60 


2.73 


14 


1.68 


1.75 


1.82 


1.96 


2.10 


2.24 


2.52 


2.621/2 


2.66 


2.80 


2.94 


15 


1.80 


1.871/2 


1.95 


2.10 


2.25 


2.40 


2.70 


2.8II/4 


2.85 


3.00 


3.15 


16 


1.92 


2.00 


2.08 


2.24 


2.40 


2..56 


2.88 


3.00 


3.04 


3.20 


3..36 


17 


2.04 


2.121/2 


2.21 


2.38 


2.55 


2.72 


3.06 


3.183/4 


3.23 


3.40 


3.57 


18 


2.16 


2.25 


2.34 


2.52 


2.70 


2.88 


3.24 


3.371/2 


3.42 


3.60 


3.78 


19 


2.28 


2.371/2 


2.47 


2.66 


2.85 


3.04 


3.42 


3.56V4 


3.61 


3.80 


3.99 


20 


2.40 


2..50 


2.60 


2.80 


3.00 


3.20 


3.60 


3,75 


3.80 


4.00 


4.20 


25 


3.00 


3.121/2 


3.25 


3.50 


3.75 


4.00 


4.50 


4.683^ 


4.75 


5.00 


5.25 


30 


3.60 


3.75 


3.90 


4.20 


4.50 


4.80 


5.40 


5.621/2 


5.70 


6.00 


(i.30 


40 


4.80 


5.00 


5.20 


5.60 


6.00 


6.40 


7.20 


7.50 


7.60 


8,00 


8,40 


50 


6.00 


6.25 


6.50 


7 00 


7.50 


8.00 


9.00 


9.3714 


9.50 


10.00 


10.50 


60 


7.20 


7.50 


7.80 


8.40 


9.00 


9 60 


10.80 


11.25 


11.40 


12.00 


12.60 


70 


8.40 


8.75 


9.10 


9.80 


10.50 


11.20 


12.60 


13.121/0 


13.30 


14.00 


14.70 


80 


9.60 


10.00 


10.40 


11.20 


12.00 


12.80 


14.40 


15.00 ' 


15.20 


16.00 


16,80 


90 


10.80 


11.25 


11.70 


12 60 


13.50 


14.40 


16.20 


16. 871/2 


17.10 


18.00 


18.90 


100 


12.00 


12.50 


13.00 


11.00 


15.00 


16.00 


18.00 


18.75 


19.00 


20.00 


21.00 



600 



READY RECKONER. 

The first column on the left contains the NUMBER of tlie Article, and the 
column on the tops of the tables the PRICE. 



Nos 


22ct.^23ct. 


24 ct. 


25 ct. 

.5C 


26 ct. 
.52 


|27ct. 


28 ct. 29 ct. 


30 ct. 


31 ct. 


SlVkct. 


2 


.44.1 .46 


.48 


' .54 


.53 


.58 


.60 


.62 


.621/2 


3 


.66! .69 


.72 


.75 


.78 


.81 


.84 


.87 


.90 


.93 


•93% 


4 


.881 •9'-^ 


.96 


1.00 


1.04 


1.08 


1.12 


1.16 


1.20 


1.24 


1.25 


5 


l.lOj 1.15 


1.20 


1.25 


1.30 


1.35 


1.40 


1.45 


1.50 


1.55 


I.56I/4 
1.87i| 
2.183i 


(5 


1.32 1.38 


1.44 


1.50 


1.56 


1.62 


1.68 


1.74 


1.80 


1.86 


7 


1.54 1.61 


1.68 


1.75 


: 1.82 


1.89 


1.96 


2.03 


2.10 


2.17 


8 


1.76 1.84 


1.92 


2.00 


: 2.08 


2,16 


2.24 


2.32 


2.40 


2.48 


2.50 


9 


1.98 2.07 


2.16 


2.25 


! 2.34 


2.43 


2^52 


2.61 


2.70 


2.79 


2.8II/4 


10 


2.20 2.30 


2.40 


2.50 


; 2.60 


2.70 


2.80 


2.90 


3.00 


3.10 


3.121/2 


11 


2.42| 2.53 


2.64 


2.75 


2.86 


2.97 


3.08 


3.19 


3.30 


3.41 


3.4334 


12 


2.64 2.76 


2.88 


3.00 


3.12 


324 


3.36 


3.48 


3.60 


3.72 


3 75 


13 


2.86 2.99 


3.12 


3.25 


3.38 


3.51 


3M 


3.77 


3.90 


4.03 


4.O6I/4 


14 


3.08 3.22 


3.36 


3.50 


\ 3.64 


3.78 


3.92 


4.06 


4.20 


4.34 


4.371/2 


15 


3.30, 3.45 


3.G0 


3.75 


3.90 


4.05 


4.20 


4.35 


4.50 


4.55 


4.683/4 


16 


3.52 3.68 


3.84 


4.09 


4.16 


4.32 


4.48 


4.64 


4.80 


4.96 


5.00 


17 


3.74; 3.91 


4.08 


4.25 


4.42 


4.59 


4.76 i 4.93 i 


5.10 


5.27 


5.3114 
5.62% 


18 


3.96; 4.14 


4.32 


4.50 


4.68 


4.86 


5.04 


5.22; 


5.40 


5.58 , 


19 


4.181 4.37 


4.56 


4.75 


4.94 


5.15 


5.32 


5.51 1 


5.70 


5.89 j 


5.933/4 


20 


4.40! 4.60 


4.80 


5.00 


5.20 


5.40 


5.60 


5.80 1 


6.00 


6.20 j 


6.25 


25 


5.501 5.75 


6.00 


6.25 


6.50 


6.75 


7.00 


7.25 


7.25 


7.75 i 


7.8II4 


30 


6.601 6.90 


7.20 


7.50 


7.80 


8.10 


8.40 


8.70 


9.00 1 


9.30 ! 


9.371/2 


40 


8.80; 9.20 


9.60 


10.00 


10.40 


10.80 


11.20 


11.60 1 


12.00 j 


12.40 


12.50 


50 


11.0011.50 


12.00 


12.50 


13.00, 


13.50 


14.00 


14.50 ; 


15. 00 1 


15 50 


15.621/2 


60 


13.20 13.80 


14.40 


15.00 


15.60 


16.20 


16.80 


17.40 i 


18.00 1 


18 60 


18.75 


70 


15.40 16.10 


16.80 


17.50 


18.20 


18.90 


19.60 


20.30 ; 


21.00 1 


21.70 


21.871/2 


80 


17.60 18.40 


19.20 


20.00 


20.801 


21.60 


22.40 


23.20 '. 


24.00 i 


21.80 


25.00 


90 


19.80 20.70 


21.60 


22.50 


23.40 j 


24.30 


25.20 26.10 


27.00 ! 


27.90 


28.I2V4 


100 


22.00 23.00 


24.00 


25.00 


26.00 


27.00 


28.00 29.00 ; 


30.00 ! 


31.00 : 


31.25 


Nos 


>2 ct. 33ct 


33y2Ct. 

•66% 


34 ct 

.68 


a5ct 

.70 


36 ct. 

.72 


37 ct. 37i/2Ct. 
.74 75 


38 ct. 


j 39 ct. 


40 ct. 


2 


.64! .66 


.76 


.78 


.80 


3 


.961 .99 


1.00 


1.02 


1.05 


1.08 


1.11 


1.121/2 


1.14 


1.17 


1.20 


4 


1.28! 1.32 


1.331/3 


1.36 


1.40 


1.44 


1.48 


1.50 


1.52 


1.56 


1.60 


5 


1.60 1.65 


1.66% 


1.70 


1.75 


180 


1.85 


1.871/2 


1.90 


1.95 


2.00 


6 


1.92, 1.98 


2.00 


2.04 


2.10 


2.16 


2.22 


2.25 


2.28 


2.34 


2.40 


7 


2.24; 2.31 


2.331/3 


2.38 


2.45 


2.52 


2.59 


2.621/2 


2.66 


2.73 


2.80 


8 


2.56, 2.64 


2.66% 


2.72 


2.80 


2.88 


2.96 


3.00 


3.04 


3.12 


3.20 


9 


2.88; 2.97 


3.00 


3.06 


3.15 


3.24 


3.33 3.371/2 


3.42 


3.51 


3.60 


10 


3.20; 3.30 


3.33y3 


3.40 


3.50 


3.60 


3.70 3.75' 


3.80 


3.90 


4.00 


11 


3.52! 3.63 


3.66% 


3.74 


3.85 


3.96 


4.07 i 4.121/2 


4.18 


4.29 


4.40 


12 


3.84 


3.96 


4.00 


4.08 


4.20 


4.32 


4.44 4.50 


4.53 


4.68 


4.80 


13 


4.16 


4.29 


4.331/^ 


4.42 


4.55 1 


4.68 


4.81 4.871/2 


4.94 


5.07 


5.20 


14 


4.48 


4.62 


4.66% 


4.76 


4.90 


5.04 


5.18 5.25 


5.32 


5.46 


5.60 


15 


4.80 


4.95 


5.00 


5.10 


5.25 


5.40 


5.55 5.621/2 


5.70 


5.85 


6.00 


16 


5.12 


5.28 


5.331/3 


5.44 


5.60 


5.76 


5.92 6.00 


6.08 


6.24 


6.40 


17 


5.44 


5.61 


5.662/3 


5.78 


5.95 


6.12 


6.29 6.371/2 


6.46 


6.63 


6.80 


18 


5.76 


6.94 


6.00 


6.12 


6.30 i 


6.48 


6.66 6.75 


6.84 


7.02 


7.20 


19 


6.08 


6.27 


6.p/3 


6.46 


6.65i 


6.84 


7.03 7.121/2 


7.22 


7.41 


7.60 


20 


6.40 


6.60 


6.66% 
8.331,1 


6.80 


7.001 


7.20 


7.40 7.50 


7.60 


7.80 


8.00 


25 


8.00 


8.25 


8.50 


8.75i 


9.00 


9.25 i 9.371/, 


9.50 


9.75 


10.00 


30 


9.60 9.90 


10.00 , 


10.20 


10.50; 


10.80 


11.10 


11.25 


11.40 


11.70 


12.00 


40 


13.8012.20 


13.33% 
16.6624 


13.60 


14.00 


14.40 


14.80 


15.00 


15.20 


15.60 


16.00 


50 


16.00 16.50 


17.00 


17.50 


18.00 


18.50 


18.75 


19.00 


19.50 


20.00 


60 


19.20 19.80 


20.00 


20.40 


21.00 


21.60 


22.20 22.50 


22.80 


23.40 


24.00 


70 


22.40 23.10 


23.331/, 


23.80 


24.50( 


25.20 


25.90 26.25 


26.60 


27.30 


28.00 


80 


25.60 26.40 


26.662/3 


27.20 


28.00 


28.80 


29.60 '30.00 


30,40 


31.20 


32.00 


90 


28.80i29.70 


30.00 j 


30.60 


31.50 


32.40 


33.30.: 33.75 


34.20 


35.10 


36.00 


100 


32.00:33.00 


33.331/3 


34.00 


35.00 


36.00 


37.00 37.50 


38.00 


39,00 


40.00 














601 













READY RECKONER. 

Tlie first column on the left contains the NUMBER of the Article, and 
the column on the tops of the Tables the PRICE. 



Nos 


41 ct. 


42 ct. 


43 ct. 
.86 


44 ct. 
.88 


45 ct. 
.90 


46 ct. 


47 ct. 


48 ct. 


49 ct. 


50 ct. 


51 ct. 


2 


.82 


.84 


.92 


.94 


.96 


.98 


1.00 


1.02 


3 


1.23 


1.26 


1.29 


1.32 


1.35 


1.38 


1.41 


1.44 


1.47 


1.50 


1.53 


4 


1.64 


1.68 


1.72 


1.76 


1.80 


1.84 


1.88 


1.92 


1.96 


2.00 


2.04 


5 


2.05 


2.10 


2.15 


2.20 


2.25 


2.30 


2.35 


2.40 


2.45 


2..50 


2..55 


6 


2.46 


2.52 


2.58 


2.64 


2.70 


2.76 


2.80 


2.88 


2.94 


3.00 


3.06 


7 


2.87 


2.94 


3.01 


3.08 


3.15 


3.22 


3.29 


3.36 


3.43 


3.50 


3.57 


8 


3.28 


3.36 


3.44 


3.52 


3.60 


3.68 


3.76 


3.84 


3.92 


4.00 


4.08 


9 


3.69 


3.78 


3.87 


3.96 


4.05 


4.14 


4.23 


4.32 


4.41 


4..50 


4.59 


10 


4.10 


4.20 


4.30 


4.40 


4.50 


4.G0 


4.70 


4.80 


4.90 


5.00 


5.10 


11 


4.51 


4.62 


4,73 


4.84 


4.95 


5.06 


5.17 


5.28 


5.39 


5.50 


5.61 


12 


4.92 


5.04 


5.16 


5.28 


5.40 


5.72 


5.64 


5.76 


5.88 


6.00 


6.12 


13 


5.a3 


5.46 


5.59 


5.72 


5.85 


5.98 


6.11 


6.24 


6.37 


6.50 


6.63 


14 


5.74 


5.88 


6.02 


6.16 


6.30 


6.44 


6.58 


6.72 


6.86 


7.00 


7.14 


15 


6.15 


6.30 


6.45 


6.60 


6 75 


6.90 


7.05 


7.20 


7.35 


7.50 


7.65 


16 


6.56 


6.72 


6.88 


7.04 


7.20 


7.36 


7.52 


7.68 


7.84 


8.00 


8.16 


17 


6.97 


7.14 


7.31 


7.48 


7.G5 


7.82 


7.99 


8.16 


8.33 


8.50 


8.67 


18 


7.38 


7.56 


7.74 


7.92 


8.10 


8,28 


8.46 


8.64 


8.82 


9.00 


9.18 


19 


7.79 


7.98 


8.17 


8.30 


8.55 


8.74 


8.93 


9.12 


9.31 


9.50 


p.-^g 


20 


8.20 


8.40 


8.60 


8.80 


9.00 


9.20 


9.40 


9.60 


9.80 


10.00 


10.20 


25 


10.25 


10.50 


10,75 


11.00 


11.25 


11.50 


11.75 


12.00 


12.25 


12.50 


12.75 


30 


12.30 


12.60 


12.90 


13.20 


13.50 


13.80 


14.10 


14.40 


14.70 


15.00 


15.30 


40 


16.40 


16.80 


17.20 


17.60 


18.00 


18.40 


18.80 


19.20 


19.60 


20.00 


20.40 


50 


20.50 


21.00 


21.50 


22.00 


22.50 


23.00 


23.50 


24.00 


24.50 


25.00 


25.50 


60 


24.60 


25.20 


25.80 


26.40 


27.00 


27.60 


28.20 


28.80 


29.40 


30.00 


30.60 


70 


28:70 


29.40 


30.10 


30.80 


31.50 


32.20 


32.90 


33.00 


34.30 


35.00 


a5.70 


80 


32.80 


33.60 


34.40 


35.20 


36.00 


36.80 


37.60 


38.40 


39.20 


40.00 


40.80 


90 


36.90 


37.80 


38.70 


39.60 


40.50 


41.40 


42.30 


43.20 


44.10 


45.00 


45.92 


100 


41.00 


42.00 


43.00 


44. oa 


45.00 


46.00 


47.00 


48.00 


49.00 


50.00 


51.00 


Nos 


52 ct. 


53 ct. 


54 ct. 
1.08 


55 ct. 
1.10 


56 ct. 
1.12 


57 ct. 
1.14 


58 ct. 


59 ct. 


60 ct. 


61 ct. 


62 ct. 


2 


1.04 


1.06 


1.16 


1.18 


1.20 


1.22 


1.24 


3 


1.56 


1.59 


1.62 


1.65 


1.68 


1.71 


1.74 


1.77 


1.80 


1.83 


1.86 


4 


2.08 


2.12 


2.16 


2.20 


2.24 


2.28 


2..32 


2.36 


2.40 


2.44 


2.48 


5 


2.60 


2.65 


2.70 


2.75 


2.80 


2.85 


2.90 


2.95 


3.00 


3.05 


3.10 


6 


3.12 


3.18 


3.24 


3.30 


3.36 


3.42 


3.48 


3.5-1 


3.60 


3.66 


3.72 


7 


3.64 


3.71 


3.78 


3.85 


3.92 


3.99 


4.08 


4.13 


4.20 


4.27 


4.34 


8 


4.16 


4.24 


4.32 


4.40 


4.48 


4.56 


4.64 


4.72 


4.80 


4.88 


4.96 


9 


4.68 


4.77 


4.86 


4.95 


5.04 


5.13 


5.22 


5.31 


5.40 


5.49 


5.58 


10 


5.20 


5.30 


5.40 


5.50 


5.60 


5.70 


5.80 


5.90 


6.00 


6.10 


6.20 


11 


5.72 


5.83 


5.94 


6.05 


6.16 


6.27 


6.38 


6.49 


6.60 


6.71 


6.82 


12 


6.24 


6.36 


6.48 


6.60 


6.72 


6.84 


6.96 


7.08 


7.20 


7.32 


7.44 


13 


6.76 


6.89 


7.02 


7.15 


7.28 


7.41 


7.54 


7.67 


7.80 


7.93 


8.06 


14 


7.28 


7.42 


7.56 


7.70 


7.84 


7.98 


8.12 


8.26 


8.40 


8.54 


8.68 


15 


7.80 


7.95 


8.10 


8.25 


8.40 


8.55 


8.70 


8.85 


9.00 


9.15 


9.30 


16 


8.32 


8.48 


8.64 


8.80 


8.96 


9.12 


9.28 


9.44 


9.60 


9.76 


9.92 


17 


8.84 


9.01 


9.18 


9.35 


9.52 


9.69 


9.86 


10.03 


10.20 


10.37 


10.54 


18 


9.36 


9.54 


9.72 


9.90 


10.08 


10.26 


10.44 


10.62 


10.80 


10.98 


11.16 


19 


9.88 


10.07 


10.26 


10.45 


10.64 


10.83 


11.02 


11.21 


11.40 


11.59 


11.78 


20 


10.40 


10.60 


10.80 


11.00 


11.20 


11.40 


11.60 


11.80 


12.00 


12.20 


12.40 


25 


13.00 


13.25 


13.50 


13.75 


14.00 


14.25 


14.50 


14.75 


15.00 


15.25 


15.50 


30 


15.60 


15.90 


16.20 


16.50 


16.80 


17.10 


17.40 


17.70 


18.00 


18.30 


18.60 


40 


20.80 


21.10 


21.60 


22.00 


22.40 


22.80 


23.20 


23.60 


24.00 


24.42 


24.80 


50 


26.00 


26.50 


27.00 


27.50 


28.00 


28.50 


29.00 


29.50 


30.00 


30.50 


31.00 


60 


31.20 


31.80 


32.40 


33.00 


33.60 


34.20 


34.80 


35.40 


36.00 


36.60 


37.20 


70 


36.40 


37.10 


37.80 


38.50 


39.20 


39.90 


40.60 


41.30 


42.00 


42.70 


43.40 


80 


41:60 


42.40 


43.20 


44.00 


44.80 


45.60 


46.40 


47.20 


48.00 


48.80 


49.60 


90 


4K80 


47.70 


48.60 


49.50 


50.40 


51.30 


52.20 


53.10 


54.00 


54.90 


55.80 


100 


5iO0 


53.00 


54.00 


55.00 


56.00 


57.00 


58.00 


59.00 


60.00 


61.00 


62.00 



602 



READY RECKONER. 

If the Number required is not found in the Tables, add two Numbers to- 
gether ; forijistance, if 35 bushels are requii'ed, add the prices opposite 
30 and 5 together ; and so for 365 bushels — treble the value of 100, and 
add 60 and 5 together. 



Nos!62y2ct. 


63 ct 


.|64ct. 


65 ct. 


66 ct. 


662/3Ct. 


67 ct. 


68 ct. 


69 ct. 


70 ct. 


71 ct. 


2 


1.25 


1.26, 1.28 


1.30 


1.32 


1.331/3 


1.34 1.36 i 1..38 ' 1.40 ' 1.42 


3 


1.87V2 


1.89| 1.92 


1.95 


1.98 


2.00 


2.01 2.04 1 2.07 2.10 2.13 


4 


2.50 


2.52 2.56 


2.60 


2.64 


2.66% 


2.68 2.72 2.76 j 2.80 ■ 2.84 


5 


3.121/2 


3.151 3.20 


3.25 


3.30 


3.331/3 


3.35 3.40 3.45 1 3.50 ' 3.55 


6 


3.75 


3.71 


i 3.84 


3.90 


3.96 


4.00 


4.02 4.08 4.14 ! 4.20 ! 4.26 


7 


4.371/2 


4.41' 4.48 


4.55 


4.62 


4.66% 


4.69 4.76 1 4.83 i 4.90 ' 4.97 


8 


5.00 


oM 5.12 


5.20 


5.28 


5.:33i/3 


5.36 ; 5.44 | 5.52 ! 5.60 1 5 68 


9 


5.621/2 


5.67, 5.76 


5.85 


5.94 


6.00 


6.03 


6.12 1 6.21 ! 6.30 ! 6.39 


10 


6.25 


6.30! 6.40 


6.50 


6.60 


6.662/, 
7.33% 


6.70 


6.80 


6.90 7.00 i 7.10 


11 


6.871/2 


6.9 


5 7.04 


7.15 


7.26 


7.37 


7.48 


7.59 7.70 i 7.81 


12 


7.50 


7.56! 7.68 


7.80 


7.92 


8.00 


8.04 


8.16 


8.28 1 8.40 i 8.52 


13 


S.121/2 


8.19! 8.32 


8.45 


8..58 


8.662/, 


8.71 


8.84 


8.97 I 9.10 9.23 


14 


8.75 


8.80i 8.96 


9.10 


9.24 


9.331^ 


9.38 


9.52 


9. 66! 9.80 9.94 


15 


9.371/2 


9.45 9.60 


9.75 


9.5)0 


10.00 


10.05 


10.20 


10.35 i 10.50 10.65 


16 


10.00 


10.08! 10.24 


10.40 


10.56 


10.662/i 


10.72 


10.88 


11.04 1 11.20 11.36 


17 


10.621/2 


10.71 [10.88 


11.05 


11.22 


11.33% 


11.39 


11.56 


11.73 1 11.90 12.07 


18 


11.25 


ll.:J4 11.52 


11.70 


11.88 


12.00 


12.06 


12.24 


12.42 12.60 ^ 12.78 


19 


11.871/2 


11.9 


r:12.16 


12..35 


12.54 


12.662/ 
13.33% 


12.73 


12.92 


13.11 13.30 : 13.49 


20 


12.50 


12.6012.80 


13.00 


13.20 


13.40 


13.60 


13.80 14.00 1 14.20 


25 


15.621/2 


15.75ll6,00 


16.25 


16.50 


I6.662/3 


16.75 


17.00 


17.25 17.50 1 17.75 


30 


18.75 


18.90| 19.20 


19.50 


19.80 


20.00 


20.10 20.40 


20.70 21.00 ! 21.30 


40 


25.00 


25.20 25.60 


26.00 


26.40 


26.662,4 
33.33% 


26.80 27.20 


27.60 28.00 28.40 


50 


31.25 I 31.50 32.00 


32.50 


33.00 


33.50 34.00 


34.50 1 35.00 ; 35.50 


60 


37.50 


37.80 38.40 


39.00 


39.60 


40.00 


40.20 


40.80 


41.40 1 42.00 ; 42.60 


70 


43.75 


44.1044.80 


45.50 


46.20 


46.66% 


46.90 


47.60 


48.30 


49.00 1 49.70 


80 


50.00 


50.40 51.20 


52.00 


52.80 


53.33% 


53.00 


54.40 


55.20 


56.00 ; 56.80 


90 


51.25 


56.7 


3 57.60 


58.50 


59.40 


60.00 


60.30 


61.20 


62.10 


63.00 1 63.90 


100 


62.50 


63.0 


3 64.00 


65.00 


66.00 


66.66% 


67.00 


68.00 


69.00 


70.00 ! 71.00 


Nos 


72 ct. 73 ct. 


74 ct. 


75 ct. 


76 ct. 
1.52 


77 ct. 


78 ct. 


79 ct. 80 ct. 81 ct. 82 ct. 


2 


1.44 


1.46 


1.48 


1.50 


1.54 


1.56 


1..58 1 1.60 1.62 i 1.64 


3 


2.16 


2.19 


2.22 


2.25 


2.28 


2.31 


2.34 


2.37 1 2.40 2.43 2.46 


4 


2.88 


2.92 


2.96 


3.00 


3.04 


3.08 


3.12 


3.16 3.20 3.24 3.28 


5 


3.60 


3.65 


3.70 


3.75 


3.80 


3.85 


3.90 


3.95 4.00 4.05 , 4.10 


6 


4.32 


4.38 


4.44 


4.50 


4.56 


4.62 


4.68 


4.74 4.80 4.86 i 4.92 


7 


5.04 


5.11 


5.18 


5.25 


5.32 


5.39 


5.46 


5.53 5.60 5.67 ! 5.74 


8 


5.76 


5.84 


5.92 


6.00 


6.08 


6.16 


6.24 


6.32 ! 6.40 6.48 j 6.56 


9 


6.48 


6.57 


6.66 


6.75 


6.84 


6.93 


7.02 


7.11 i 7.20 i 7.29 1 7.38 


10 


7.20 


7.30 


7.40 


7.50 


7.60 


7.70 


7.80 


7.90 8.00 i 8.10 8.20 


11 


7.92 


8.03 


8.14 


8.25 


8.30 


8.47 


8.58 


8.69 8.80 i 8.91 9.02 


12 


?SA 


8.76 


8.88 


9.00 


9.12 


9.24 


9.36 


9.48 9.60 ! 9.72 1 9.84 


13 


9.36 9.49 


9.62 


9.75 


9.88 


10.01 


10.14 


10.27 i 10.40 i 10.53 i 10.66 


14 


10.08' 10.22 


10.36 


10.50 


10.64 


10.78 


10.92 11.06 11.20 : 11.34 | 11.48 


15 


10.80 10.95 


11.10 


11.25 


11.40 


11.55 


11.70 


11.85 1 12.00 ; 12.15 , 12.30 


16 


11.52 11.68 


11.84 


12.00 


12.16 


12.32 


12.48 


12.64 I 12.80 : 12.96 1 13.12 


17 


12.24, 12.41 


12.58 


12.75 


12.92 


13.09 


13.26 


13.43 i 13.60 : 13.77 1 13.94 


18 


12.96 13.14 


13.32 


13.50 


13.68 


13.86 


14.04 


14.22 ; 14.40 14.58 j 14.76 


19 


13.68 13.87 


14.06 


14.25 


14.44 


14.63 


14.82 


15.01 ; 15.20 15.39 15.58 


20 


14.40 14.60 


14.80 


15.00 


15.20 


15.40 


15.60 1 15.80 ! 16.00 1 16.20 i 16 40 


25 


18.00 18 25 


18.50 


18.75 


19.00 


19.25 


19.50 


19.75 


20.00 ! 20.25 


20.50 


30 


21.60 21.90 


22.20 


22.50 


22.80 


23.10 


23.40 


23.70 


24.00 i 24.30 


24.60 


40 


28.80 


29.20 


29.60 


30.00 


30.40 


30.80 


31.20 


31.60 


32.00 i 32.40 


32.80 


50 


36.00 


36 50 


37.00 


37.50 


38.00 


38.50 


39.00 


39.50 


40.00 


40.50 


41.00 


60 


43.20 


43.80 


44.40 


45.00 


45.60 


46.20 


46.80 


47.40 


48.00 


48.60 


49.20 


70 


50.40 51.10 


51.80 


52.50 


53.20 


53.90 


54.60 


55.30 


56.00 


56.70 


.57.40 


80 


57.60 58.40 


59.20 


60.00 


60.80 


61.60 


62.40 


63.20 


64.00 


64.80 


65.60 


90 


64.80 65.70 


66.60 


67.50 


68.40 


69.30 


70.20 


71.10 


72.00 


72.90 


73.80 


100 


72.00 


73.00 


74.00 


75.00 


76.00 


77.00 


78.00 


79.00 


80.00 


81.00 


82.00 



603 



READY RECKONER. 

If the Number required is not founrl in the Tables, add two Niunbera to^ 
gether; for instance, if 35 bushels are required, add the prices opposite 
20 and 5 together ; and so for 365 bushels— treble the value of 100, and 
add 60 and 5 together. 



Nos 


83 ct. 


84 Ct. 
1.68 


85 Ct. 


86 ct. 


87 ct. 


87y2Ct. 


88 ct 


89 ct. 


90 ct. 


91 ct. 


92 ct. 


2 


1.66 


1.70 


1.72 


1.74 


1.75 


1.7£ 


1.78 


■ 1.80 


1.82 


1.84 


3 


2.49 


2.52 


2.55 


2.28 


2.61 


2.621/2 


2.64 


2.67 


2.70 


2.73 


2.76 


4 


3.32 


3.36 


3.40 


3.44 


3.48 


3.50 


3.621 3.56 


3.60 


3.64 


3.68 


6 


4.15 


4.20 


4.26 


4.30 


4.35 


4.371/2 


4.4C 


4.45 


4.50 


4.65 


4.60 


6 


4.98 


5.04 


5.10 


5.16 


5.22 


6.26 


5.2); 


5.34 


5.40 


6.46 


5.52 


7 


5.81 


5.88 


5.95 


6.02 


6.09 


6.121/2 


6.16 


6.23 


6.30 


6.37 


6.44 


8 


6.64 


6.72 


6.80 


6.88 


6.96 


7.00 


7.04 


7.12 


7.20 


7.28 


7.36 


y 


7.47 


7.56 


7.65 


7.74 


7.83 


7.871/2 


7.92 


8.01 


8.10 


8.19 


8.28 


10 


8.30 


8.40 


8.50 


8.60 


8.70 


8.75 


8.8C 


8.90 


9.00 


9.10 


9.20 


11 


9.13 


9.24 


9.35 


9.46 


9.57 


9.621/2 


9.68 


9.79 


9.90 


10.01 


10.12 


12 


9.96 


10.08 


10.20 


10.32 


10.44 


10.60 


10.56 


10.68 


10.80 


10.92 


11.04 


13 


10.79 


10.92 


11.05 


11.18 


11.31 


11.371/2 


11.44 


11.57 


11.70 


11.83 


11.96 


14 


11.62 


11.76 


11.90 


12.04 


12.18 


12.25 


12.32 


12.46 


12.00 


12.74 


12.88 


15 


12.45 


12.60 


12.75 


12.90 


13.05 


13.121/2 


13. 2C 


13.36 


13.60 


13.65 


13.80 


16 


13.28 


13.44 


13.60 


13.76 


13.92 


14.00 


14. 0& 


14.24 


14.40 


14.56 


14.72 


17 


14.11 


14.28 


14.45 


14.62 


14.79 


14.871/2 


14.96 


15.13 


16.30 


15.47 


15.64 


18 


14.94 


15.12 


15.30 


16.48 


15.66 


15.75 


15.84 


16.02 


16.20 


16.38 


16.56 


19 


15.77 


15.96 


16.15 


15.34 


16.63 


16. 621/2 


16.72 


16.91 


17.10 


17.29 


17.48 


20 


16.60 


16.80 


17.00 17.20 


17.40 


17.60 


17.66 


17.80 


18.00 


18.20 


18.40 


25 


20.75 


21.00 


21.25 


21.50 


21.75 


21.871/2 


22.00 


22.25 


22.60 


22.75 


23.00 


30 


24.90 


25.20 


25.60 


25.80 


26.10 


26.25 


26. 4C 


26.70 


27.00 


27.30 


27.60 


40 


33.20 


33.60 


34.00 


34.40 


34.80 


.35.00 


35.2c 


36.60 


36.00 


36.40 


36.80 


50 


41.50 


42.00 


42.50 


43.00 


43.50 


43.75 


44.00 


44.50 


46.00 


45.50 


46.00 


60 


49.80 


50.40 


51.00 


51.60 


52.20 


62.60 


52.80 


63.40 


54.00 


54.60 


55.20 


70 


58.10 


58.80 


59.60 


60.20 


60.90 


61.25 


61.60 


62.30 


63.00 


63.70 


64.40 


80 


66.40 


67.20 


68.00 


68.80 


69.60 


70.00 


70.40 


74.20 


72.00 


72.80 


73.60 


90 


74.70 


76.60 


76.50 


77.40 


78.30 


78.75 


79.20 


80.10 


81.00 


81.90 


82.80 


100 


83.00 


84.00 


85.00 


86.00 


87.00 


87.50 


88.00 


89.00 


90.00 


91.00 


92.00 


Nos 


93 ct. 


94 Ct. 


95 Ct. 


96 ct. 


97 ct. 


98 Ct. 


99 ct. 


S^l. 


$2. 


$3. 


2 


1.P6 


1.88 


1.90 


1.92 


1.94 


1.96 


1.98 


2. 


4. 


6. 


3 


2.79 


2.82 


2.85 


2.88 


2.91 


2.94 


2.97 


3. 


6. 


9. 


4 


3.72 


3.76 


3.80 


3.84 


3.88 


3.92 


3.66 


4. 


8. 


12. 


5 


4.65 


4.70 


4.76 


4.80 


4.85 


4.90 


4.95 


5. 


10. 


15. 


6 


5.58 


5.64 


5.70 


5.76 


5.82 


5.88 


5.94 


6. 


12. 


18. 


7 


6.51 


.6.58 


6.66 


6.72 


6.79 


6.86 


6.93 


7. 


14. 


21. 


8 


7.44 


7.52 


7.60 


7.68 


7.76 


7.84 


7.92 


8. 


16. 


24. 


9 


8.37 


8.46 


8.55 


8.64 


8.73 


8.82 


8.91 


9. 


18, 


27. 


10 


9.30 


9.40 


9.50 


9.60 


9.70 


9.80 


9.90 


10. 


20. 


30. 


11 


10.23 


10.34 


10.45 


10.56 


10.67 


10.78 


10.89 


11. 


22. 


33. 


12 


11.16 


11.28 


11.40 


11.52 


11.64 


11.76 


11.88 


12. 


24. 


36. 


13 


12.09 


12.22 


12.35 


12.48 


12.61 


12.74 


12.87 


13. 


26. 


39. 


14 


13.02 


13.16 


13.30 


13.44 


13.58 


13.72 


13.86 


14. 


28. 


42. 


15 


13.95 


A4.10 


14.25 


14.40 


14.55 


14.70 


14.85 


15. 


30. 


45. 


16 


14.88 


1.5.04 


15.20 


15.36 


15.52 


16.68 


15.84 


16. 


32. 


48. 


17 


15.81 


15.98 


16.15 


16.32 


16.49 


16.66 


16.83 


17. 


34. 


51. 


18 


16.74 


16.92 


17.10 


17.28 


17.46 


17.64 


17.82 


18. 


36. 


54. 


19 


17.67 


17.86 


18.05 


18.24 


18.43 


18.62 


18.81 


19. 


38. 


57. 


20 


18.60 


18.80 


19.00 


19.20 


19.40 


19.60 


19.80 


20. 


40. 


60. 


25 


2.3.25 


23.50 


23.75 1 24.00 


24.25 


24.50 


24.75 


25. 


50. 


75. 


30 


27.90 


29.20 


28. .50 


28.80 


29.10 


29.40 


29.70 


30. 


60. 


90. 


40 


37.20 


37.60 


38.00 


38.40 


38.80 


39.20 


39.00 


40. 


80. 


120. 


50 


46.50 


47.00 


47.60 


48.00 


48.50 


49.00 


49.50 


50. 


100. 


150. 


60 


5.5.80 


56.40 


57.00 


57.60 


68.20 


58.80 


59.40 


60. 


120. 


180. 


70 


65.10 


65.80 


66.50 


67.20 


67.90 


68.60 


69.30 


70. 


142. 


210. 


80 


74.40 


75.20 


76.00 


76.80 


77.60 


78.40 


79.20 


80. 


160. 


240. 


on 


f 3 70 


84.60 


85.50 


86.40 


87.30 


88.20 


89.10 


90. 


180. 


270. 


10,'^ 


03 00 


94.0 


[> 


95. 


[>0 


9C 


.00 


(] 


7 00 


r 


8.00 


99.00 


100. 


200. 


300. 



hO% 



"Weight, STATcnE, &c., of Max.— The mean weight, and stature of the 
human body at birth, and at ever>' subsequent age, together with the 
expectancy of life from 20 to 70 years of age, is as follows. 



MALES. 



'^ge 


Feet. 


o 


1.64 


2 


2.60 


4 


3.04 


6 


3.44 


9 


4.00 


II 


4-36 


13 


4.72 


IS 


5.07 


17 


5-36 


i8 


5-44 


20 


5-49 


30 


5-52 


40 


5-52 


50 


5-49 


60 


5-38 


70 


5-32 


80 


5.29 


90 


5.29 



Lbs. 



7.06 
25.01 
31-38 
38.80 
49-95 
59-77 
75.81 

96.40 
116.56 

127-59 
132.46 
140. 38 
140.42 

139-9'' 
136.07 
131.27 
127-54 
127-54 



Mean. ...103,66 



FEMALES. 



Age 


Feet. 1 





1.62 


2 


2.56 


4 
6 


3.00 
3-38 


9 
11 
13 


3-92 
4.26 
4.60 


IS 


4-92 


17 
18 


5.10 
5-13 


20 


.5-16 


30 


5.18 


40 


5.18 


50 
60 


5-04 
4-97 


70 
80 


4-97 
4-94 


90 


4-94 



Lbs. 



6.42 
23-53 
28.67 

35-29 
47.10 

56.57 
72.65 
89.04 

104.34 
112.55 
115.30 
119.82 
121.81 
123.86 
119.76 
113.60 
108.80 
108 ,81 



Mean 



g3.73 



Asre. 



20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 

27 
28 
29 
30 
31 
32 
33 
34 
35 
36 

37 

38 

39 
40 

41 
42 
43 
44 

45 



Expectancy. 



4iy2 
40% 
40 

39y2 

38% 

38 

37y4 

36V2 

35% 

35 

34V2 

Z2% 

33 

32V2 

31% 

31 

3oVp 

29^4 

29 

28K 
27% 
27 
261/2 

25% 
25V4 

2 472 



Age. 



46 
47 
48 
49 
50 
51 
52 
53 
54 
55 
56 
57 
58 
59 
60 
6i 
62 
63 
64 
65 
66 

67 
68 
69 
70 



Expec- 
tancy. 



24 

22 Vs 
22 

21V4 
20V4 

9% 

9 

sVi 

7% 

6V4 

5 

4V2 

4 

3V2 
3 

2V-; 

'?? 

9% 
gVi 



The weight of the male infant at birth is 7 lbs. avoirdupois : that of thT 
female is not quite 6V2lbs. The maximum weight (140y2lbs.) of tho 
male is attained at the age of 40 ; that of the female (nearly 124 lbs.) is 
not attained until 50 ; from which ages they decline afterwards ; tho 
male to I27V2 lbs., the female to 100 lbs., nearly a stone. The full grown 
adult is 20 times as heavy as a new born infant. In the tirst year ho 
triples his weight, afterwards the growth proceeds in geometi ioal prog- 
ression, so that if 50 infants in their first year weigh 1000 lbs., they will 
in the second weigh 1210 lbs.; in the third 1331 lbs.; in thefourth 1464 lbs.; 
the term remaining very constant up to the ages of 11-12 in females ; ami 
12-13 in males ; where it mast be nearly doubled; afterwards it may 
be continued, and will be found very nearly correct up to the age oZ 
18 or 19, when the growth proceeds very slowly. At an equality of ago 
the male is generally heavier than the female. Towards the age of 12 
years only, an individual of each sex, has the same weight. The malo 
attains the maximum weight about the age of 40, and he begins to lose 
it very sensibly towards 60. At 80 he loses about 13.2328 lbs. ; and tho 
stature is diminished 2-756 inches. Females attain their maximum weight 
about 50. The mean weight of a mature man is 104 lbs., and of an aver- 
ag3 woman 94 lbs. In old age Ihev lose about 12 or 14 lbs. Men weigh 
most at 40, women at 50 and begin to lose weight at 60. The mean 
weight cif both sexee in old age is that which they had at 19. 

AVhen the male and female have assumed their complete development, 
they weigh almost exactly 20 times as much as at birth, while the stat- 
ure is about 3V2 times greater. 

Children lose weight during the first three days after birth ; at the age 
of a week they sensibly increase ; after 1 year they triple their weight ; 
then they require 6 years to double their weight, and 13 to quadruple it. 
In a child the head is equal to a fifth part, and in a full grown man to 
an eighth part of the height of the individual. The human skeleton 
weighs from 9 lbs. 6 ozs. to 16 lbs., and the blood 27 or 28 lbs. A. c^J^Jned 
human body leaves a residuum of only 8 ozs. All besides is rest''"^-^* *o 
the gaseous elem.ent?. 

(>.r> 



V/eiglit of Cast Iron Pipos of Different Thicknesses, from 1 inch to 22 
inches in Diameter. 1 foot in Length. 



Diam 


Thickn 


Weight, j 


Ins. 


Ins. 


Lbs. 1 


1. 


.1/4 


3.0G j 


I.V4 




I 


5.05 I 
3.67 


Ly. 






6. 

C89 

9.8 


1-^4 




\ 


7.8 






11.04 


2. 




I 


8.74 






12.23 


2.1/4 




I 


9.65 






13.48 


2.1/2 




I 


10.57 






14.66 






1 


19.05 


2.34 




1L54 






15.91 






i 
% 


20.59 


3. 




12.28 






17.15 






i 
% 


22.15 






27.56 


3. 1/4 




V2 


18.4 






% 


23.72 






1 

% 


29.&4 \ 


3.1/0 




19.66 ! 
25.27 1 






34 


31.2 I 


3.% 




% 


20.9 1 






% 


26.83 i 






% 


33:07 


4. 




1^ 


22.05 








28.28 






34.W 


4.1/4 




Vi 


23.35 i 






% 


29.85 1 






% 


36.73 


4.1/i 




if 


24.49 






% 


31.4 






% 


38.58 


4.34 




% 


25.7 






% 


32.91 






40.43 


5. 




¥2 


26.94 






'1 
% 


.^1.34 






42.28 


5.1/3 




1/ 


29.4 






5/ 


37.41 






45.94 


G. 




14 


31.82 






1 


40.56 






49.6 






^^ 


58.96 


C.1/2 




34.32 






% 


43.68 






% 


53.3 






5| 


03.18 


7. 




36.66 






46.8 






56.96 
67.6 




1 




78.30 



Diamj Thickn "Weight.' | Diam. I Tliicknl Weight. 



Ins. 

7.1/2 



8.1/2 



9.y2 



10. 



10.1^ 



IL 



11.14 



12.1/. 



13. 



13.i/> 



Ins. 

% 



% 



V2 

5/, 



Lbs. I 

39.22 I 

49.92 

60.48 ! 

7L70 ! 

^3.28 ; 

41.C-1 i 

52. 68 j 

C4.27 

76.12 

88.2 

44.11 

56. IG 

€8. 

80.5 

93.28 

46.5 

59.92 

71.7 

84.7 

97.98 

48.98 

62.02 

75.32 

88.98 

102.9 

51.46 

C5.08 

78.99 

93.24 

108.84 

53.88 

68.11 

82.C8 

97.44 

112.68 

56.34 

71.19 

86.4 

101.83 

117.6 

58.82 

74.28 

90.06 

10G.14 

ll.'2.62 

61.26 

77.36 

93.7 

110.18 

127.42 

G3.7 

80.4 

97.4 

114.72 

132. ?5 

66.14 

83.46 

101.08 

118.97 

137.28 

68.64 

86.55 



Ins. 


Ins. 


Lbs. 
104.7G 






Vs 


123.3 




1 




142. IG 


' 11. 




K 


71.07 






% 


89.61 






% 


108.46 






'/s 


127.6 




1 




147.03 


11. ¥2 




¥2 


73.72 






% 


92.66 






% 


112.1 






ys 


131.86 




1 




151.92 


15. 




Vi 


75.96 






% 


95.72 






% 


115:78 






Va 


136.15 




1 




156.82 


15.1/. 




¥2 


78.4 






% 


98.78 






% 


119.49 






% 


140.4 




1 




161.82 


IG. 




Vi 


80.87 








101.82 






123.14 






ys 


144.76 




1 




166.6 


15.1/2 




V2 


83.3 






% 


104.82 






% 


126.79 






ys 


119.02 




1' 




171.6 


17. 




% 


85.7.1 






I 


107.96 






1.30.48 






ys 


153.3 




1 




176.58 


17.1/, 




¥2 


88.23 






% 


in.06 






% 


134.16 






ys 


157.59 




1 




181.33 


IS. 




% 


111.1 




. 


% 


137.81 






ys 


161.9 




1 




186.24 


10. 


' 


% 


120.24 






% 


145.2 






% 


170. 17 




1 




195.92 


20. 




% 


126.33 






% 


1.52.53 






ys 


179.02 




1 




205.8 


21. 




% 


132.5 






% 


159.84 






ys 


187.6 




1 




215.52 


22. 




% 


138.6 






% 


167.24 






ys 


196.46 



— fcJ 

== 5 



cs ° fc. 

c u o. 



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t~~or) t^ »f to 

'- coo C to O 


»~^oo ooONt^OwKtOM toco Oco \0 ^o 
Oro«OOONTtt^OtoOOfOMOM 


"-> " N 


N CO V too t^OO O O N CO too CO O N -f 

Hi-iiii-iMMr^Nr^ 



o o s 






^ -^\f) o vO "^ -^-o t^ to to t^ fo:o o ^NOfo000 Om 

m M to o to 1-1 ©voo 00 NO'-ii^toroco -^O O to o t^O 

J « N N CO '^•O t~»o6 d '-' CO to t^ C^ M -^O O M Tf- 

M HMMMMMNMNNrOCO 

. ONto^~c^wNN'-lwo^•»t•Ml-lOO'*•c^co^^'-'■<^NOO 

ra ■i-<ft^MOco000f^t^t^C>riO0OP)0C00000C>»< 
J l-< M C^ CO CO '<i' too !>• 6> d N CO to t^co o N -^ t>. 

i~* MHi-ii-iMrHr<Mr4C« 

• NOOONtoOOfO'-iO'-' coo M ts« -^ N CO CO »O00 fO 
" N to O n- O t^O too OOi-'tOOO'^MNCO tOOO N tv ir 

J •-> M c4 CO -^ too o<5 d^" <s -+000 o N -i-t^cSfi 

, h^ f^ O O C>0 rooo c^ too t^O to N 00 N^'OO O O O t^ 

W HtCOt^'HtO'-ioOiO'^COCO "^O O CO t^ to C^O to -^ CO -^ 

J MWC^'SfO'^tOO C^OO d^»-< C^ -^tot^o^^ fOtO 

ri Hii-i>H>-ii->p-ir«MN 

CO 

o 

r* VjfNjOS^NCOv^NflO VOO S:jfNPO ^e?vpO V^NPO \CON-fiseO \NNPOs^\pO 

o pi^c^i-iNwtS(*Kc^ ►-KF-NrK,.^i/K«*Kr*s nN^-'^rvN'-Niosrnsr^ 

607 



cj O 3 



A -d 
•So 3 



•oi'Bn'bg JO 
apig puB 



nZLATIVZ STRENGTH OF BODIES TO 
LEAD BEING i. 



JLin 1.4 

Copper 4.3 

Ye low Brass 4.6 



Gun Metal 5.0 

Cast Iron. 9.0 

Swedish Iron q.5 



RESIST TORSION, 

English Iron 10. i 

Blistered Steel 16.6 

Shear Steel 17.0 





CAPACITIES, 


SIZE AND WEIGHT OF COPPERS. 




Depth 




Weight 


Depth 




Weight 


Depth 




Weight 


m 


Gallons 


in 


in 


Gallons 


in 


in 


Gallons 


m 


Inches. 




poimds. 


inches. 




pounds. 


inches. 




pounds. 


954 


I 


iVa 


^^/ 


IS 


22^.4 


29I/2 


29 


4fl/3 


12 1^ 


2 


3,, 


ztVa 


16 


24 


30 


30 


45 


^^., 


3 


AV2 


2t 


»7 


25K 


32 


36 


5+ , 


13/2 
^7V2 


4 


6 


25J^ 


18 


27 


34 


43 


64i:> 


5 


7>4 


26 


19 


2814 


35 


48 


7^,, 


6 


9 , 


=61/^ 


20 


30 


36 


53 


79I/2 


i3H 


7 


loVa 


26K 


21 


311/3 


37 


5? 


^7„ 


igV? 


8 


12 


27 


22 


33 


38 


6£ 


74I/2 


201I 


9 


i3y3 


27% 


23 


341/2 


39 


67 


iooy> 
10614 


21 


10 


^5,, 


27y8 


24 


36 


40 


71 


21V2 


11 


1614 


27K . 


25 


37^3 


45 


104 


156 


22 


12 


iS 


28 


25 


39 


50 


146 


219 


=214 


13 


19V3 


281/2 


27 


401/3 








23 H 


14 


21 


29 


28 


42 











WEIGHT OF SQUARE AND RCUNDCAST IRON. 






Square 


per Foot. 


i 


Round per Foot. 


Size. 


Weight. 


Size. 


Weight. 


Siz2. 


Weight. 


Size. 


Weight. 


Inches 
square. 


Pounds. 


Inches 
Square. 


Pounds. 


Inches 
Diam. 


Pounds. 


Inches 
Diam. 


Pounqs. 


y^ 


.78 


4 , 


50- 


1/2 


.6r 


-♦<) 


41.76 


^8 


1.22 


4/8 


53-14 


n 


•95 


4% 

4fl 


44-27 


H 


1-75 


4K 


56-44 


Vx 


1.38 


46.97 


n 


2.39 


4^8 


59,Si 


% 


1.87 


4I/2 


49.70 


I 


3.12 


4I/2 


63.28 


1 


2.45 


4/3 


52.50 


jVz 


3-95 


. A'A 


66.84 


iH 


3-IO 


4K 


55-37 


^Va, 


4.S8 


4% 


70.50 


iK 


3-83 


4% 


58.32 


iVa 


5-90 


4% 


74.26 


lYi 


4.64 


5 , 


61.35 


1I/2 


703 


5 


78.12 


1I/2 


5-52 


S/3 


64.46 


1^8 


825 


5^8 


82.08 


1^8 


6.48 


^"6 


67.64 


iK 


9-57 


sH 


86.13 


IK 


7-51 


sVf 


70.09 


iji 


10.93 


s¥j 


90. 28 


1% 


8.62 


^S 


74-24 


2 


12.50 


5V2 


94-53 


2 


9.S1 


^If 


77-65 


2K8 


14. 1 1 


5/8 


98.87 


2K3 


II .08 


^% 


91.14 


2I/4 


15.81 


s% 


103.32 


2^X 


12.42 


sVi 


84.71 


2^ 


17.62 


5% 


107.86 


2% 


13-84 


6 


88. 3 5 


21/2 


19-53 


6 


112.50 


2I/2 


15-33 


6^X 


95-87 


2>^8 


21.53 


6K 


122.0S 


2|/8 


16.91 


6I/2 


103.69 


2K 


23-63 


61/2 


132.03 


2% 


1S.56 


6K 


111.82 


2% 


25-83 


6K 


142.3S 


2/3 


20.28 


7 , 


120.26 


3 , 


28. 12 


7 , 


153-12 


3 


22.18 


71X 


129. 


3^8 


30.51 


7K 


164.25 


3/8 


23.96 


Ik 


138.05 


33< 


33- 


7y2 


175-78 


zVx 


25.92 


147.41 


3^8 


35-59 


7% 


187.68 


3% 


27-95 


8 


157.03 


3I/2 


38.28 


8 


200.12 


3I/2 


30,16 


8K 


167.05 


3^ 


41.06 


8K 


212.56 


zVi 


32-25 


8I/2 
8^ 


177.19 


3K 


43-94 


tk 


225.73 


Z% 


34-51 


187.91 


3/8 


45.92 


239-25 


3/3 


36.85 


9 , 


19S.79 






9 


253.13 


4 


39-27 


9li 


210. 



608 



WEIGHT OF IRON PER FOOT. 



Round- 



Vx 

'A 

rs 

H 

i I 

1/3 

iVa, 
''A 

iK 

1% 

2 

2^8 
2K 

^'A 

25i 

3 

3/8 

3K 

3% 

3K 

3^ 

4 

4^8 

aY^ 

AV2 
A% 

t 

6 

6J^ 



Wg't 



.163 
.36S 
.654 
1.02 
1.47 
2.00 
2.61 
3 31 
4.09 

4-95 

5-89 

6.91 

8.0I 

9.20 

10.47 

11.82 

13-25 

14.76 

16.36 

19.79 

23.56 

25-56 

27-65 

29.82 

32.07 

36.81 

41.88 

44-54 
47.28 
50. II 
53-01 
59.06 

65.4s 
73.02 
80.03 
87.08 
95.06 
112.02 



SqiiarC' 



Vx 

r& 
% 

^8 

% 

78 
1^3 

1^8 
1% 



2K8 

2K 
3 

3^8 

zVx 

3^8 

ZA 

zVx 

4 

aVx 

aA 
aYx 

sA 

6 



Wg't. 



.208 

.468 

.833 

1.30 

1.87 

2-55 

3-33 

4.21 

5.20 

6.30 

7-50 

8.80 

10.20 

II. 71 

13-33 

15-05 

16.87 

20.80 

25.20 

30.00 

32-55 
35.20 

37-96 
40.80 
46.87 
53-33 
Co. 20 
67.50 
75.20 

83-33 
93.20 
102.20 

IJ2.20 



Fiat. 



Flat. 



Size. 

i/sxM 

iMxK 

i%xK 

i^xK 
^Yx^Vx 

2 XK 
2KxK 
2V2Xy2 

2Yx^yx 

3 xK 
iVx^Vx 

zA^K 
zYx^Vx 

A xK 

4y2xK 

5 xK 

6 xK 

1 x% 
iKsx% 

11/4x^8 

lY&^H 
tA^% 
jYx^Ys 

2 X% 
2KX% 
2%xYs 

2YxxY& 

3 x% 
3Kx>i 

4 x% 

5 x% 

6 x% 
I x^ 

iHxJ^ 
lY&^A 



Wr't. 



.833 

•937 
1.04 
1.14 
1-25 
1-45 
1.66 
1.87 
2.o3 
2.29 
2.50 

2. 70 
2.91 



33 
75 
17 
00 
1.25 
1.40 
1.56 
1.71 
1.87 
2.aS 
2.50 
2.81 
3-12 
3.43 



75 
37 
00 

25 

50 
66 
1.87 
2.0S 
2.29 
2.50 



Size. 



Wg't. 



^Yx^A 


2.91 


2 xYz 


3-33 


^Vx^Vi 


3-74 


2y2xy2 


4.16 


2Yx^y2 


4-5S 


3 xH 


5.00 


35^x1/2 


5-83 


4 xVa 


6.66 


5 xV, 


8-33 


6 xi/2 


10.00 


1 X^8 


2.0S 


1^8X^8 


2-34 


IKX^8 


2.60 


1^8X^8 


2.86 


lYsx^/s 


3-12 


iKxXs 


3-64 


2 Xfi 


4.16 


2KX^8 


4.68 


21/2X^8 


5.20 


2MX^8 


5-72 


3 X>^8 


6.25 


372X^3 


7.29 


4 x:r8 


8.33 


5 x^s 


10.41 


6 Xf^8 


12.50 


I xYx 


2.50 


lYzxYx 


2.81 


^Vx^Yx 


3-12 


jYzxYx 


3-43 


iy2xK 


3-75 


lYxxYx 


4-37 


2 xYx 


5.00 


2%XY, 


5-62 


2V2XYX 


6.25 


2%XK 


6.87 


3 xK 


- 8.50 


3y2x?^ 


8-75 


4 x^ 


10.00 



F/ai. 



Size. 



aA^Yx 

5 ^Yx 
sA^Yx 

6 xYx 

1 xVs 
lYsxYs 

iKx^s 

1%X% 
1^X78 

i^xji 

2 xji 
^AxVa 

2y2xyi 
2Yx^A 

3 x^ 
35^xJ/8 

4 xVs 

aA^Vs 

5 x78 
5J^x% 

6 xYa 
jYsxi 

I/^XI 
1%XI 

iMxx 

I^XI 

2 XI 
2^X1 
2>^XI 
2%XI 

3 XX 
3/^xi 

4 XI 
4/^xi 

5 XI 

sKxi 

6 XI 
6^x1 



Wg't. 


II 


-25 


12 


•50 


13 


•/3 


IS 


.00 


2 


.91 


3 


.2S 


3 


.64 


4 


.or 


4.37 


5 


.10 


S 


83 


6 


56 


7 


29 


8 


02 


8 


75 


10 


20 


II 


66 


13 


12 


14 


53 


16 


04 


J7 


5« 


3 


75 


4 


16 


4 


S3 


5 


00 


5 


83 


6 


66 


7 


50 


8 


33 


9 


16 


10 


00 


11 


66 


13- 


33 


15- 


00 


16. 


66 


18. 


33 


20. 


00 


21. 


66 



WEIGHT OF FLAT STEEL PER FOOT. 



K 

Ya 

A 

Ys 



I 


1/8 


iVx 


lYs 


1% 


iK 


2 


2K 


21/2 


2Yx 


3 


iVx 


.852 


.958 


1.06 


1.17 


1.27 


1.49 


1.70 


1.91 


2.13 


2.34 


2.55 


2.77 


1.27 


1.43 


1-59 


I-7S 


1.91 


2.23 


2-55 


2.87 


3-20 


3-51 


3-83 


4-15 


1 70 


I.9I 


2.13 


2*34 


2-5S 


2.98 


3 -40 


3-83 


4.26 


4.68 


S-ii 


5-53 , 


2.13 


2.39 


-2.66 


2.92 


3-19 


3-72 


4.26 


4-79 


5-32 


5-85 


.-39 


6.92 



3A 

2.99 

4-47 
5.9S 
7-45 



MOULDERS AND PATTERN MAKERS' TABLE. 



Casi Iron being i, 



Bar Iron, being i, 



Bar Iron equal 
Steel " 

Brass «• 
Copper *' 
L«ad " 

89 



1.07; Cast Iron eatial 
i.oSi Steel " 

1.16 Copper " 
1.2 1 1 Brass '* 

1.55! Lead " 

609 



White Pine, being i, 



Cast Iron equal 
Brass " 

Copper " 



•95 
1.03 
1.16 

1.09 Lead 
1.48 Ziuc 



13- 
12.7 

13-4 
iS.i 



TABLES FOR ENGINEERS AND MACHINISTS. 



Size and 
Coluir 


stre 


neth 


of Cast Iron 
I in. thick. 


ins. Iron 


P.t 


Heisrht in feet. 






^^ 


4 1 6 1 8 i lo 1 12 1 14 


s.= 


Load in Cwts. 


2 


72 


60 


49 


40 


32 


25 


■■^h 


119 


105 


91 


77 


65 


55 


i 


J 78 


143 


145 


128 


III 


97 


ih 


247 


232 


214 


191 


172 


156 


4 


326 


3i« 


288 


266 


242 


220 


4^2 


418 


400 


379 


354 


327 


301 


b 


522 


501 


479 


452 


427 


394 


6 


607 


592 


573 


550 


525 


497 


7 


1032 


1013 


989 


959 


924 


887 


8 


1333 


1315 


1289 


125Q 


1224 


1 185 


9 


1716 


1697 


1672 


1640 


1603 


1561 


lO 


2119 


2100 


2077 


2045 


2007 


1964 


Ji 


2570 


2550 


2520 


2490 


2450 


2410 


12 


3050 


3040 


3020 


2970 


2930 


2900 







Height in 


feet. 




«.S 


16 


18 


20 


22 1 24 


Q.a 


Load in Cwts. 


2 


22 


18 


15 


13 


ir 


2^2 


47 


40 


34 


29 


25 


3 


84 


73 


64 


56 


49 


3^2 


135 


119 


106 


94 


83 


4 


198 


178 


160 


144 


130 


4^2 


275 


251 


229 


208 


189 


5 


365 


337 


310 


28.; 


262 


6 


469 


440 


413 


386 


360 


7 


848 


808 


76s 


725 


686 


8 


1142 


1097 


1052 


1005 


959 


9 


1515 


1467 


1416 


1364 


1311 


10 


1916 


1865 


1811 


1755 


1697 


II 


235« 


2305 


2248 


2189 


2127 


12 


2830 


27S0 


2730 


2670 


2600 



Capacities of Cisterns, in galls. 

Diameter Jfrojii 2 io 2^ FccU 

Depth, 10 Inches. 



2 


f ct 


i>5 


8 


feet 


313.33 


2V3 




30.6 


8V2 




353-72 


3 




44.06 


9 




396.55 


3V2 




59-97 


9% 




461.40 


4. 




78-33 


10 




489.20 


4V2 




99.14 


II 




592.40 


5, 




122.40 


12 




705.00 


5V2 




148.10 


'3 




827.4 


6 




176.25 


14 




959.6 


6V2 




206.85 


15 




1101.6 


7 




239-S8 


20 




1958.4 


7V2 




275-40 


25 




3059-9 



Weights cf Cordv.'ood. 

lbs. carbon. 

I Cord of Hickory 4468 loo 

" Hard Maple... 2864 58 

" Beech 3234 64 

" Ash 3449 79 

" Birch... 2368 49 

" Pitch Pine... 1903 43 

" Canada Pine. . . 1870 42 

** Yellow Oak.... 2920 61 

♦' White Oak 1870 81 

" Lombardy Pop- 
lar 177s 4t • 

" Red Oak.,,,.. 3255 70 



ARITHMETICAL SIGNS AND THEIR SIGNIFICATION. 
Sign of Equality, and signifies as 4-+-i2=i6. 

8+8=16 the sum. 



Addition 

— " Subtraction 
X " Multiplication 

— ^ " Division 

^ " Square Root 

Square Root. 
(fi Sign of to be Squared 
73 " to be Cubed 



as 



as 12 — 4=8 the remainder, 
as 12X3^=36 the product, 
as 24-+3=8 or ^ =8. 
Evolution or Extraction 



thus 82: 
thus 



64 Involution, or 
the Raising 



33=27 



of 



of 



Powers. 

The following table shows weight in tons required to tear asunder 
bars I mch square of the following materials. 

Oak 5^ tons. Wrought Copper ..15 tons 

Fir 1% " English Bar Iron.. 25 " 

Cast Iron '])^ " American Iron 27/4 " 

• Wrought Iron 10 " Blistered Steel qcJ^I •* 

610 ^^ 



READY RECKONER TABLE 

For computing Wages, Rent, Board, etc. The sum will be found heading the 
columns, and tne days and weeks on the extreme left hand column. If the 
desired sum is not in the Table, double or treble two or three suitable numbers. 



TIME. 


$2. 50. 


$2.75. 


$3.00. 


53-25- 


$3-5o- 


$3-75- 


$4.00. 


$4.25. 


$4.50. 


$4-75- 




» I 


.36 


•39 


.43 


.46 


•50 


•53 


•57 


.61 


.64 


.68 




fi3 


.72 


.78 


.8C 


•93 


T.OO 


1.07 


1.14 


1. 21 


1.28 


1.36 




1.08 


1. 17 


I.2C 


1-39 


1.50 


1.61 


1.71 


1.82 


1-93 


2-03 




4 


1.44 


1.56 


I.7I 


1.86 


2.00 


2.14 


2.28 


2-43 


2-57 


2.71 




5 


1.80 


1.95 


2.14 


2.32 


2.50 


2.68 


2.86 


3 -03 


3.21 


3.39 




6 


2-15 


2.34 


2-57 


2.78 


3.00 


3-21 


3-43 


3-64 


3-86 


4.07 


I 




2.50 


2-75 


3-ot 


3-25 


3-50 


3-75 


4.00 


4.25 


4-5° 


4.75 


.;j2 




5.00 


5-50 


6.0c 


6.50 


7.00 


7-50 


8.00 


8.50 


9.00 


9-50 


^3 




7-50 


8.25 


9.0c 


9-75 


10.50 


11.25 


12.00 


12-75 


13-50 


14-25 


>■[ 




10.00 


11.00 


12. oc 


13-00 


14.00 


15.00 


16.00 


17.00 


18.00 


19.00 


5, 




12.50 


13-75 


15. oc 


16.25 


17-50 


i«-75 


20.00 


21.25 


22.50 


23-75 


TIME. 


$5.00. 


$5-25- 


;?5-5o. 


?5-75- 


^6.00. 


"$6.25. 


^6.50. 


$6.75. 


27.00. 


$8.00. 




(Z2 


•71 


•75 


•79 


.82 


.86 


.89 


•93 


.96 


I-OO 


1. 14 




1-43 


1.50 


1.58 


1.64 


T.72 


1.78 


1.86 


1.92 


2.00 


2.28 




^3 


2.14 


2.25 


2.37 


2.46 


2.28 


2.67 


2-79 


2.88 


3,00 


3-52 




4 


2.86 


3.00 


3-15 


3-28 


3-44 


3-56 


3-72 


3.«4 


4.00 


4.26 




S 


3.57 


3-75 


3-94 


4.10 


4-30 


4-45 


4.65 


4.80 


5.00 


5-72 




6 


4.28 


4-50 


4-73 


4-92 


5-i6 


5-34 


5-5S 


5.7fa 


6.00 


6.86 


I 




5.00 


5-25 


5-5° 


5-75 


6.00 


b.35 


6.50 


6.75 


7-00 


8.00 


??2 




10.00 


10.50 


11.00 


11.50 


12.00 


12.50 


13.00 


13-50 


14.00 


16.00 


"S'-i 




15.00 


15-75 


16.50 


17-25 


18.00 


i»-75 


19.50 


20-25 


21.00 


24.00 


:^4 




20.00 


21.00 


22.00 


23.00 


24.00 


25.00 


26.00 


27.00 


28.00 


32.00 


•^5 




25.00 


26.25 


27.50 


2S.75 


30.00 


31-25 


32.50 


33-50 


35.00 


40-00 



WEIGHT OF LEAD PIPE— DIFFERENT SIZES. 



Callb'e 



AAA 

Weight 
per foot 



Inches 

Vx 
I 



ib. oz. 

1 8 

3 o 

3 ? 

4 8 
6 o 
6 12 
9 o 



AA 

Weight 
per foot 



lb. 



oz. 

5 



A 

Weight 
per foot 


B 

Weight 
per foot 


C 

Weight 
per foot 


lb. oz. 


lb. oz. 


lb- oz. 


1 2 


I 


13 


1 12 


I 4 


1 


2 8 


2 


1 12 


3 

4 
4 12 

6 4 

7 


2 4 

3 4 
3 12 

5 

6 


2 

2 8 

3 

4 4 

5 4 



D 

Weight 
per foot 



D Light 
Weight 
per foot 



lb. oz. lb. oz. 



131 



E 

Weight 
per foot 



ELight 
Weight 
per foot 



ib. oz. lb. oz. 



r 





'''1 









11 





9 


I 








12 


I 


4 


1 





1 

2 


8 











3 


'■ 











SIZE AND CAPACITIES OF CRIBS AND BOXES. 
Crib 6% ft. long, 3 5^ ft. broad, 31^ deep, 63% bush, l^ peck. 
Box 4 ft. long, 3 ft. 5 in. wide, 2 ft. 8 in. deep, 361/2 c. ft., 1 ton of coal. 
Stone or Box 4% ft. long, 2j^ ft. wide, 2 feet deep, 22^/^ cubic feet. 

Box 2 ft. long, 1 foot 4 in. wide, 2 ft. 8 in. deep, 10.722 cu. in. i barrel. 
Box 2 ft. long, I foot 2 in. wide, i foot 2 in. deep, 5.376 cu. in. % barrel. 
Bo.x 1 foot 2 in. long bjr 16 8-10 in. wide and 8 in. deep, i bushel. 
Box 12 X II 2-10 in., 8 in. deep, 1.075 2-10 in. or % bushel. 
Box 8x8 4-ic in. and 8 in- deep. 537 6-xo cu. in. or i peck. 
Box 8 X 8 in. and 4 2-10 in. deep, 268 8-10 cu. in. or % peck. 
Box 7x4 in. and 4 8-ro in. deep, 134 4-10 cu. in. Y^ gallon. 
Box 4 X 4 in. and 4 2-10 in. deep, 67 2-10 cu. in- i quart. 

611 



DIAMETEKS, CIRCUMFERENCES AND AREAS OF CIRCLES. 

Example. — Required the circumference of a circle, hoop, or ring, the 
diameter being 3 ft. 4 in. In the column of circumferences, opposite the 
indicated diameter, stands 10 ft. 5% in., the circumference required. The 
just allowance for contraction of the metal is its exact thickness, or ita 
breadth, if it is bent edgeways, which must be added to the diameter. 

The millwright can at once ascertain the diameter of any wheel he xnay 
require, the pitch and number of teeth being given. 

Example. — If a wheel is ordered to be made to contain 60 teeth, Uie 

Ijitch of the teeth to be 3% inched, the dimensions of the wheel may be 
cnown simply as follows : — Multiply the pitch of the tooth by the num- 
ber of teeth the wheel is to contain, and the product will be the circum- 
ference of wheel thus — 

3% inches pitch of the tooth, 
10 X = 60 the number of teeth. 

Feet 19 41^ inches the circumference of the wheel. 
The diameter answering to this circumference is 6 ft. 2 in., consequently 
with one half of this number as a radius, the circumference of the wheel 
will be described. 



Dia. in 


Circum. 


Area in 


Side of 


Dia in 


Cir. in 


Area in 


Area in 


inch. 


in inch. 


sq. inch. 


r= sq. 


inch. 


It. in. 


Eq. inch. 


sq. It. 


1-16 


-196 


-0030 


-0554 


4 in. 


1 OV2 


12-566 


-0879 


1-8 


-392 


-0122 


-1107 


^y? 


1 0% 


• 13-364 


-0935 


3-16 


-589 


-0276 


-1661 


4% 


nil 


14-186 


-0993 


1-4 


-785 


-0490 


-2115 


4% 


15-033 


-1052 


^16 


-981 


-0767 


-2669 


i fi 


15-904 


-1113 


3-8 


1-178 


-1104 


-3223 


4% 

4% 


16-800 


-1176 


7-16 


1-374 


-1503 


-3771 


1 2% 


17-720 


-1240 










473 


1 31;^ 


18-065 


-130'J 


1-2 


1-570 


-1963 


-4331 


5 in. 


1 3% 


19-635 


-1371 


&-16 


1-767 


-2485 


-4995 


^it 


Hit 


20-029 


-1441 


5-9 


1-963 


-3058 


-5438 


21-647 


-1515 


11-16 


2-159 


-3712 


-6093 


5% 
5% 


it 


22-690 


-1588 


3-4 


2-356 


-4417 


-6646 


23-758 


-1663 


13-16 


2-552 


-5185 


-7200 


5% 
5% 


1 5% 


24-850 


-1739 


7-8 


2-748 


-0013 


-7754 


1 6 


25-967 


-1817 


15-16 


2-945 


-6903 


-8308 


sys 


1 G% 


27-108 


-1897 


1 in. 


ti 


-7854 


Vs 


6 in. 


1 034 


28-274 


-1979 


J<t 


-9940 


% & .3-32 


eVs 


1 71^ 


29-464 


-2062 


SYs 


1-227 


1 m. 


61/4 


1 7% 


30-679 


-2147 




4V4 


1-484 


1 3-16 


6% 


1 8 


31-919 


-2234 


4% 


1-767 


1 5-16 


6% 


1 8% 
1 8% 


33-183 


-2322 


2-074 


1 7-16 


6% 


34-471 


-2412 


2-405 


1 9-16 


6% 


\ti 


35-784 


-2504 


li 


cya 


2-761 


1 11-16 


sys 


37-122 


-2598 


2 111. 


6% 


3-141 


1% 


7 in. 


1 10 


38-484 


-2693 


^t 


3-546 


lYs 


7% 


1 10% 
1 10% 
111% 
1 11% 


39-871 


-2791 


7 


3-976 


2 in. 


74 


41-282 


-2889 


W 


7% 


4-430 


2 Vs 


?^l 


42-718 


-2990 


T% 


4-908 


2 3-16 


44-178 


-3092 


2% 


8V4 


5^12 


2 5-16 


?l 


1 iiys 


45-663 


-3196 


2%- 


8% 


5-939 


2 7-16 


2 0% 


47-173 


-3299 


278 


9 


6^91 


2 9-16 


7% 


2 0% 


48-707 


-3409 


3 in. 


9% 
9% 

10% 


7-068 


2% 
2% 


8 in. 


2 1% 

2 ii| 


50-265 


-3518 


."•¥8 


7-669 


^<t 


51-848 


-3629 


3V4 


8-295 


2% 


2 lys 


53-456 


-3741 


3% 
3% 


8-946 


3 m. 


8% 
8% 


2 2V4 


55-088 


-3856 


11 


9-621 


'A 


2 2% 


56-745 


-3972 


3% 


11% 
11% 


10-320 


8% 
8% 


2 3 


58-426 


-4089 


11-044 


3% 


2 3% 


60-132 


-4203 


121/8 


11-793 


3 7-16 


8% 


2 -.3% 


61-862 


-4330 



«12 



DIA5IETEKS, CIRCUMFERENCES AND AREAS OF CIRCLES, &C. 



Dia. in 


Cir. in 


Area in 


Area in 


Dia. in 


Cir. in 


Area in 


Area in 


It. in. 


ft. 


in. 


Bq. inch. 


BCl. ft. 


it. 


in. 


ft. 


in. 


Bq. inch. 


sq. it. 


9 


2 


4V4 


G3-617 


-4453 




4 


4 


2V4 
2% 


201-062 


1-4074 


ti 


2 


4% 


65-396 


-4577 




4y8 


4 


204-216 


1-42D5 


2 


5 


67-200 


-4704 




4V4 


4 


3 


207-391 


1-4517 


^i 


2 


5% 


69-029 


-4832 




4% 
4% 


4 


1 


210-597 


1-4741 


2 


53/4 


70-883 


-4961 




4 


213-825 


1-4; (T 


9% 


2 


6V4 

c% 


72-759 


-5093 




4% 


4 


217-077 


1-5105 


9% 


2 


74-662 


-5226 




4% 


4 


4y2 


220-303 


1-5421 


. 978 


2 


7 


76-588 


-5361 




4y8 


4 


5 


223-654 


1-5655 


10 


2 


7% 


78-540 


-.5497 




5 


4 


c% 


226-^80 


1-5888 


IOVb 


2 


■^^f 


80-515 


-5636 




CVs 


4 


230-330 


1-6123 


101/4 


2 


^1 


82-516 


-577G 




5V4 


4 


233-705 


1-6359 


10% 

^2 


2 


84-510 


-5917 




5% 

5% 


4 


eVa 


237-104 


1-6597 


2 


SVs 


86-59!) 


-0061 




4 


cy« 
■<% 


210-528 


1 -6833 


10% 
10% 


2 


9% 

9% 

lO^I 


88-684 


-6206 




5% 
5% 


4 


243-977 


1-7073 


2 


90-762 


-0353 




4 


73/4 


247-450 


1-7321 


lO'/s 


2 


92-855 


-G499 




cys 


4 


250-947 


1-756G 


11 


2 


101/2 


95-033 


-G652 




6 


4 


8V2 


251-469 


1-7812 


llVs 

ii^A 


2 


loys 


97-205 


-6874 




6% 
6^4 


4 


914 
954 


253-016 


1-8061 


2 


11V4 


99-402 


-6958 




4 


261-587 


1-8311 


11% 


2 


11% 


101-623 


-7143 




c% 
c% 


4 


265-182 


1-85G2 


11%: 3 


OVs 


103-869 


-7290 




4 


105I 


268-803 


1-8816 


11% 
11% 


3 


OV2 


106-139 


-7423 




65,^ 


4 


lO^J 


272-447 


1-9071 


3 


^ 


108-434 


-7590 




6% 4 


10% 

11% 


276-117 


1-9328 


iiys 





110-753 


-7752 




cyg 


4 


279-811 


1-958G 




3 


1% 


113-097 


-7916 




7 


4 


11% 


283-529 


1-9S47 


i V8 


3 


2 


115-466 


-8082 




TVs 


5 





287-272 


1-9941 


1 V4 


3 


2V2 


117-859 


-8250 




7V4 


5 


OVz 


291-039 


2-037 L 


i I 


3 
3 


2y8 
31/4 


120-276 
122-718 


-8419 
-8590 




7% 5 

7y2 5 


% 


294-831 
298-648 


2-0637 
2-0904 


\ I 


3 


3% 


125-185 


-8762 




7% 5 


1% 


302-489 


2-1172 


3 


4 


127-676 


-8937 




7%i 5 


2 


306-355 


2-1443 


1 ys 


3 


4% 


130-192 


-9113 




7%| 5 


.i^% 


310-245 


2-1716 


1 1 


3 


4% 


132-732 


-9291 




8 5 


2% 
31A 


314-16) 


2-1990 


1 IVa 3 


51/4 


135-297 


-9470 




SVs 5 


318-099 


2-2265 


1 11/4! 3 


5% 


137-886 


-9642 




8V4I 5 


3% 


322-063 


2-2543 


1 1% 3 


6 


140-500 


-9835 




8%1 5 


4 


326-051 


2-2922 


1 11/2 3 


6% 


143-139 


1-0019 




^Vi 5 


. 4% 


330-061 


2-3103 


1 i4 3 
1 i%i 3 


6% 


145-802 


1-0206 




8% 


5 


4% 


334-101 


2-3386 


7% 


148-489 


1-0294 




8% 


5 


til 


338-163 


2-3670 


1 I'/s 3 


IV2 


151-201 


1-0584 




sys 


5 


342-250 


2-3956 


12 3 


1\ 


153-938 


1-0775 




9 


5 


5% 
6% 


346-361 


2-4244 


1 '^/s 3 


8% 
8% 


156-699 


1-0968 




9V8 


5 


350-497 


2-4533 


1 iV4 3 


159-485 


1-1193 




91/4 


5 


6% 


354-657 


2-4824 


1 2% 3 


9^ 


162-295 


1-1360 




9% 


5 


358-841 


2-511T 


1 m 3 


^% 


165-130 


1-1569 




5 


363-051 


2-5412 


1 2y,| 3 


9y8 


167-989 


1-1749 




9% 


5 


'k 


367-2S4 


2-5708 


1 i;% 3 


10% 


170-873 


1-1961 




{:% 


5 


371-543 


2-6007 


1 1% 3 


173-782 


1-2164 




sys 


5 


8% 


375-826 


2-6306 


13 3 


llVs 


176-715 


1-2370 




10 


5 


9% 


380-133 


2-6608 


} ^ ^ 


^^i4 


179-672 


1-2577 


1 


loy, 5 


384-465 


2-6691 


1 31/4 3 


iiys 


182-6.54 


1-2785 




10V4 5 


10% 


388-822 


2-7016 


1 3% 4 


^14 


185-661 


1-2996 




io3/« 5 
10% 5 


393-203 


2-7224 


i -^-4 •* 


0% 


188-692 


1-3208 




397-608 


2-7632 


1 3'^ 


4 


1 


191-748 


1-3422 




10% 5 


11 


402-038 


2-7980 


1 334 


4 


1% 


194-828 


1-3637 




10% 5 


IIV2 


406-493 


2-8054 


1 SVs 


4 


lys 


197-033 


1-3855 




loya 


5 


11% 


410-972 


2-^638 



013 



DIAMETERS, CIRCUMFERENCES AND AREAS OF CIRCLES, &C. 



Dia. in 


Cir. in 


Area in 


Area in 


Dia. in 


Cir. in 


Area in 


Area in 


It. ft. 


ft. 


iu. 


6(1. inch. 


Bq. It. 


It. in. 


1 


t. in. 


Bq. inch. 


Bq. It. 


1 11 


G 


01/4 
0% 


415-476 


2-8903 


3 


9 


5 


1017-S7 


7-0688 


1 llVs 


6 


420-004 


2-9100 


3 01/4 


9 


i 


1032-06 


7-1671 


1 11% 


6 


1 


421-557 


2-9518 


3 01/2 


9 


1046-.35 


7-266-t 


1 11% 
1 11% 


6 


1% 
21/4 


429-1.35 


2-9937 


3 03/4 


9 


'!V2 


1060-73 


7-366J 


G 


433-7.37 


3-0129 


3 1 


9 


8V4 


1075-21 


7-4661 


1 ll3/„i 6 


438-363 


3-0261 


3 1% 


9 


9 


1089-79 


7-5681 


1 113^ 


G 


2% 


41.3-014 


3-0722 


3 li|l 9 


9% 


1104-40 


7-6691 


1 iiYs 


6 


3 


417-G90 


3-1081 


3 13^1 9 


10^/2 


1119-24 


7-7791 


2 


6 


3% 
4% 


452-390 


3-1418 


3 2 9 


11% 
0% 


1131-12 


7-8681 


2 OV4 


G 


4G1-S61 


3-2075 


3 21/4 1) 


1149-09 


7-9791 


2 OV2 


G 


4% 
5% 


471^36 


3-2731. 


3 214 1) 


0% 


1164-16 


8-084'J 


2 034 


G 


481-lOG 


3-3110 


3 23^10 


1% 


1179-32 


8-1891 


2 16 


cy2 


490-875 


3-4081 


3 3 il) 


21/2 


1194-59 


8-2951 


2 IV4 G 


71/4 


5)0-741 


3-4775 


3 31/4 10 


31/4 


1200-95 


8-402'J 


2 IV2 G 


SVs 


510-706 


3-5168 


3 31/210 


4 


1225-42 


8-5091 


2 1341 6 


sys 


520-769 


3-6101 


3 33^13 


4y8 


■l210-L'8 


8-6171 


2 2 G 


9% 
lol^ 

ll^A 


530-9.30 


3-6870 


3 4 n 


5% 


125G-64 


8-7260 


2 2V4 G 


511-189 


3-7583 


3 41/4 10 
3 4i| 10 


c% 


1272-39 


8-8361 


2 2V2 6 


551-547 


3-8302 


'y4 


12-8-25 


8-9462 


2 23A 7 





562-003 


3-9643 


3 43/4 10 


8 


1304-20 


9-0561 


2 3 7 


03/; 
1% 


572-555 


3-9761 


3 5 


10 


83/. 


1320-25 


9-16^6 


2 31/41 7 
2 3i|l 7 


5S3-208 


4-O0OO 


3 51/4 


10 


1336^0 


9-2112 


2% 

3% 


593-958 


4-1241 


3 51/2 10 


10% 
11% 


1352-65 


9-3r6L 


2 334 7 


604-807 


4-2000 


3 534110 


1369-00 


9-5061 


2 4 7 


Si 

5I/I 


615-753 


4-2760 


3 6 10 


iiy, 


1385-44 


9-6212 


2 41/4 7 


626-798 


4-3521 


3 61/4 U 

3 6i|n 


03/4 


1401-98 


9-7364 


2 4ii 


7 


637-941 


4-4302 


1% 
2% 


1418-62 


9-8518 


2 43/4 


7 


CV4 


619-182 


4-5083 


3 63/4III 


1435-36 


9-9671 


2 5 


7 


7 


660-521 


4-5861 


3 7 111 


3 


1152-20 


10-084 


2 5IA 
2 5i^ 


7 


7% 
8% 
9^/5 


671-958 


4-6665 


3 71/411 


3% 
4% 


1460-14 


10-202 


7 


683-494 


4-7467 


3 71/0 U 


1486-17 


10-320 


2 534 


7 


695-128 


4-8274 


3 734 11 


5% 


1503-30 


10^39 


2 6 


7 


101/4 


706-860 


4-9081 


3 8 




61/4 


1530-53 


10-559 


2 6I/4 
2 C14 


7 


11 


718-690 


4-9901 


3 8I/4 
3 81^ 




7 


1537-86 


10-679 


7 


113/4 


730-618 


6-0731 




•?% 


1555-28 


10-800 


2 C3/4 


8 


0% 
1% 
2% 


742-641 


5-1573 


3 8% 




8V2 


1572-81 


10-922 


2 7 


8 


754-769 


5-2278 


3 9 




914 
10% 


1590^3 


11-044 


2 71/4 


8 


766-992 


5-3264 


3 91/4 




1608-15 


11-167 


2 71/2 


8 


2% 
3% 


779-313 


5-4112 


3 91/2 
3 93^ 




10% 


1625-76 


11-291 


2 73/4 


8 


791-732 


6-4982 




11% 


1643-89 


11-415 


2 8 


8 


4y2 


804-249 


5-5850 


3 10 


12 


OVo 

1% 


1661-90 


11-531 


2 8V4 


8 


53/4 

61^ 


816-865 


5-6729 


3 1014 
3 lOiZ 
3 103^ 


12 


1608-02 


11-660 


2 8V2 
2 83^ 


8 


829-578 


5-7601 


12 


2 


1698-23 


11-793 


8 


0% 


842-390 


5-8491 


12 


3% 


1716-54 


11-920 


2 9 18 


7% 


855-300 


5-9398 


3 11 


12 


3% 


1734-94 


12-048 


2 91/4 8 


SV2 


868-308 


6-0291 


3 IIV4 
3 111^ 


12 


4% 


1753-45 


12-176 


2 91/2 8 


91/4 


881-415 


6-1201 


12 


sy* 


1772-05 


12-305 


2 934 8 


10 


894-619 


6-2129 


3 113/4 


12 


6 


1790-76 


12-435 


2 10 8 


1034 


907-922 


6-3051 


4 


12 


634 


1809-56 


12-566 


2 lOi/i 8 


iiy2 


921-323 


6-3981 


4 01/4 


12 


7Vt 


1828-46 


12-697 


2 101/2 9 


0% 
1^^ 


934-822 


6-4911 


4 01/2 


12 


8% 
914 


1847-45 


12-829 


2 103/4 9 


948-419 


6-5863 


4 03,4 


12 


1866-55 


12-962 


2 11 9 


lys 


962-115 


6-6815 


4 1 


12 


9% 
105^ 
11^1 

0% 


1885-74 


13-095 


2 111/4 9 


23/4 


975-908 


6-7772 


4 11/4 
4 li| 


12 


1903-03 


13-229 


2 111/0 9 


31/2 


989-800 


6-8738 


12 


1924-42 


13-364 


2 113/4 


9 


41/4 


1003-73 


6-9701 


4 1% 


13 


1943-91 


13-409 



614 



inAMETEJRS, CIKCUMFEKENCES AND AKEAS OF CHICLES. 



Dia. in 


Cir. in 


Area in 


Area in 


Dia. in 


Cii 


. in 


Area in 


Area in 


It. in. 


it 


in. 


sq. inch. 


sq. ft. 


ft, in. 


ft. 


in. 


sq. inch. 


sq. It. 


4 2 


13 


1 


1963-50 


13-6.35 


5 4 


16 


9 


3216-99 


22-333 


4 21/4 


13 


33/1 


1983-18 


13-772 


5 414 


16 




3242-17 


22-515 


4 2y2 

4 24 


13 


2002-96 


13-909 


5 414! 16 


3267^6 


22-C21 


13 


2022-84 


14-047 


5 43/4 


16 


11% 


3292-83 


22-8(6 


4 3 13 


4V4 


2042-82 


14-186 


5 5 


17 


CVs 


3318-31 


23-043 


4 0V4 13 


5 


- 2062-90 


14-325 


5 £1/4 


17 


0% 


3343-88 


23-1 LI 


: 31/2 1^ 


534 


2083-07 


14^65 


5 f,i/2 
5 i4 


17 


i% 


3309-56 


23-3; a 


4 -6% 13 


Ci| 


2103-:;5 


11-GOO 


17 


'd 


3395-33 


23-573 


4 4 13 


'^V4 


212.3-72 


14-748 


5 6 


17 


3% 


3421-20 


23-758 


4 41/4 13 
4 4%il:5 


i% 


21H-ia 


14-890 


5 CI/4 


17 


4i| 


3447-16 


23-91:3 


^Vh 


2164-75 


15-0.33 


5 Ci/aJlT 


4y8 


3473-13 


24-119 


4 43/; 113 


i)% 


218.V4J 


15-176 


5 C3/4;17 


'-% 


3499-39 


24-3C1 


4 5 lu 


m 


2200-18 


15-320 


5 7 117 


C1/2 


' 3525-26 


24-Ai-3 


4 51/4! 1} 


111/4 


2227-05 


1.5-4C5 


5 714; 17 
5 7%il7 
5 l^jlT 


'v; 


. 3552-01 


24-C66 


4 rVaii 





2248-01 


15-611 


8 


3578-47 


24-8.'-0 


4 i>% U 


OVs 


226J-0a 


15-757 


t% 


3605-03 


25-034 


4 c n 


1% 


229:>-C2 


15-904 


5. 8 il7 


c% 


3031-C8 


25-220 


4 CV4U 


23/8 


2311-48 


16-051 


5 fV4:i7 


1(^% 


3658-44 


25-405 


4 CI/3 1 1 


31/4 


2332-y3 


16-200 


5 M/2II7 


11V8 


3e^5-29 


25-502 


4 C3/4 1 1 


4 


2354-28 


16-349 


5 (3/^17 


11% 


3712-24 


25-779 


4 7 |U 


43^1 2357-S3 


19^98 


5 9 il8 


3739-28 


25-164 


4 7V4U 


51/2 


2397^8 


16-C49 


5 (i/4'18 


3766-43 


26-1 5.> 


4 71/iin 


C3/« 


2419-22 


16-800 


5 11/2:18 


i 


3793-C7 


2C-344 


4 -.ysllt 


2441-07 


16-951 


5 1% 18 


3821-02 


2C-C34 


4 8 U 


"% 


2463-01 


17-104 


5 10 18 


£% 


2S4S-46 


20-725 


4 fV4U 


^% 


24(^5-05 


17-227 


5 l(.i/4l8 


4% 


S875-99 


20-91l> 


4 !y2H 


fiili 2507-19 


17^11 


5 101/2 ■ 18 


C3/8 


3903-63 


27-1C8 


4 83/4; U 


ml 


2529-12 


17-565 


5 1034,18 


6V4 


3931-36 


27-SCl 


4 9 114 


11 


2551-76 


17-720 


5 11 ]18 


7 


3959-20 


27-194 


4 SV4|li 


11% 
0% 


2574-19 


17-876 


5 1 11/4 i 18 


•% 


3967-13 


27-(88 


4 01/2:15 


2596-72 


18-033 


5 III/2I8 


i% 


4015-16 


27-6 8.'J 


4 S^l 


15 


1% 


2619-35 


18-189 


5 1134 18 


i% 


4043-28 


28-078 


4 10 


15 


2V4 


2642-08 


18-347 


18 


10% 


4071-51 


28-274 


4 IOV4 


15 


3^1 


2664-91 


18-506 


(i/4|18 


lOVs 


4099-83 


28-471 


4 101/2 


15 


2687-83 


18-065 


6 CI/2I8 


11% 


4128-25 


28-C63 


4 103^ 


15 


414 
51/? 


2710-85 


18-825 


6 13419 


CI/2 


4156-77 


18-866 


4 11 


15 


2733-97 


18-995 


6 1 19 


1^4 


4185-39 


29-0C5 


4 IIV4 


15 


2757-19 


19-147 


6 11/4 19 


21/8 


4214-11 


29-2C4 


4 111/2 


15 


CVs 


2780-51 


19-309 


6 li/^!l9 


1 


4242-f2 


29-4CG 


4 113/4 


15 


T% 


2803-92 


19-171 


6 134 19 


4271-83 


29-CC5 


5 


15 


8I/2 
9% 


2827-44 


19-635 


2 10 


41/2 


4300-85 


29-FC7 


5 OV4 


15 


2851-05 


19-798 


6 21/4 '19 


fi 


4329-95 


30-CG9 


5 OVo 


15 


10 


2874-76 


19-963 


6 21/2:19 


6 


4359-16 


30-171 


n ()3/4 


15 


1034 
11% 


2898-56 


20-128 


6 234 19 


?l 


4368-47 


30-475 


5 1 


15 


2rf22^7 


20-294 


6 3 


19 


4417-67 


30-679 


5 IV4 


16 


0% 

114 


2946^7 


20-461 


6 31/4 


19 


r<i 


4447-37 


30-884 


fi 11/2 


16 


2970-57 


20-629 


6 31/2 


19 


4476-97 


30-090 


5 1% 


16 


1% 


2991-77 


20-797 


6 334 


19 


tys 


4506-C7 . 


31 -196 


5 2 


16 


23/i 

31/^ 


3019-07 


20-965 


6 4 


19 


1034 


4536-47 


31-503 


5 2V4 


16 


3043-47 


20-135 


6 41/4 


19 


iiy2 


4560-36 


31-710 


5 21/0 
5 -23^ 


16 


41/! 
51/^ 


3067-96 


20-305 


6 41/i 


20 


01/4 


4590-35 


31-919 


16 


3092-56 


21-476 


6 434 


20 


iy8 


4626-44 


32-144 


5 3 


16 


§^. 


3117-25 


21-647 


6 5 


20 


iy« 


4656-63 


32-337 


5 31/4 
5 3% 
5 33/4 


16 


3142-04 


21-819 


6 51/4 
G 53 '_ 


20 


2% 


4686-92 


32-r48 


16 


71/8 


3166-92 


21-992 


20 


33/„ 


4717-30 


32-750 


16 


8V4 


3191-01 


22-166 i 


:o 


<Vi 


4747-79 


C2-CT0 



61.5 



MAM., &c. OF CIRCLES, COXTEKTS IN GALS., AREA IN FEET 



"jn 


am. 
In. 


Circ. 


Area in ft. 


Gallons. 


i Diam. | Circ. 


Area in ft. j Gallons. 


Ft. 


Ft. In. 




1 ft. in dpth 


iFt. 


In. Ft. In. 




1 ft. in dpth 






3 1% 


.7854 


5.8735 


5 


8! 17 9% 
9; 18 03^ 


25.2199 


188.C045 




1 


3 4% 


.9217 


6.8928 


5 


25.9672 


194.1930 




2 


3 8 


1.0690 


7.9944 


5 


10il8 3% 

11J18 7i^ 


26.7251 


199.8G10 




3 


3 11 


1.2271 


9.1765 


5 


27.4943 


205.6133 




4 
5 
C 

7 
8 


4 2% 
4 5% 
4 8U 

4 115^ 

5 234 


1.3962 
1.5761 
1.7671 
1.9689 
2.1816 


10.4413 
11.7866 
13.2150 
14.7241 
16.3148 


6 
6 
6 
6 


2 19 41/2 
3|19 71/2 
6120 4% 
9 21 23/g 


29.0867 
30.6796 
33.1831 
35.7847 


223.9472 
229.4342 
24 .1564 
267.6122 




9 


5 5% 


2.4052 


17.9870 


7 


21 11% 
3 22 91^ 


38.4846 


287.8032 




10 


5 9 


2.G398 


19.7414 


7 


41.2825 


308.7270 




11 


G 21/4 


2.8852 


21.4830 


7 


6 23 63A 
9 24 414 


44.1787 


330.3859 












7 


47.1730 


352.7665 


2 




G 3% 
6 C14 


3.1416 


23.4940 


8 


25 11/2 


50.2656 


375.9062 


2 


1 


3.4087 


25.4916 


8 


3 25 11 


53.4562 


399.7668 


2 


2 


G 9% 


3.6869 


27.5720 


8 


6;26 83/8 


56.7451 


424.3625 


2 


3 


7 03/4 


3.9760 


29.7340 


8 


9 27 53/4 


60.1321 


449.2118 


2 
2 

2 
2 

2 


4 
5 
C 

7 
8 


7 7 

7 IOV4 

8 1% 
8 4i| 


4.2760 
4.5869 
4.9087 
5.2413 
5.5850 


32.6976 
34.3027 
36.7092 
39.1964 
41.7668 


9 
9 
9 
9 


28 31/4 
3 29 0% 
6!29 10% 
930 7% 


63.6174 
67.2007 
70.8823 
74.6620 


475.7563 
502.5530 
530.0861 
658.3522 


2 


9 


8 7^1 


5.9395 


44.4179 


10 


31 5 


78.540) 


587.3534 


2 


10 


8 103^ 


6.3049 


47.1505 


10 


3 32 2% 


82.5160 


617.087C 


2 


11 


9 lys 


6.6813 


49.9654 


10 


6 


32 11% 


86.5903 


647.5568 












10 


9 


33 91/4 


90.7627 


678.2r97 


3 




9 5 


7.0686 


52.8618 


11 




3-4 6% 


95.0334 


710.6977 


3 


1 


9 81/4 


7.4666 


55.8382 


11 


3 


35 41/8 


99.4021 


743.368G 


3 


2 


9 113/8 

10 214 


7.8757 


58.8976 


11 


6136 11/2 


103.8691 


776.774G 


3 


3 


8.2957 


62.0386 


11 


9 36 loyg 


108.4342 


810.9143 


3 
3 
3 
3 
3 


4 
5 
6 
7 
8 


10 5% 
10 83^ 

10 1134 

11 3 

11 eVa 


8.7265 

9.1683 

9.6211 

10.0846 

10.5591 


65.2602 
68.5193 
73.1504 
75.4166 
78.9652 


12 
12 
12 
12 


37 S% 
3 38 5% 
6 39 31/4 
940 05^ 


113.0976 
117.8590 
122.7187 
127.6765 


848.1890 
881.3966 
917.7395 
954.8159 


3 


9 


11 93/. 

12 5% 


11.0446 


82.5959 


13 




40 10 


132.7326 


992.6274 




10 


11.5409 


86.3074 


13 


3 


41 71/2 


137.8867 


1031.1719 


3 


11 


12 3% 


12.0481 


90.1004 


13 


6 


42 478 


143.1391 


1070.4514 












13 


9 


43 2V4 


148.4896 


1108.0645 


4 




12 63^ 
12 9% 


12.5664 


93.9754 


14 




43 113^ 


153.9.384 


1151.2129 


4 


1 


13.0952 


97.9310 


14 


3 44 9% 
g|45 6% 


159.4852 


1192.6940 


4 


o 


13 1 


13.6353 


101.9701 


14 


165.1303 


1234.9104 


4 


3 


13 4% 
13 7Y^ 

13 101/2 

14 1% 
14 45| 
14 77/8 


14.1862 


103.0300 


14 


9 46 4 


170.8735 


1277.8615 


4 
4 
4 
4 
4 


4 
5 
C 
7 
8 


14.7479 

15.3206 
15.9043 
16.4986 
17.1011 


110.2907 
114.5735 
118.9386 
123.3830 
127.9112 


15 
15 
15 
15 


1 

9 


47 ly, 
47 10% 
4^ S% 
49 53^ 


176.7150 
182.6545 
188.6923 
194.8282 


1321.5454 
1365.9634 
1407.51P5 
1457.0032 


4 


9 


11 11 


17.7205 


132.5209 


16 




50 31/8 


201.0624 


1503.6250 


4 


10 


15 2% 
15 514 


18.3476 


137.2105 


16 


3 


51 OV2 


207.3^6 


1550.9797 


4 


11 


18.9858 


142.0582 


16 


C51 10 


213.8251 


1599.0696 












16 


9^52 73/8 


220.3537 


1647.893* 


5 
5 
5 
5 


1 
2 
3 


15 8V2 

15 11% 

16 23^ 
16 534 


19.6350 
20.2947 
20.9656 
21.6475 


146.8384 
151.7718 
156.7891 
161.8886 


17 
17 
17 
17 


53 4% 

3 54 2V8 
C 54 115/8 
955 91/8 


226.9806 
233.7055 
240.5287 
247.4500 


1697.4.516 
1747.7431 
1798.7698 
1850.5301 


5 


4116 9"\ 


22.3400 


167.0674 


18 


156 61/2 


254.4696 


1903.0254 


5 


5|17 OVe 


23.0437 


172.3300 


18 


S|57 4 


261.5872 


1956.25.'^.7 


5 


CI 17 SVs. 


23.7583 


177.6740 


IS 


C58 1% 


268.8031 


2010.2171 


5 


.h 


17 C3/3. 


24.4835 


183.0973 


18 





58 1034. 


276.1171 


2064.914Q 



01 fi 



SCANTLING REDUCED TO ONE INCH BOARD MEASURE. 
SCANTLING AND TIMBER MEASURE 

KEDUCED TO OXE INCH BOARD MEASURE. 

EXPLANATION.— To ascertain the number of Feet of Scantling or Tim- 
ber, say 18 Feet Long and 2 by 3 Inches. Find 2 by 3 in the top 
columns, and 18 in the left hand column, and under 2 by 3 and against 
18 is 9 feet. 

If the Scantling is longer than contained in the Table, add two lengths 
together. If shelter, take part off some length. 



THICKNESS AND WIDTH IN INCHES. 



!^ 122 2 3 24! 2.5 26 



2. 

2.4 

2.8 

3. 

3.4' 

3.8 

4. 

4.4 

4.8 

5. 

5.4 

5.8 

6. 

6.4 

6.8 



7.4 



9 
9 

10. 

10, 

11 

7.8 11, 

8. 12 

8.4|l2 

10. 1 15. 

11.4.17, 

13.4'20. 



4. 

4.8 
5.4 
6. 

6.8 .. 

7.4 9. 

8. tlO. 

6| 8.8 10, 

9.4 11, 

6 10. il2, 

1 10. 8 i 13 

6 11.4;14 

!l2. 15 

6,12.815 

13.4 16 



6 14. 

114.8 
615.4 

116. 
6 16.8 

20, 

22.8 28, 

26.8.33, 



6. 
10 i 7. 
8 8. 
6! 9. 
4il0. 
211. 

;i2. 

10 13. 

8 14. 

6 15. 

4 16. 

2 17. 

1 18. 

10,19. 

820. 

6 2L 

4 22. 

2 23. 

124. 

10,25. 

30. 

41 34. 

440. 



27 I 28; 29 331 34! 35 36; 37 3.8i 3.9i 44 



2 1 9.4 
4' 10. 8 
6 12. 
8il3.5 
10114.8 



9. 

10.6 
12. 
13.6 
15 
16.6 
Il8. 
'l9.6 
21. 



4.6 
5.31 
6. ! 
6.9I 



7.610. 
8.3ill. 

14. 116. 118. 9. 112. 

15. 2 17.4'19.6 9.913. 

16. 4il8.821. il0.6il4. 

17. 6 20. 22.6111.315. 

18. 821.424. 12. il6. 
19.10i22.8 25.6 12.917. 



21. 

22. 

23. 

24. 

25. 8 

26.10 

28. 

29. 2 

35. 

39. 3 

46, 



24. 
2'25.4 
4126.8 
628. 
29.4 
30.8 
32. 
33.4 
40. 
45.4 



27. 
28.6 
30. 
31.6 



13.6:18. 
14.3:19. 
15. 20. 
15.921. 



33. 16.6i22. 
34.617.3l23. 
36. 18. 124. 
37.618.9 25. 
45. J22.630. 
51. 25.6 34. 
8153.460. iSO.O-IO. 



7.6 
8.9 
10. i 
11.3 
12.6 
13.9 
15. 
116.3 
il7.6 
II8.9 
20. 
121.3 
22.6 
|^'3.9 
!25. 
il6.3 
,27.6 
28.9 
30. 
31.3 
!37.6 
•J2.6 
150. 



9. 10.6 
10.612.3 
12. 1 14. 
I3.6I15.9 
15. il7.6 



16.6 19.3 22. 
18. !21. 24. 
19.622.9 26. 
21. 24.6'JK 
12.6 26.3 30. 
24. 28. 32. 
25.6 29.9 34. 
27. 31.6 36. 
28.6 33.3 38. 
30. 35. 140. 
31.6 36. 9 1 42. 
33. 38. 6 1 44. 
34.6j40.3i46. 
36. 42. i48. 
37.6 43.9 50. 
45. i52.6|60. 
51. 159.6168. 
60. 170. !80. 



13.6 

15.9 

18. 

20.3 

22.6 

24.9 

27. 

29.3 

31.6 

33.9 

36. 

38.3 

40.6 

42.9| 

45. I 

47.3 

49.6! 



8. 

9.4 
10. 
12. 
13.4 
14.8 
16. 
17.4 
18.8 
20.0 
21.4 
22.8 
24. 
24.4 
26.8 
28. 
29.4 



51.9! 30.8 
54. 1 32. 
56.3- 33.4 
j67.6| 40. 
176.61 45.4 
90. I 53. 



THICKNESS AND WIDTH IN INCHES. 



5.4 461 4.71 4.8 1 4.91 5.5 I 5.6 | 5.7 5.8 i 5.9 1 6.6, 6.7 ; 6.81 6.9 6.10 



10. 12. 

11. 8 1 14. 
8113.4 16. 
9115. 1 18. 
10116.8 120. 

18.4122. 
Ii320. 124. 

21.8 26. 

23. 4 i 28. 

25. 130. 

26. 8; 32. 

28.4,34. 

18 30. 1 36. 

19 31.8 38. 
2013.3.4 40. 

35. 142. 
22136 8'44. 
2.3138.4146. 

40. !48. 

41.8150. 

50. ,60. 
34156.8.68. 
40.66.8 80. 



1.3 
14 
15 
16 
17 



4.7 


4.8 


4.9 


14. 


16. 


18. 


16.4 


18.8 


21. 


18.8 


21.4 


24. 


21. 


24. 


27. 


2.3.4 


26.8 


30. 


2.5.8 


29.4 


33. 


28. 


,32. 


36. 


30.4 


34.8 


39. 


32.8 


37.4 


42.! 


35. 


40. 


4.5. i 


37.4 


42.8 


48.; 


39.8 


45.4 


.51.! 


42. 


48. 


54.1 


44.4 


50.S 


57.! 


46.8 


53.4 


60.1 


49. 


56. 1 6.3.! 


51.4 


58. 8 i 66.1 


53.8 


61.4 69. 1 


56. 


64. 72. 1 


58.4 


66.8 75.1 


70. 


80. 90.: 


179.4 


90.8 102.1 


93.4 


106.8 


120., 



12. 
!l4. 
116. 
18. 
120. 
122. 
25. 
27. 
!29. 
!51. 
;33. 
13.5. 
|37. 
,39. 
141. 
143. 
145. 
|47. 
loO. 
152. 
162. 

ro. 

83. 



15. 
17. 

20. 

22. 

25. 

27. 

30. 

i 32. 

35. 

37. 

40. 

42. 

61 45. 

7 1 47. 

8! 50. 

9j 52 

10! 55. 

Hi 57. 

I 60. 

1 62. 

6 1 75. 

10! 85. 

4 100. 



17. 6 
6:20. 5 

123. 4 
6;26. 3 

129. 2 
6 32. 1 

13.5. 
6 37.11 

140.10 
6 43. 9 

46. 8 
6 49. 7 

52. 6 
6 55. 5 

158. 4 
6]6L 3 

164. 2 
6167. 1 

i70. 
6172.11 

i87. 6 

99. 2 

ill6.8 

617 



22.61 18. 
26.3| 21. 
30. I 24. 
33.91 27. 
37.61 30. 
41.3; 33. 
45. I 36. 
48.9; 39. 
52.61 42. 
56.3' 45. 
6<). 48. 
63.9 51. 
67.61 54. 
71. 3i 57. 

GO. 

63. 

66. 

G9. 

72. 

75. 

100. 112.6 90. 
11.3.4 127.6,102. 
133.41150. 1120. 



20. 

23.4 

26.8 

30. 

33.4 

36.8 

40. 

43.4 

46.8 

50. 

53.4 

56.8 

60. 

63.4 

66. 8 1 75. 

70. I 78.9 

73.4 82.6 

76.8 86.3 

80. 90.0 

83.4i 93.9 



21. I 24. 
24.6i 28. 
28. ! 32. 
31.6; 36. 
35. 40. 
38.6 44. 
42. I 48. 
45.6 52. 
49. 56. 
52.61 60. 

64. 

68. 

72. 

76. 

80. 

84. 

88. 

92. 

96. 



I 56. 1 

•59.6I 

63. ! 

66.6 
i 70. ! 

73.6! 

77. ! 
1 80.6 

84. i 

87.6 100. 
10.5. 120. 
119. i.m 
140. 1160. 



27: I 

31.61 

36. 

40. 6 1 

45. ! 

49.61 

54. I 

58.61 

63. 

67.6! 

72. 

76.6 

81. 

85.6 

90. 1 



30. 

35. 

40. 

45. 

50. 

55. 

60. 

6.5. 

70. 

75. 

80. 

85. 

90. 

95. 
100. 
94. 6 j 105. 
99. 1 110. 
103.6J115. 
108. 1 120. 
112.6:12.5. 
13.5. 1150. 
153. 1 170. 
18Q. I2OO. 



OP 








THICKXE.SS AND "VVIDTH IN IXCHES. 








f^ 


6.11 


6.12 


7.7 


7.8 


7.9 


7.10 


7.11 7.12 


8.8 1 8.9 


8.10 


8.11 j 8.12 


6 


33. 


36. 


24. 6 


28. 


31.6 


35. 


38. 6 


42. 


32. 36. 


40. 


44. 


48. 


7 


38.6 


42. 


28. 7 


32.8 


36.9 


40.10 


41.11 


49. 


37.4 42. 


46.8 


51.4 


56. 


8 


44. 


48. 


32. 8 


37.4 


42. 


46. 8 


51. 4 56. 


42.8 48. 


53.4 


58.8 


64. 


9 


49.6 


54. 


36. 9\ 42. 


47.3 


52. 6 


57. 9 


63. 


48. 54. 


60. 


66. 


72. 


10 


55. 


60. 


40.10 


46.8 


52.6 


58. 4i 64. 2 


70. 


53.4 60. 


66.8 


73.4 


80. 


11 


60.6 


66. 


40.11 


51.4 


57.9 


64. 2 


70. 7 


77. 


58.8 66. 


73.4 


80.8 


88. 


12 


G6. 


72. 


49. 


56. 


63. 


70. 


77. 


84. 


64. 72. 


80. 


88. 


96. 


13 


71.6 


78. 


53. 1 


60.8 


68.31 75.101 83. 5 


91. 


69.4 78. 


86.8 


P5.4 


101 


14 


77. 


84. 


57. 2| 65.4 


73.6 


81. 8[ 89.101 98. 


74.8 84. 


93.4 


102.8 


112. 


15 


82.6 


90. 


61. 3 


70. 


78.9 


87. 6 96. 3|105. 


80. 90. 


100. 


110. 


120. 


16 


88. 


96. 


64. 4 


74.8 


84. 


93. 4il02. 8 112. 


85.4 96. 


106.8 


117.4 


128. 


17 


93.6 


102. 


69. 5 


79.4 


89.3 


99. 2 109. Iill9. 


90.8 102. 


113.4 


124.8 


136. 


18 


99. 


108. 


73. 6 


84. 


94.6 105. 1115. 6|126. 


96. |108. 


120. 


132. 


144. 


19 


104.6 


114. 


77. 7 


88.8 


99. 9i 110. 10 


121. 11 1 133. 


101.4 114. 


126.8 


139.4 


152. 


20 


110. 


120. 


81. 8 


93.4 


105. |116. 8 


128. 4 140. 


106.8 120. 


133.4 


146.8 


160. 


21 


115.6 


126. 


85. 9 


98. 


110.3jl22. 6 


134. 9il47. 


112. 126. 


140. 


154. 


16S. 


22 


121. 


132. 


89.10 


102.8 


115.6 128. 5 


141. 2il54. 


117.4 132. 


146.8 


161.4 


176. 


23 


126.6 


138. 


93.11 


107.4 


120.9 134. 2 


147. 7 161. 


122.8 138. 


153.4 


168.8 


IM. 


24l 


132. 


144. 


98. 


112. 


126. il40. 


154. 168. 


128. 144. 


160. 


176. 


192. 



P^ 


9.9 19.10 

! 


9.11 


9.12 


10.10; 10.11(10.12 


11.11 |11.12il2.12]12 .13 12.14 


6 


40.6 


45. 


49.6 


54. 


60.0 


55. 


60. 


60. 6 


66. 


72. 


78. 


84. 


7 


47.3 


52.6 57.9 


63. 


58.4 


&i. 2 


70. 


70. 7 


77. 


84. 


91. 


98. 


S 


54. 


60. 66. 


72. 


66.8 


73. 4 


80. 


80. 81 


88. 


96. 


104. 


112. 


9 


60.9 


67.6 74.3i 81. 


75. 


86. 6 


90. 


99. 9! 


99. 


108. 


117. 


126. 


10 


67.6 


75. 1 82.6 


SO. 


83.4 


91. 8 


100. 


lOO.lOl 


110. 


120. 


130. 


140. 


11 


74.3 


82.61 90.9 


99. 


91.8 


100.10 


110. 


110.11 


121. 


132. 


143. 


1.54, 


12 


81. 


90. 


99. 


108. 


100. 


110. 


120. 


121. 


132. 


144. 


156. 


168. 


13 


87.9 


97.6 


107.3 


117. 


108.4 


119. 2 


130. 


131. 1 


143. 


156. 


169. 


182. 


14 


94.6 


105. 


115.1 


126. 


116.8 1 128. 4 


140. 


141. 2 


154. 


168. 


182. 


196. 


15 


101.3 


112.6 


123. 9 '135. 


125. 1 137. 6 


150. 


151. 3 


165. 


1.80 


195. 


210. 


16 


108. |120. 1132. [144. 


133.4 1 146. 8 


160. 


161. 4 


176. 


ir2. 


208. 


224. 


17 


114.*) 127.6 140.3 153. 


141.8 1 155.10 


170. 


171. 5 


187. 


204. 


221. 


238. 


18 


121.6|135. 148.6[162. 


150. 1 165. 


180. 


181. 6 


198. 


216. 


2^. 


252. 


19 


128.3 142.6 156.9:171. 


158.4 


174. 2 


191. 


191. 7 


209. 


228. 


247. 


266. 


20 


135. 150. 165. |l80. 


166.8 


183. 4 


200. 


201. 8| 


220. 


240. 


260. 


280. 


21 


141.9 157-6 173.3. 189. 


175. 


192. 6 


210. 


211. 9 


231. 


252. 


273. 


294. 


22 


148.6 165. 1181.6 198. 


183.4 


201. 8 


220. 


221.10i 


242. 


261. 


2.^6. 


308. 


23 


155.3 172.6 189.9!207. 


191.9 


210.10 


230. 


231.11 


253. 


276. 


299. 


322. 


24 


162. 180. Il98. 1216. 


200. 


220. 


240. 1 


242. 


264. 


188. 


312. 


336. 





12.15jl2.16!13.13 


13.14113.15 


13.1614.1414.15 


14.16 


15.15 


15.16 


6 


90. 


96. 


83. 6 


91. 


97.6 


104. 


98. 


105. 


112. 


112.6 


120. 


n 


105. 


112. 


98. 7 


106. 2 


113.9 


121.3 


114.4 


122.0 


130.3 


131.3 


140. 


135. 


128. 


112. 8 


121. 4 


130. 


138.8 


130.8 


140. 


149.4 


150. 


160. 


'^l 


135. 


144. 


126. 9 


136. 6 


146.3 


156. 


147. 


157.6 


168. 


168.9 


180. 


10 


150. 


160. 


140.10 


151. 8 


162.6 


17.3.4 


163.4 


175. 


186.8 


187.6 


200. 


11 


165. 


176. 


154.11 


166.10 


178.9 


190.8 


179.8 


192.6 


205.4 


206.3 


220. 


12 


180. 


192. 


169. 


182. 


195. 


208. 


196. 


210. 


224. 


22.3. 


240. 


13 


195. 


208. 


183. 1 


197. 2 


211.3 


225.4 


212.4 


227.6 


242.8 


243.9 


260. 


IJ 


210. 


224. 


197. 2 


212. 4 


227.0 


242.8 


228.8 


245. 


261.4 


262.6 


280. 


15 


225. 


240. 


211. 3 


227. 6 


243.9 


260. 


245. 


262.6 


280. 


281.3 


300. 


16 


240. 


256. 


225. 4 


242. 8 


260. 


277.4 


261.4 


280. 


298.8 


300. 


320. 


17 


255. 


272. 


239. 5 


257.10 


276.3 


294.8 


277.8 


297.6 


317.4 


318.9 


340. 


18 


270. 


288. 


243. 6 


273. 


292.6 


312. 


290. 


314. 


330. 


337.6 


360. 


19 


385. 


304. 


257. 7 


288. 2 


30.^.9 


329.4 


310.4 


3.32.6 


354.8 


356.3 


380. 


20 300. 


320. 


271. 8 


303. 4 


325. 


346.8 


326.8 


350. 


373.4 


375. 


400. 


21 315. 


3.36. 


285. 9 


318. 6 


311.3 


364. 


•Ai3. 


367.6 


3P2. 


393.9 


420. 


22 330. 


352. 


299.10 


3a3. 8 


a57.6 


381.4 


a59.4 


385. 


410.8 


412.6 


440, 


23 345. 


368. 


313.11 


3J8.10 


373.9 


398.8 


375.8 


402.6 


429.4 


431.3 


460. 


24 


1 309, 


384, 


338. 


301. 


300, 


416. 


3L2. 


420. 


448. 


45.). 


480. 



618 



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622 



Time Required for Digestiox of differext Articles of Food, 
BEING Observations made by Dr. Beaumont, Surgeon in the 
United States Army, on the Canadian, St. Martin, through 
AN Orifice in his Stomach, caused by a gunshot wound. 



H. 

Apples, sweet and mellow 1 

sour and mellow 2 

sour and hard. 2 

Barley, boiled 2 

Beans, boiled 2 

Beans and Green Corn, boiled. 3 

Beef, roasted rare 3 

roasted dry 3 

Steak, broiled 3 

boiled 2 

boiled. with mustard, etc. 3 

tendon, boiled 5 

tendon, fried 4 

old salted, boiled 4 

Beets, boiled 3 

Bread, Corn, baked 3 

Wheat, baked, fresh 3 

Butter, melted 3 

Cabbage, crude 2 

crude, vinegar 2 

crude, vin'r, boil'd. | f 

CaiTots, boiled 3 

Cartilage, boiled 4 

Cheese, old and strong 3 

Cliickens, fricasseed 2 

Custard, baked 2 

Ducks, roasted | f 

Dumplings, Apple, boiled 3 

Eggs, boiled hard 3 

boiled soft 3 

fried 3 

uncooked 2 

whipped, raw 1 

Fish, Cod or Flounder, fried.. 3 

Cod, cured, boiled 2 

Salmon, salt'd and boil'd 4 

Trout, boiled or fried 1 

Fowls, boiled or roasted 4 

Goose, roasted 3 

Gelatine, boiled 2 



Heart, Animal, fried 

Lamb, boiled 

Liver, Beef's, boiled 

Meat and Vegetables, hashed. 

Milk, boiled or fresh | 

Mutton, roasted 

broiled or boiled 

Oysters, raw 

roasted 

stewed 

Parsnips, boiled 

Pigs, Sucking, roasted 

Feet, soured, boiled 

Pork, fat and lean, roasted. . . 

recently salted, boiled. . . 

" " fried,... 

" " broiled. 

•* " raw 

Potatoes, boiled 

baked 

roasted , 

Rice, boiled 

Sago, boiled 

Sausage, Pork, broiled , 

Soup, Barley , 

Beef and Vegetables 

Chicken 

Mutton or Oyster 

Sponge-cake, baked 

Suet, Beef, boiled , 

Mutton, boiled 

Tapioca, boiled , 

Tiipe, soured 

Turkey.roastedjg;^;^!^-^:-;;; 

boiled , 

Turnips, boiled 

Veal, roasted 

fried , 

Brains, boiled , 

Venison Steak, broiled 



M. 

30 

30 

15 
15 

55 
15 
30 
30 
30 
00 
15 
3i> 
15 
15 

30 
20 
30 

45 
20 
30 



18 
30 
25 
30 

50 
45 



Comparative Value of Various Foods as Productive of Dyna- 
mic Force, when Oxidized in the Body. 



Cabbage 1 

Carrots 1.2 

Egg, white of 1.4 

Milk 1.5 

Apples 1.5 



Pea meal 9. 

Wheat flour 9.1 

Arrowroot 9.3 

Oat meal 9.3 

Cheese 10.4 



Veal, lean 2.8 

Mackerel 3.8 

Ham, lean 4. 

Bread, crumbs 5.1 

Egg, hard boiled 5.4 

:^.le 1.8 1 Egg, yolk 7.9!Cocoa 16.3 

Eish l.OiSugar 8. IButter 17.3 

Potatoes 2.4jlsinglas8 8.7 Fat of beef 21-6 

Porter 2.6jRice 8.9!Cod l iver oil 21.7 

Safe Load in Structures, including Weight of Structure. 

In cast-iron columns = i/^ breaking weight. 

vV rought-iron structures = Vi " ** 

In cast-iron girders for tanks = V* '* " 

In cast-iron for bridges and floors = % " " 

In timber = 1-10 " " 

Stone and bricks ' = i^ " " 

623 " ^' 



Weight of "Water at its Common Temperatube. 



1 
12 

1 

1 

1 

1-8 
35.84 

1 
12 

1 

1 

1 

2-282 
45-64 
11-2 
224 

13-44 
268-8 



cubic inch 
inches 
foot 



" feet 

<< <> 

Cylindrical inch 
" inches 
'« foot 



feet 





03617 
434 


lb. 


02- 


5 


lbs. 


6- 


25 


Imperial gallons. 


7 


50 


U. S. Gallons. 


112 


00 


Ibd. 


2210-00 


•• 




02842 


(( 




341 


<( 


49-1 


« 


5 




Imperial gallons. 


6 




U. S. gallons. 


112 




lbs. 


2240 






112 






2240 






112 






22 JO 







Imperial gallons = 

Imperiiil gallons = 

United States gallons = 

United States gallons = 
iVbfe.— 5 Imperial gallons equal 6 United States gallons. Hence to 
convert Imperial gallons into United States gallons add one-fifth to the 
Imperial ; and to convert United States gallons into Imperial gallons de- 
duct one-sixth from the United States. 

A cubic foot of rain water, which weighs 62% lbs., presses at 30 feet 
deep 13 lbs. per square inch, and at 300 feet is 1,300 lbs. At 36 feet the 



pressure per square foot is a ton, and at 
The following Tables show the 



108 feet nearly 3 tons. 



British Imperial and the United States Measures. 



U. S. measure for British (Im.) nioasure. 

wine, spirits, &c. galls, qts. pts. gills 

"12 gals. = 1 tierce, = 34 3 1 3 
G3 = 1 hogsh. = 52 1 1 3 

126 = 1 pipe, = 104 3 1 3 

252 = 1 tun, = 209 3 1 2 



U. S, measure for British (Im.) measure. 

ale and beer. galls, qts. pts. gills 

9 gals. = 1 firkin, = 9 11 

36 =1 barrel, = 36 2 3 

54 = 1 hogsh. = 54 3 1 1 

100 = 1 butt, = 109 3 3 



To convert Imperial Gallons into United States Wine Gallons multi- 
ply the Imperial by 1-2. To convert U. S. Gallons into Imperial multi- 
ply the U. States Wine gallons by -833. 51 U. S. Ale Gallons equal 60 Iiri- 
perial Gallons, therefore to convert one into the other add or deduct l-60th. 
Specific Gravities and Weights of Metals, Woods, Liquids, «S:o. 
Engineers^ a7id Contractors' Pocket Booh. 



METALS. 



Names. 



o 
o 

^ o 



Platina 

Pure gold 

Mercury 

Lead 

Pure silver . .. 

Bismuth 

Copper, cast . . 

sheet 

Brass, cast 

— sheet. . . 
Iron, cast 

— bar 

Steel, soft 

— hard 

Tin, cast 

Zinc, cast 



19500 

19258 

13560 

113.-2 

10474 

9823 

8788 

8910 

7824 

8396 

7264 

7700 

7S33 

7816 

7291 

7190 









1.41 

1.435 

2.038 

2.435 

2.638 

2.814 

3.146 

3.103 

3.533 

3.293 

3.806 

3.592 

3.530 

3.53 

3.790 

3.845 



STONES, EARTHS, ETC. 



Names. 



.7053 

.6965 

.4904 

.4105 

.3788 

.3552 

.3178 

.3225 

.3036 

.3037 

.263 

.279 

.2833 

.2827 

.2636 

.26 

624 



IVIarble, average 
Granite, ditto.. . 
Purbeck stone.. 
Portland ditto.. 

Bristol ditto 

Millstone 

Paving stone.... 
Craigleith ditto. 

Grindstone 

Chalk. British. . 

Brick 

Coal, Scotch.... 

— Newcastle 

— Staflfordsh'e 

— Cannel 



\ 


C5 ] 


Weight, 
water 
being 1000 


Weight of 
cubic foot 
in lbs. 


2720 


170.00 


2651 


165.6K 


2601 


162.56 


2570 


160.62 


25.54 


159.62 


2481 


15.5.25 


2415 


150.93 


2362 


147.62 


2113 


1.33.93 


2781 


173.81 


2000 


125.00 


1300 


81.15 


1270 


79.37 


1240 


77.50 


1238 


77.37 






13 

13V2 

133/4 

14 

14 

14V2 

143^ 

15 

16% 

12% 

17 

271/2 

281/i 

29 

29 



Specific Gravities, &c. of Materials Coxtinted 



Names. 



Lignum vitae 

Box, French 

— Dutch 

Ebony, Indian., 

— American 
Oak, just felled. 

— seasoned.. 
Bogoakof Irel'ci 
Mahogany,Sp'sL 

— bay woot 

Medlar tree 

Logwood 

Olive tree 

Beech 

Ash 

Alder 

Apple-tree 

Plum-tree 

Maple 

Teak 

Cherry-tree 

Elm 

Walnut 

Ked pine 

Yellow do 

Pear tree 

Sycamore, chest- 
nut, and lime 
tree, each — 

"Willow • 

Poplar,whiteSp. 

— common.. 

Cedar.. 

White pine 

Larch 

Cork 



MS ^ 



1331 

1328 

912 

1209 

i:i31 

1113 

743 

1046 

1063 

637 

944 

913 

927 

852 

845 

800 

793 

7r»5 

752 
750 
715 
673 
671 
657 
652 
650 



604 
585 
529 
383 
561 
551 
530 
240 



C O 


0+3 


-^ o 


©^ 5 


•^^ m 


.a"" o 


MW^ 


c ^"^ 


<V^'^ 


S^ «s 


^5.H 


k^a 


83.31 


263/4 


83.00 


27 


58.00 


38^ 


75.56 


29V^ 


83.18 


27 


69.56 


32V4 


46.43 


48V4 


65.37 


3 414 


66.43 


56»A 


39.81 


59.00 


38 


57.06 


391/4 


57.93 


38V^ 


53.25 


42 


52.81 


42% 


50.00 


4434 


49.56 


451/, 


47.18 


4714 


47.00 


47V, 


46.fc7 


48 


44.68 


50 


42.06 


531/4 


41.93 


53% 


47.06 


^V« 


40.76 


55 


40.62 


55 


37.75 


591/4 


36..50 


6IV4 


.33.00 


673/4 


23.93 


93 


3 '.06 


64 


^4.43 


65 


33.02 


68 


15.00 


149 



Kames. 



Acid, sulphuric... 

— nitric 

— muriatic 

— fluoric 

— citric 

— acetic 

Water from Baltic 

— from the Dead 

Sea 

— from the Med- 

iterranean. .. 

— from the Irish 

Channel 

— ice 

— distilled 

Oils, expressed 

. linseed 

sweet almond. 

Avhale 

hempseed 

Olive 

Oils, essential 

cinnamon,. ., 

lavender 

turpentine 

amber 

Alcohol of com- 
merce, at 60° 
Fahrenheit 
Alcohol, absolute,.. 
Ether, nitric 

— muriatic 

Proof spirit 

Tar 

Vinegar, distilled.. 






i o'u : 



1850 
1271 
1200 
1060 
1034 
1062 
1015 
1240 

1029 

1028 

1001 
1000 

940 

932 
923 
926 
915 

1043 
894 
870 
868 
825 



797 
908 
729 
922 
1015 
1009 



18.5 
12 7 
12.0 
10.6 
10.3 
10.6 
10.2 
12.4 

10.3 

10.2 

10.1 
10.0 

9.4 
9.3 
9.2 
9.3 

9.2 

10.4 
8.9 
8.7 
8.7 
8.2 



7,9 
9.1 
7,3 
9.2 
10.1 
10.1 



EXPAXSIOX OF LlQCIDS IX VOLUME FltOM 32= TO 212° FAHRENHEIT. 

1000 parts of water become 1046 

" oil " 1080 

" mereurv " 1018 

" spirits of wine " 1110 

air " 1373 

The heat that would raise 1 lb. of water 1° would raise a pound of air 

3°,7 ; 1 lb, air = about 11 cubic feet. 

One pound of steam will raise .3657 cubic feet of air 10°, and cause it to 
expand from 32° to 42°, about 3733 cubic feet, 

Permaxext Loads ox Bridges, &c. 
For rough calculations the weight of the bridge itself may be assumed 
to be (in wrought iron bridges) : 

For 30 feet spans, single line 560 lbs. per foot run. 

"60 " " 672 

"100 " " 1.008 " " 

"150 " " ..: i;344 " •• 

"200 " •' 1,680 " " 

Dense crowds average 120 lbs, per square foot. 

For flooring, 11:8 to 224 lbs. per square foot, exclusive of the weight of 
tbe flooring, is generally allowed. 

In storehouses, from 224 to 450 lbs. per square foot. 
40 625 



Stukxgth of the Teeth of Cast Iron Wheels at a givex Velocity. 



Pitch 


Thickness 
of teeth 


Breadth 

of teeth 


Streng' 


.h of teeth 


in horse power at 


ot teeth 


3 feet per 


4 feet per 


6 feet per 


8 feet per 


in inches. 


in inches. 


in inclie.-!. 


second. 


second. 


second. 


i^econd. 


3.99 


1.9 


7.6 


• 20.57 


27.43 


41.14 


51.85 


3.78 


1.8 


7.2 


17.49 


23.32 


34.98 


46.64 


3.57 


1.7 


6.8 


14.73 


19.65 


29.46 


39.28 


3.36 


1.6 


6.4 


12.28 


16.38 


21.56 


32.74 


3-15 


1.5 


G. 


10.12 


13.50 


20.24 


26.98 


2.91 


1.4 


5.6 


8.22 


10.07 


16-4* 


21.92 


2.73 


1.3 


5.2 


6.58 


8.78 


13.16 


17.54 


2.52 


1.2 


4,8 


5.18 


6.91 


10.36 


13.81 


2.31 


1.1 


4.4 


3.9.) 


5.32 


7.98 


10.64 


2.1 


1.0 


4. 


3.00 


4.00 


6.00 


8.00 


1.89 


.9 


36 


2.18 


2.91 


4.36 


5.81 


].68 


.8 


3.2 


1.53 


2.04 


3.06 


3.08 


1.47 


.7 


2.8 


1.027 


1.37 


2.04 


2.72 


1.26 


.6 


2.4 


.61 


.86 


1.:.8 


1.84 


1.05 


.5 


2. 


.375 


..50 


.75 


1.00 



Teeth of Wheels.— Multiply one-fourth of the square of tlie pitch 
in inches by the breadth of the teeth in inches ; the product is the horses' 
power that the teeth will transmit when the pitch line pass^es thiough 
4 ft. per second. 

In quick speeds or fractional pitches, it maybe more convenient to 
take the following rule : — Multiply the square root of the pitch in inches 
by the breadth of the teeth in inches ; the product is the horses' power at 
16 ft. per second. 

A general rule to ascertain the length of the teeth is, to take % of the 
pitch for the distance from the root to the pitch line, and V4 of the pitch 
for the distance from the pitch line to the top. 

WJien wheels drive pinions, let no pinion have less than 8 teeth ; rath- 
er 11 or 12 if convenient. 

When pinion drive wheels, let no pinion have less than 6 teeth ; i-ather 
8 or 9. 

The number of teeth in a wheel should be prime to the number of 
teeth in its pinion. 

To increase or diminish velocity in a given proportion, and with the 
least quantity of wheel-work, let the number of teeth on each pinion be 
to the number of teeth on its wheel as 1 : 3 59. Even to save space and 
expense, never let the ratio exceed 1 : 6 — Buchaxax. 

HicKs's Rule fob Calculatixg the Strength of Shafts.— 
Multiply the horses' power by the assumed number (300), and divide the 
product by the revolutions per minute ; the cube root of the quotient will 
be the diameter required. 

Heatixg Power of Peat as Compared with Wood. 

100 lbs. turfy peat, air dry, average 95 lbs. pine wood. 

" fibrous " " " 108 '' " 

" earthy " <' '< 104 " '* 

" pitchy " « '< Ill '« '• 

CoMPARisox of Heat by Bulk. 
100 cubic feet of turfy peat = 33 cubic feet pine wood in logs. 
" " fibrous " = 90 " '< " 

" " earthy " = 145 " " " 

" " pitchy " = 184 " " " 

Peat, coal, or coke = 25 to 35 of the peat by weight. 
" " " = 30 to 40 per cent, by volume. 

Turf is 30 feet deep in upper marshes and it grows 30 inches in a cen- 
tury. In Hanover it grows 8 feet in 60 years. There are in manv bogs 3 
separate<l strata or layers of large trees separated by 10 or 12 feet'of turf 
and heath. A carbonizing process gives them the appearance of being 
burnt. The bogs of Ireland cover 2,830,000 acres to the depth of 5, 12 
and even .30 feet ; tlie bogs are ascribed to the prevalence of shallow 
lakes, which promote the growth of mosses and aquatic plants. 

626 



Blowing Engin::c. 
Capacity of air vessels — 2U times the capacity ot the blowing cylinder if 
the cylinder is single-acling. 
" " = 10 times of double-acting. 

Velocity of air in the passages should not exceed 3o feet per second. 
Density of blast for iron furnaces, from 2% to 3 lbs. per square inch. 

Each smith's forge requires 150 cube feet of air per minute. Density 
of smith's forge blast Vi lb. per square infth. Each ton per hour melted 
in cupola requires 3,500 cube feet per minute. Each linery forge requires 
100,000 cube feet p^ir minute for each ton reliued. Each blast furnace 1:0 
cube feet per minute for each cubd yard capacity of furnace. Molestcorth, 
MamiJ'actarc of I'lfi Iron — Coke or Anthrticlte Coal — 18 to 20 tons of air 
are required for each ton. 

Charcoal- — 17 to IS tons air are required for each ton. 1 ton of air at 
34° = 29,751, and at GO^ = 31,3GG cubic feet. 

J^ressui-e. — The pressure ordinaiily required for smelting purposes is 
equal to a column of mercury from 3 to 7 inches. 

I'ljjts. — Their area, leading to the reservoir, should be -2 that of the 
blast cylinder, and llxe velocity of the air should uot exceed 35 feet per 
second. 

A ton of pig iron requires for its reduction from the ore 310,000 cubic 
feet of air, or 53 cubic feet of air for each lb. of carbon consumed. Pres- 
sure, -7 lb. per square inch. 

An ordinary eccentric fan, 4 ft. diameter, with 5 blades 10 ins. wide 
and 14 ins. length, set 1 U-16 ins. eccentric, with an inlet opening of 17-5 
ins. diameter, and an outlet of 12 ins. square, making 870 revolutions per 
minute, will supply air to 10 tuyeres, each of 1% ins. diameter, and at a 
pressure per square iiich of "5 inch of mercury. 

An ordinary eccentric fan blower, 50 ins. diam., running at 1000 revo- 
lutions per minute, will give a pressure of 15 ins. of water, and Require 
for its operation a power of 12 horses. Area tuyere discharge 500 square 
ins. — Hasicell. 

Properties of Fcel. 



Kind of Fuel. 



Bituminous Coal 

Anthracite 

Coke 

Coke, Nat'l Virginia. . . 

Coke, Cumberland 

Charcoal 

Dry Wood 

Wood, 20 per ct. water. 

Turf, dry (peat) . ; 

Turf,2o per ct. water.. 

llluminatina gas 

Oil, wax, tallow 

Alcohol . . . 



1 1^ 


o 




0) +J 


Lbs. of wa 
evaporate 
per poun 


ii 


Cubic feet 
air requir 
for 1 lb. 
coal. 


2,0 

?=5 


7 to 9 


80 


2G5 


50 


8 to 10 


92 


1:82 


54 


8 to 10 


8G 


245 


31 


8 to 9 


80 


2G0 


48 


8 to 10 


8') 


250 


32 


5 to 6 


96 


265 


24 


4 to 5 


44 


147 


20 


4 


34 


115 


25 


e 


51 


165 


28 


.5 


40 


1.S2 


30 


13.8 




194 


0.37 


14 


77 


2'0 


59 


9..'->6 


58 


151 


52 



P to 

44 
40 

72 

48 

70 
104 
100 
100 

80 

75 
29800 

37 

42 



MeMOU.\NI)A CoXCEUXINU COAt. ASU IRON. 

First notice of stone coal Is B. C. 371. 

The coal fields of England were the first pr.aotically developed. 

First record of stone coal used in England was A. D. 820. 
- Kecords of regular minimr in England first made in 1180, 

Coal first used in London "in 1240. 

First tax laid on coal in England in 1379. 

Tax was repealed in 1831. having been taxed 400 year?. 

First patent for making iron with pit coal was granted to Simeon 
Sturtevant, in 1612. but was not successful. 

Iron first made in a blast furnace with pit coal with success by a Mr. 
Darby, of Colehrook Dale, England, In 1713. 

627 



Ox Coal, Steam Heating, Etc. 

In 1747 iron was made iu England with pit coal, suitable for the man* 
ufacture of cannon. 

In 1788 the production of iron with pit coal in England was 48,300 tons; 
with charcoal, 13,000 tons. 

Jn 1864 the production of iron in Great Britain was 5,000,000 tons. 

Wooden rails in mines were used in 1777. 

Cast-iron rails in mines wer^ used in 1790. 

AVrought-iron railf in mines were used in 1815. 

Coal gas first made use of practically in 1798. 

American Coal Fields. — First coal lields worked in America were 
the bituminous fields at Kichmond, Va., discovered in 1750, This coal 
was used at Westham, on the James Eiver, to make shot and shell dur- 
ing the War of Independence. 

The first use of Anthracite coal was in 1768-69. 

First used for smithing purposes in 1790. 

First used to burn in a common grate in 1808. 

First successful use of Anthracite coal for the smelting of iron was iu 
1839, at the Pioneer Furnace, at Pottsville, Pa. It had been tried on the 
Lehigh in 1826, but was unsuccessful. 

The great shaft of the Philadelphia and Reading Iron Company has 
been sunk to a depth of 1,569 ft. from the surface to the great mammoth 
coal vein which attains a thickness of 25 feet, in that distance passing 
through no less than 15 coal seams, of which 6 are workable and have an 
average thickness together of 64 feet. Even then there are a number of 
coal seams underlying these. 

Ventilation. 

Each person requires at least from 3 to 4 cubic feet of air per minute. 
Ordinary windows allow about 8 cubic feet a minute to pass. Sleeping 
apartments require 1000 cubic feet of space to each occupant. An ordi- 
nary gas flame require? as much air as 9 persons. 
Waumixg by Steam. 

Wlien the external temperature is 10° below freezing point, iu order 
to maintain a temperature of 60° ; or r, . , r, . . , 

One superficial foot of steam pipe for each 6 superficial feet of glass in 

the windows ; or, . . ,> i j. • ■ f 

One superficial foot of steam pipe for every 6 cube of air escaping for 

ventilation per minute ; or, ^«.^ .. ^^ ^^ ^ 

One superficial foot of steam pipe for every 120 feet of wall, roof, or 

ceiling ; or, . . ^^ , . n . e 

One square foot of steam pipe to 80 cubic feet of space ; ^ ^ 

One cube foot of boiler is required for every 2,000 cube feet of space 

One horse-power boiler is sufficient for 50,000 cube feet of space. Steam 

should be about 212°.— ^/oZesii'or^A. „ . . , «= • ^ 4- , ^ 

As usually estimated, 1 square foot of pipe is amply sufficient to heat 

75 to 80 cubic feet of air in exterior rooms, and 100 feet in interior rooms. 

Thickness of Boiler Ieon, and Pressube Allowed by United 

States Laws. 
Pressure equivalent to the Standard for a Boiler 42 inches Diameter and 

1/4 inch Thick. 



Wire 
Guage 


Thick- 


Diameter in Inches. 


ness m 
16ths. 


34 ins. 


36 ins. 


38 ins. 


40 ins. 


42 ins. 


44 ins. 


46 ins. 


No. 




Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


1 


5 


169.9 


160.4 


152. 


144.4 


137.5 


131.2 


125.5 


2 


41/0 


158.5 


149.7 


141.8 


134.7 


128.3 


122.5 


117.2 


3 


4Vi 
4 


147.2 


139.1 


1.31.8 


125.1 


119.2 


113.7 


108.8 


4 


135.9 


128.3 


121.6 


115.5 


110. 


105. 


100.4 


5 


32/, 


124.5 


117.6 


111.4 


105.9 


100.8 


96.2 


92.1 


6 


3.i 


113.2 


106.9 


101.3 


69.2 


91.7 


87.5 


83.7 


7 


101,9 


96.2 


91.2 


86.6 


82-5 


78.7 


75.3 










628 











Notes ox Stkexgth of Boileks. 

Boiler Plates and Bolts.— The tensile strength of iron plates and 
bolts ranges from 42,500 to 62,000 lbs, JVIean tensile strength of copper 
plates, ;J3,000 lbs. up to 120^ ; temperature at 220"^ = 32,000 lbs. ; at 55u-^ ^ 
25,000 lbs. 

Bursting or Collapsing Pressures.— Iron plates should be based upon 
a strength 2-5 that of ultimate strength of the metal ; for use iu salt 
water, at 14 ^^^^ <-*^ ^^^ ultiniat3 strength. 

Kesistance to collapse nmch less than to bursting. 

Strength of Stay Bolts.— Oi iron, for use in salt water, should be taken 
at 1-7 ; fresh 'water, 1-G ; copper, 1-5 of ultimate tensile strength. 

Stay-bolts, when screwed and riveted, are v^ stronger than when screw- 
ed alone. 

Relative Strexgth of Riveted Joints per Square inch of Sin- 
gle Plate — Single-lapped, machine riveted, rivets 3 diameter.-, centre to 
centre, 25,000 lbs. ; hand riceted, 24,000 lbs. ; staggered rloetiny, and equi- 
distant from centres. 30.500 lbs. ; abut Joints, hand riveted— rivets not 
" staggered," and equidistant from centres— single cover or strip, 30,000 
lbs. ;■ iivets set " square," single cover or strip, 42,000 lbs. ; double covers 
or strips, 55,000 lbs. 

To Find Requisite Qcantitv or Water for a Boiler. 

Add 15 to the pressure of steam per square inch, divide sum by 18, 
multiply the quotient by .21; product is quantity in U. S. gallons per 
minute for each horse-posver. 

.To find Height of a Column of "Water. 
Ta Supply a Steam Boiler against any Pressure nf Steam required. 
Multiply pressure in pounds upon a square inch of boiler by 2.5 ; pro- 
duct will be height in feet above the surface of the water in boiler. 
Cold Water and Feed Pumps. 
The cold-water pump usually = diameter of cylinder x 0.3 when stroke 
= Yi stroke of engine. 

The cold-water pump usually = diameter of cylinder x 0.42 when 
stroke = I/4 stroke of engine. 

Velocity of water in puuip passages should not exceed 500 feet per 
minute. Pump valves should not be of less area than V4 area of the 
pump. 

Feed Pumps for High Pressure Engines. 
Diameter = 1-11 diameter of cylinder when pump's stroke = stroke of 
the engine. 

Diameter = l^ diameter of cylinder wheni^ stroke of the engine. 
Diameter =1^ diameter of cylinder when 1/4 stroke of the engine. 

Feed Pumps for Condensing Engines, 
Diameter = 1-11 diameter of cylinder when 14 stroke of the engine. 
Diameter = % diameter of cylinder when 14 stroke of the engine. 
Depreciation of Machinery, etc 
Per annum on first cost. 



Depreciation. 



Engines 

Boilers 

Machines 

Mlllwork and Gearing. 
Bands and belts 



G per cent. 

10 " 
7% " 
4 " 



"Wear and 
Tear. 


3 per cent. 
3 «' 

314 « 

2V2 " 
45 " 



Total. 



9 per cent. 
13 '• 
11 " 

QV2 " 
45 " 



Iron Turning Tools. 

Surface-bored should be at the rate of 78.54 feet per minute. 

Surface turned ** " 157.08 '< " 

Form of Iron-Cutting Tools. 
To form and place any tool to cut any surface, let the end be so form- 
ed and placed as to make the least possible angle witli the surface to be 
cut. and whatever degree of acuteness may be considered requisite ; let 
the keennes:5 be given by hollowing out the surface on which the shavings 
slide, 

629 



TABLIi FOR FOIIETKLLIXG XHK WeATIIER THttOUGII THE JjUXATIO>S 

OF XHK Moon. 
(Dr. Herschkll axd Adam Clarke.) 



If the New Moon, the First 






Quarter, the Full Moon 


or 


In Suuimer. 


In Winter. 


the Last Quarter, euters- 


— 






Betweeu iniclnight aud . 
A.M 


21 


Fair. j 


Hard frost, unless wind 
isS. orE. 


Bet. 2 and 4 A. M 




Cold, fr't showers 


Snowy and stormy. 
Kaiu. 


" 4 aud G A. M 


Kaiu. 

Wind aud rain. 

Changeable. 


" G and 8 A. M 


Stormy. 

Cold rain if wind is W., 
snow if E. 


" 8 and 10 A.M 


^ ,: 


" 10 and 12 A. M 




Frequent showers. 
Very rainy. 
Changeable. 


Cold and high wind. 


At 12 M. and 2 F. M 




Bet. 2 and 4 P. M 




Fair and mild. 


" 4 and 6 P. M 




Fair. 


Fair. 




( 


Fair if wind N. ( 


Fan- and frosty if wiiul 


«' 6 aud 8 P. M 




W., rainy if S- { 


is N. or W., rain or 






or S. K. ( 


snow if S. or S. E. 


" 8 and 10 P. M 




Do. 


Do. 


*' 10 aud midnight 




Fair. 


f'air aud frosty. 



Observations.— 1. The nearer the time of the moon's change, first 
quarter, full, and last quarter, is to mUl-niqUt, thefairerthe weather dur- 
ing 7 following days. Kange for this is from 10 at night till 2 next moin- 
ing. 2. The nearer to mid-day the phases of the moon happen, the more 
foul or wet weather during the 7 days following. 3. The moon's change 
entering from 4 to 10 of the afternoon, may expect fair weather. 

Force of the Wind. 



Miles 

per 

Hour. 


Feet 

per 

Minute. 


Feet 

per 

Second. 


Force in 
pounds per 
square foot. 


Description. 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

10 

15 

20 

25 

30 

35 

40 

45 

50 

60 

70 

80 

100 


88 

176 

264 

352 

440 

880 

1,320 

1,760- 

2,200 

2,640 

3,080 

3,520 

3.960 

4,400 

5,280 

6,160 

7,040 

8,800 


1.47 
2.93 
4.4 
5.87 
7.33 
14.67 
22. 
29.3 
36.6 
44.0 
51.3 
58.6 
66.0 
73.3 
88.0 
102.7 
117.3 
146.6 


.005 

.020) 

.044 \ • 

.079) 

0.123 f 

0.492 ) 

1.107 ( 

1.970 i 

3.067 1 

4.429 j 

6.027 ) 

7.870 ) 

9.900 \ 

12.304 

17.733 ) 

21.153 1 

31.490) 

49.200 f 


Hardly perceptible 
Just perceptible. 

Gentle breeze. 

Pleasant breeze. 

Brisk gale. 

High wind. 

Very high wind. 
Storm, 
Great storm. 

Hurricane. 



Loss of Light by Use of Shades.— i^. H. Sforer. 



Glass, etc. 



American Enamelled. . 

Crown 

Crystal plate 

English 

Porcelain Transpar'cy. 



Th'k- 


Loss. 


uess. 




Ins. 


Pr Ct. 


1-16 


51.23 


1-8 


13.08 


1-8 


8.61 


1-8 


6.15 


1-3 


97.68 



Glass, ktc 



Window, d'ble, Eng... 
" " Ger,... 

'' single, Ger.. . 
ground 



green i 1 




C30 



The Mile, as Measured ky 
Kioi's Nations. 

Tlie English mile is 17G0 

The Scotch '• ...... 1984 

The Irish " 2240 

The German " 8106 

The Dutch and Prussian 

mile is 6480 

The Italian mile is 1766 

The "V'ienna post mile is. . 8296 

The Swiss mile is 9153 

The Swedish and Danish 

mile is 7341.5 

The Arabian mile is 2143 

The Roman mile is. . 1628 or 2025 
The Werst 
The Tuscan 
Tlie Turkish 
The Flemish 



1167 or 1337 

1808 

1826 

6869 



Bkiti.sh Miscellaneous M^vs 
ures for various purposes. 

A load of unhewn tim- Tlie English mile is 1760 j-ds, 

ber 40 cubic ft. 

A load of squared tim- 
ber....! 50 " 

A load of inch boards . 600 sq. ft. 
A load of two-inch 

planks 300 " 

A hundred of deals 120 in num. 

A hundred of nails 120 " 

A thousand of bricks. . . 1200 " 

A load of bricks 500 " 

A load of lime 32 bushels. 

A load of sand 36 " 

A sack of potatoes, or 

coals 224 lbs. 

A bushel of salt or flour 56 " 

A bushel of wheat 60 " 

A bushel of barley 50 " 

A bushel of oats 40 " 

The British league, or three times our geographical mile of 60 to a 
degree, or 2025 yards, is 6075 yards. The Brabant league is 6096 yards. 
The Danish and Hamburg league 8244 yards, the German league 8101, the 
long German ditto, 10126 yards, the short do. 6859, the Portuguese lengue 
is 6760 yards, the Spanish' 7416 yards, the Swedish 11700 yards. All of 
them parts of a degree, but made before the length of a degree was ac- 
cuiately determined. 

To Test Quality of Steel. 

Good tool steel, with a white heat, will fall to pieces ; with bright 
red heat will crumble under the hammer ; Avith middling heat may be 
drawn to a needle-point. 

To test hardening qualities, draw under a lowheat to a gradually taper- 
ed square point and plunge into cold water ; if broken point will scratch 
glass, the quality is good. 

To test tenacity, a hardened piec^ will be driven into cast-iron by a 
hardened hammer — if poor, will be crumbled. Excellence will be in 
proportion to tenacity in hard state. Soft steel of good quality gives a 
curved line fracture and uniform gray texture. Tool steel should be dull 
silver color, uniform, entirely free from sparkling qualities. 

Aquafortis, applied to the surface of steel, produces a black spot ; on 
iron the metal remains clean. The slightest vein of iron or steel can be 
readily detected by this method. 

Steel Springs. 

jiuJe laf—To find elasticity of a given steel-plate spring : Breadth of 
plate in inches multiplied by cube of the thickness in 1-16 inch, and by 
number of plates ; divide cube of span in inches by product so found, 
and multiply by 1.66. Kesult, equal elasticity in l-16th of an inch per 
ton of load. 

Jhile 2(1— To find span due to a given elasticity, nnd number and size 
of plate : Multiplv elasticity in sixteenths per ton. by breadth of plate in 
in-^hes. and divide' by cube of the thickness in inches, and by the number 
of plates ; divide by 1.6C, and find cube root of the quotient. Result, 
equal span ir. inches. 

/i)ile 3(1— To find number of plates due to a given elasticity, span, 
and size of plates : Multiplv the cube of the span in inches by 1.66 ; mul- 
tiplv the elastlcitv in sixteenths by the breadth of the plate in inches, 
andby the cube of the thickness in sixteenths ; divide the former pro- 
duct by the latter. The quotient is the number of plates. 

Hide ith— To find the working strength of a given steel-plate spring : 
Multiplv the breadth of plate in inches by the square of the thickness in 
sixteenths, and by the number of plates ; multiply also the working 
span in Inches by 11.3 : divide the former product by the latter. Result, 
equal working strength In tons burden. 

liiife 5th— To find span due to ft given strength and number, and size 
of plate : Multiply the breadth of plate in inches by the square of tho 

G31 



Ox Metals, Stair-qases, Paixts. 
thickness in sixteenths, and by the number of plates ; multiply, also, the 
strength in tons by 11.3, divide the former product by the latter. Kesult 
equal working span in inches. 

liule 6th — To tind the number of plates due to a given strength, span, 
and size of plate : Multiply the strength in tons by span in inclies, and 
divide by 11.3 ; multiply also the breadth of plate in inches by the square 
of the thickness in sixteenths ; divide the former product by the latter, 
liesult, equal number of plates. 

The span is that due to the form of the spring loaded. Extra thick 
plates must be replaced by an equivalent number of plates of the ruling 
thickness, before applying the rule. To find this, multiply the number of 
extra plates by the square of their thickness, antl divide by the square of 
the ruling thickness ; conversely, the number of plates of the ruling 
thickness to be removed for a given number of extra plates, may be found 
in the same way. 

Lineal Expaxsiox of Metals. ' 
Produced by raising their temperature from 32^ to 212° Fahrenheit. 



Zinc 1 part in 322 

Platinum " 351 

Tin (pure) " 403 

Tin (impure) ** 500 

Silver " 524 

Copper " 581 

Brass *' 584 

Falmouth tin <' 462 

English brass rod " 528 

Brass wire " 517 



Gold 1 part in 682 

Bisunith •' 71U 

Iron ♦' 812 

Antimony *• 923 

Palladium " 1000 

Platinum " 1100 

Flint glass " 1248 

Soft rolled iron " 81 9 

Prism of cast iron " 901 

Reflector metal . " 517 

Refined silver ' " 528 



Blistered steel '< 870 

Stair-Cases. 
Width of Height of Width of Height of 

Tread. - Riser. Tread- Riser. 

6 inches 8^4 inches. I 10 inches 6V2 inches. 

7 " 8 " 111 " 6 

8 " 71/2 " .'112 " 51/2 " 

9 " 7 *' I 13 " 5 " 

Paixtixg. 
1 gal. priming color will cover 50 superficial yards. 
1 *• , white zinc " 50 " •' 

1 " white paint " 44 " '< 

1 " lead color '< 50 " '« 

1 " black paint " 50 " " 

1 ** stone color " 44 " " 

1 '* yellow paint " 44 «* " 

1 •* blue color " 45 " " 

1 *' green paint " 45 <* '< 

1 " bright emer. green " 25 " '< 

i " bronze green " 45 " '• 

One pound of paint will cover about 4 superficial yards the first coat, 
and about 6 yds. each additional coat. One pound of putty for stopping 
every 20 yds. One gallon of tar, and 1 lb. pitch, will cover 12 yds. super- 
ficial the first coat, and 17 yds. each additional coat. 

Paixts, &c. — In addition to the very ample information to be found 
under the Painters Department, the following, transcribed from the 
OiiDXAXCE Maxual, are given. 

Boiled Oil.— Raw oil— 1.3 parts, copperas— 3*15 parts, litharge— 6'3 
parts, Put the litharge and copperas in a cloth bag and suspend in the 
middle of the kettle. Boil the oil 4^/^ hours over a slow fire, tlien let it 
stand and deposit the sediment. 

DuYixGS. — Mixture of copperas and litharge taken from the boiled 
oil 00 parts. Spirits turpentine 56 parts, boiled oil 2 parts. 

PtrxTY. —Spanish whiting, pulverized 81-6 parts, boiled oil 20*4 parts. 
Make into a stiff paste, if not intended for immediate use raw oil should 
be used. 

632 



Paints, Ixks, Dyes, Etc. 
White Paint. 

Inside work. Outside work. 

White lead, gromid in oil.. ..f*i 80 80. 

Boiled oil 14.5 9. 

Raw oil 9. 

Spirits turpentine 8 4. 

New wood-work requires 1 lb. to the square yard for three coats. 

Lead Color. — White lead ground in oil 75 parts, lamp black 1 part, 
boiled linseed oil 23 parts, litharge 0-5 parts, Japan varnish 0-5 parts, 
epirits turpentine 2-5 parts. Lamp black and litharge are ground sepa- 
rately with oil, then stirred into the white lead and oil. 

Black Paint. — Lamp black 28 parts, litharge 1 part, Japan varnish 
1 part, boiled linseed oil 73 parts, spirits turpentine 1 part. 

Gray or Stone Color for Buildings.— White lead in oil 78 parts, 
boiled oil 9-5 parts, raw oil 9*5 parts, spirits turpentine 3 parts, Turkey 
umber 0.5 parts, lamp black 0.25 parts. One square yard of new brick- 
work requires for 2 coats 1.1 lb., for 3 coats 1.5 lb. 

Paint for Tarpaulins.— 1st. Olive. Liquid olive color 100 parts, 
beeswax 6 parts, spts. turpentine 6 parts. Dissolve the beeswax in spts. 
turpentine, with a gentle heat, and mix the paint warm. 2d. Add 12 ozs. 
beeswax to 1 gal, linseed oil, boil it two hours ; prime the cloth with the 
mixture, and use it in the place of boiled oil for mixing the paint. 
Cream Color. {For Buildings.) 

1st coat. 2d coat. 

White lead, in oil 66.66 70. 

French yellow 3.33 3.33 

Japan varnish 1.33 1.33 

Rawoil 28.00 24.5 

Spirits turpentine 2.25 2.25 

One square yard of new brick-work requires for first coat, 0-75 lbs. ; 
for second, 0.3 lbs. 

Cheap Paint for Sheds and Fences.— Melted pitch 6 lbs., linseed 
oil 1 pt., brick dust, or yellow ochre, 1 lb. 
To the above we add the following valuable items : 

To Waterproof Awnings.— Immerse first in solution containing 
20 per cent, of soap, and repeat the process in a copper solution of equal 
strength, then wash and dry. 

Aniline Inks.— 1. Violet. Dissolve 1 part of aniline violet blue in 
300 parts of water. A beautiful ink. 2. Blue Ink. Dissolve 1 part of soluble 
Paris blue in 250 parts of water. 3. Red Ink. Dissolve 1 part soluble 
f uchsin in 200 parts boiling water. 

^ -^^'?^^ ?^^ Chinese Ink.— Calcined lamp black 100 parts. Boghead 
shale black, m impalpable powder, 50 parts ; Indigo carmine in cakes 10 
parts ; Carmine lake, 5 parts ; Gum arable (best quality) 10 parts ; Puri- 
fied ox-gall 20 parts; Alcoholic ext. of musk, 5 parts; Dissolve the gum in 
50 to 60 parts of pure water, and filter through a cloth. The indigo car- 
mine, lake, lamp black, and shale black are mixed with the liquid and 
the whole ground on a slab with a muller like ordinary colors, but much 
longer. Now add the ox-gall and ext. of musk slowly, grinding well in 
N^t dry m the air away from dust, mould into cakes and dry again 
When quite firm, compress into bronze moulds with any desired design' 
wrap up in tin foil and again in gilt paper. A splendid article. ' 

lo Dye, Stiffen and Bleach Felt Hats.— Felt hats are dvedbv 
repeated immersion, drawing and dipping in a hot watery solution of 
logwood 38 parts, green vitriol 3 parts, verdigris 2 parts ; repeat the im- 
mersions and drawing with exposure to the air 13 or 14 times, or until the 
color suits, each step in the process lasting from 10 to 15 minutes. Ani- 
line colors may be advantageously used instead of the above. For a 
stiffening, dissolve borax 10 parts, carbonate of potash 3 parts in hot 
water, then add shellac 50 parts, and boil until all is dissolved applv 
with a sponge or a brush, or by immersing the hat when it is cold and 
dip at oii«e in very dilute sulphuric or acetic acid to neutralize the alkali 
and fix the shellac. Felt hats can be bleached by the use, of sulphuric 

6.33 



SUGGESTIONS TO ARTISANS, &C. 

Laundry Secret.s. — A spoonful of o#-gall to a gallon of water will 
set the colors of almost any goods soaked in it previous to washing. A 
tea-cup of ly3 in a pail of water will improve the color of black goods. 
Nankin should lie in lye before being washed ; it sets the color. A strong 
tea of common hay will preserve the color of French linens. Vinegar in 
the rinsing water for pink or green calic<ies will brighten them. Soda 
answers the same end for both purple and blue. To bleach cotton cloth, 
la'ce one large spoonful of sal-soda, one pound of chloride of lime, for 
thirty yards ; dissolve in clean soft water, rinse the cloth thorouphly in 
cold soft water in order that the cloth may not rot. 'J'he above amount 
of cloth, with the bleaching compound may be whitened in from ten to 
lif teen minutes. 

Suggestions to Artisans —Never cojisider time wasted that is 
spent in learning rudiments. In acquiring a knowledge of any art or 
handicraft the greatest difficulty is experienced at the beginning, be- 
cause our work then possesses little or nothing of interest. Our lirst 
lessons in drawing, or music, or with tools, are very simple ; indeed so 
simple are they that we are disposed to undervalue their importance. 
The temptation is to skip a few pages and begin further on in the book. 
But such a course is fatal to success. To learn principles thoroughly 
is to. succeed. Be content to learn one thing at-a time, ■rtlieiher it be to 
push a plane square and true, or draw a straight line. "Whatever you 
learn, learn it absolutely, without possible question. This wHll enable 
you to advance steadily, step by step, year after year, and some day 
you will wonder why you have been enabled to distance the geniuses 
who once seemed so far in advance of you. 

Set your heart upon what you have in hand. Valuable knowledge 
is acquired only by intense devotion. You must give your entire mind 
to whatever you undertake, otherwise you fail, or succeed indifferently, 
which is but little better than failure. 

Learn, thei-efore, to estimate properly the value of wliat is called 
leisiire time. There is entirely too much of this in the world. Do not 
mistake our meaning. Rest is necessary and play is av611 in its place, 
but young men who hope to do something in life niust not expect to play 
one third of their time. 

While you resolve to acquire a thorough knowledge f)f your art, be 
equally as anxious to know something beyond it. A craftsman ought to 
be ashamed of himself who iknows nothing but the use of his tools. 
Having the time to acquire it, be careful to properly estimate the value 
of knowledge. Eemember of what use it will be to you iii ten thousand 
instances as you go along in life and be as conscientious in learning 
rudiinents here as elsewhere. Learn to spell correctly, to write a gooil 
plain hand, and to punctuate your sen fences. 

' Do not dress beyond your means ; never spend your last dollar, unless 
for food to keep yourself or some one else from starving. You will 
always feel better to keepa.little money in your pocket. At the earliest 
possible opportunity save up a few dollars and place the amount in a 
savings bank. It will serve as a magnet to attract other money that 
might be foolishly spent. 

Just as soon as you can command the means, buy a piece of ground. 
Do not wait until you have saved enough to pay all down, but begin by 
paying one third or one quarter. Do not be afraid to go in debt for land, 
for it increases in value. 

Many as soon as you are able to support a wife and can find a good 
woman who is willing to accept you. — The. American Builder. 

In commending the above advice the editor would enterpose a salutary 
caution regarding the deposit of money in Savings Banks, while many 
successful business men, and other possef sed of exuberant imagination say 
that there is no such word as fail, it is palpablv manifest that the collapse 
of no less than eleven Savings Banks in New York and its vicinity during 
the p^st few months, has furnished ruinous proof to thousands of de- 
posit()rs that the contrary is the truth. In making deposits then, be 
sure that your savings are put in a safe place and that the integrity of 
the men to whom you intntst them is beyond question. 

()34 



Miscellaneous Rules, <S:c., for Engineers, Mill-owners, 
Mechanics, &c. 

Gearing a CorpouND Lathe. — The term Compound or double f/ear" 
ed, as applied to the screw-cutting gear of a lathe means that there exists, 
between the gear wheel which is fastened to and revolves with the lathe 
spindle and tlie feed screw, two gear wheels of different diameters and 
revolving side by side, at the same number of revolutions, by reason of 
being fixed upon the same sleeve or axis. The object of this arrangement 
is to make, between the speed at which the lathe mandril or spindle will 
run, and the speed or revolution at which the feed screw will run, a great- 
er amount of difference than is possible in a single geared lathe, and thus 
to be able to cut threads of a coarser pitch than could be cut in the latter. 
This is usually accomplished by providing two intermediate wheels of 
different diameters, both being' held by a feather in a sleeve revolving 
upon an adjustable pin for the purpose. 

It is obvious that tlie smallest of these compounded or coupled wheels 
will gear into and with the wheel or gear on the feed screw ; and that 
the changes of gear may be made upon the gear running on the lathe 
mandril and that running on the feed screw, without disturbing the pair 
of intermediate (and compounded) gears referred to. In many cases, 
however, only the wheel upon the feed screw need be changed, since a 
wide range of pitch may be obtained by changing that wheel only. 

To find the number of teeth in the wheel required to be placed on the 
feed screw, we have the following rule : 

Divide the pitch to be cut by the pitch of the feed screw, and the pro- 
duct wiU be the proportional number. Then multiply the number of 
teeth on the lathe mandril gear by the number of teeth on the smallest 
gear of the compounded pair, and the product by the proportional num- 
ber, and divide the last product by the number of teeth in the largest 
wheel of the compounded pair, andi the product is the number of teeth 
for the wheel on the feed screw. 

Suppose, for example, the gear on the lathe mandril contains 40 teeth 
running into the largest of the compounded gears which contains 50 teeth, 
and that the small gear of the compounded pair contains 15 teeth ; what 
wheel will be required for the feed screw — its pitch bemg 2, and the 
thread requiring to be cut being 20 ? 

Pitch Pitch of Proportional 

reqmred. feed screw. number. 

20 -^ 2 = 10 

Then— 

^randril Small com- Proportional Large cora- 
gcar teeth. pouud gear. number. pound gear. 

40 X 15 X 10 -f 50 = 120 = the number of 
teeth required upon the wheel for the feed screw. In the above example, 
however, all the necessary wheels except one are given ; and since it is 
often required to find the necessary sizes of two of the wheels, the follow- 
ing rule may be used : 

Divide the number of threads you wish to cut by the pitch of the feed 
screw, and multiply the quotient by the number of teeth on one of the 
driving wheels, and the product by the number of teeth on the other of 
the driving wheels ; then any divisor that leaves no remamder to the last 
product is the number of teeth for one of the wheels driven, and the 
quotient is the number of teeth for the other wheel driven. 

[In this rule the term " wheel driven " means a wheel which has mo- 
tion imparted to it, while its teeth do not drive or revolve any other 
wheel ; hence the large wheel of the compounded pair is one of the 

635 



636 



RULES FOR MACHINISTS, MILLERS, AC. 



wheels driven, while the wheel on the feed screw is the other of the 
wheels driven.] 

Example. — It is required to cat 20 threads to the inch, the pitch of the 
feed screw being 2, one of the driving wheels contains 40 teeth and the 
other 15 : 



Pitch required 
to be cut. 

20 



Pitch of 
feed esrew. 

-r 2 



X 



Teeth in one 
driving wheel. 

40 



X 



Teeth in other 
driving wheel. 

15 = 



6000. 



Then, 6000 -f 50 = 120 ; and hence one of the gears will require to con- 
tain 50 and the other 120 teeth ; if we have not two of such wheels, we 
may divide by some other number instead of 50. 

Thus : 6000 -^ 60 = 100 ; and the wheels will require to have, re- 
spectively, 60 and 100 teeth. 

If there are no wheels on the lathe we proceed as follows : 

Divide the pitch required by the pitch of the feed screw ; tlie quotient 
is the proportion between the revolutions of the first driving gear and 
tlae feed screw gear. 

Example. Required the gears to cut a pitch of 20, the feed screw pitch 
being 4 ; here 20 -r- 4 = 5 ; that is to say, the feed screw must revolve 
five times as slowly as the first driving gear ; we now find two numbers 
which, multiplied together, make five : as 2| X 2 = 5 ; hence one pair 
of wheels must be geared 2^ to 1 and the other pair 2 to 1, the small 
wheel of each pair being used as drivers, because the thread required is 
finer than the feed screw. Rose's Complete Practical Machinist, H. 
Carey Bainl & Co.., Philadelphia. 

HIPPED ROOFS, MILL HOPPERS, &C. 

To find the various Angles and proper Dimensions of Materials ichere- 
by to construct any figure lohoseform is the Frustrum of a proper or 
inverted Pyramid, as Hipped Roofs, Mill Hoppers, &c. 

A 




A B C D represents the desired size of plan for a roof, E T represents the 
height ; draw the line A E to meet the apex or ridge E K on plan ; from 
E, at right angles with C E and equal to the designed height draw the 
line E T then the line T C, equal the length of the struts or corners of the 
roof ; from C, with the distance C F, draw the arc T H, continue the 
diagonal C E until it cuts the arc E H, through which, and parallel with 
the apex E K, draw the line I L, which determines the required breadth 
for each side of the roof : from C, meeting the line I L, draw the Ihie C 
G, or proper angle for the end of each board by which the roof might re- 
quire to be covered, and the angle at T is what the boards require to be 
made in the direction of their thickness, when the corners or angles re- 
quire to be mitred. 

To Compute the ITumber of Revolutioks of a Pinion or Driven 
WHEN THE Number of Revolutions of Driver and the Diaiheter 
(>R the Number of Teeth of Driver and Driven are given. 
—Multiply the number of revolutions of driver by its number of teeth 



RULES FOR MACHINISTS, MILLERS, &C. 



G37 



or its diameter, and divide the product by the number of teeth or the 
diameter of the driver. 

Propoktion of Circles. — To assist machinists in enlarging or reducing 
machinery wheels without changing their resjiective velocities. 




First, lay off two circles, D F and G I, the size of tlie largest wheels 
which you wish to change to a large or small machine, with the central 
point H of the smaller circle G I on the periphery of the larger-t circle D 
F : then describe two lines Q C and S A tangent to the circles as shown 
in diagram, then draw the line R B through their centres ; now if you 
wish to reduce the machine outline a circle of the size you wish to re- 
duce it to ; if, say, one-half, have the centre K one-half the distance 
from E to P and lay off the circle J L, and on its periphery N as a cen- 
tre lay off a circle M O with their peripheries touching the tangent lines 
Q C and S A, as shown in diagram. This will make the circle J L one- 
half the size of the circle D F. and the circle M O one-half the size of the 
circle G I ; leaving J L and M O in the same proportion to each other 
as D F and G I. 

To reduce one-third, have the centre K oaie-third the distance from E 
to P ; if one-fourth, have the centre K one-fouitli the distance from E to 



GoS RULES FOR MACHINISTS, MILLERS, AC 

P, &c. Tliis reclconing may "be applied beyond the centre E for enlarging 
machine wheels, and will enable the mechanic to make the alteration 
without changing their respective velocities. 

To Compute the Diameter of a Pinion when the Diameter of 
THE Driver, and the number of Teeth in Driver and Driven are 
GIVEN. — Multiply the diameter of driver by the number of teeth in the 
pinion and divide the product by the number of teeth in the driver, and 
the quotient will be the diameter of pinion. 

To Compute the Number of Revolutions of a Driver, when 
the revolutions of Driven and Teeth or Diameter of Driver 
AND Driven ARE given. — Multiply the number of teeth or the diameter 
of driven by its revolutions and divide the product by the number of 
teeth or the diameter of driver. 

To Compute the Number of Teeth in each Wheel for a Train 
of Spur Wheels, each to have a given Velocity. — Multiply the 
number of revolutions of the driving wheel by its number of teeth, and 
divide the product by the number of revolutions each wheel is to make 
to ascertain the number of teeth required for each. 




To find the Circumference of any Diameter. — From the centre 
B describe the circle A C G, with the desired diameter ; next place the 
corner of the square at the centre B, and describe the lines B D and B F ; 
then draw the chord D F ; three times the diameter added to the dis- 
tance from the centre of the chord D E F to the middle of the subtending 
arc D G F, will be circumference desired. 

To find the Circumference op a Circle, or op a pulley. — 
Multiply the diameter by 3" 1416, or as 7 is to 22 so is the diameter to the 
circumference. 

The areas of circles are to each other as the squares of their diameters, 
and a circle contains a greater area than any other plaiii figure bounded 
by an equal outline. 

To Compute the area of a circle. — Multiply the circumference by 
one quarter of the diameter ; or multiplj'^ the square of the diameter by 
•7851 ; or multiply the square of the circumference by '07958 ; or multi- 
ply half the circumference by half the diameter ; or multiply the square 
of half the diameter by 3'14i6 

TO find the circumference of an ellipse. 

^uZe.— Multiply half the sum of the two diameters by 3-1416, and the 
product will be the circumference. 

jE^xawpZe.— Suppose the longer diameter 6 inches and the shorter di- 
ameter 4 inches, then 6 added to 4 equal 10, divided by 2 equal 5. multi- 
plied by 31410 equal 15"70S0 inches circumference. 



DIRECTIONS TO MILL-MEN, &C. G39 

Power and Capacity of Saw Mills, Saw filing, &c. — As a rule it 
tt admitted by mill-men that lor 10,000 ft. per day about 20 horse-power 
is required ; for 20,000 ft., 30 horse-power ; and for 30,000 ft. 40 horse- 
power. To secure these results it is indispensable that the operator should 
make sure of having a good mill and intelligent first class workmen to 
run it. Jn hanging the saw, see that the mandril fits accurately in the 
boxes, so that it will run without heating. When flat collars are used, 
the steadyiiig pins should be made with a shoulder, as Avhere any other 
form of pin is used it often happens that a burr or bunch is raised at the 
comer where the pin enters the collar. Both saw and collar should be 
tested with a straight edge ; it frequently happens in turning collars that 
through the lightness or springing of the tool, irregularities in the grain of 
the iron, &c., the work may not be perfectly true, and in this case the 
utmo.st care should be taken to ascertain and correct the deficiency, if 
any exists, by applying, before the mandril is taken from the lathe, a fine 
file of just the proper spring, against the face of the collars in order to 
remove any uneven surfaces that may have been left upon them. If they 
are not perfectly true, apply a pair that are so, independent of the man- 
dril collars, and so rigid that screwing up the collars cannot act upon or 
impair the saw. 

The saw being tested and found correct, place it on the mandril and 
tighten up the collars by hand, slowly revolving the saw at the same time, 
and if it proves to be truthfully hung, screw it home with a wrench tight, 
and test again with straight edge to see if all is right, revolving the saw 
and observe closely whether it runs true or not. For large saws a high 
authority recommends collars that have a perfect bearing of about | in. 
on the outer rim, the other part clear, as they hold tighter than a solid, 
flat-faced collar, because they are more apt to come fair against the saw. 

To correct saws out of round, hold a piece of grindstone or cobblestone 
against the points of the teeth while the saw revolves, this will grind 
down the most prominent teeth ; or the longest teeth may be marked with 
red chalk while the saw is in motion, and afterwards filed down. 

The following figures will afford valuable aid to the operator. In fig. 
1 the teeth represented by the dotted Mnes show the teeth as the saw 
leaves the factory ; the lines at B,C", and D show the condition to whicli 
they are frequently reduced by bad filing. These defective teeth contain 
no chamber for the circulation of saw dust, and teeth filed with sharp, 
square corners at the bottom frequently break, as shown at A, tooth C. 
This kind of filing js most destructive to both saw and files, and requires 
at least double the power necessary to operate a saw Avith teeth of the 
proper shape. For good: work it is absolutely essential to file back to the 
periphery line, and the best work will be done, the least labor expended, 
and less power will be required to operate, when the shape of the teeth 
is made to conform to the patterns illustrated by Figs. 2 and 3, which 
also represent the forms best adapted for sawing soft and hard wood re- 
spectively. In filing circular saws, an immense saving will be effected by 
filing from the face or under side, instead of from the top, or upper part 
of the tooth, as in the former case the full diameter of the saw is retained 
to a much greater extent. 

Fig. 4, at A, represents a tooth that requires gumming, or chambering 
out in proper shape, as shown at D. This leaves free scope for the dust, 
without too much crowding, and the useless consumption of power. A 
good gummer is an article that no sawyer can afford to dispense with, it 
saves much valuable time and heavy outlay for files, besides doing more 
rapid and much better work. A good swage or upset is equally import- 
ant for the purpose of bringing the teeth of the saw to a shaq), keen edge, 



640 



DIAGRAM^ FOR SAW FILING. 




Teeth, for Hara^'Wood. 




'Wften 'your Tooth, -want? ChaxxSbexlngr 




S^wJflff (Md and Hew \\.^\ 12^ 



DIAGRAMS TO ILLUSTRATE SAW-FILING. 



DIRECTIONS TO MILL-MEX. &C. 



C41 



briugiug up corners and vacancies occasioned by wear, and spreading tli© 
points, so as to ease the body of the saw in passing tlirough tlie log. 
Fig. 5, at A, B, C, D, and E, exhibits the different set required for saw 
teetli as effected by the swage ; tlie dotted lines show the undercut, and 
Fig. G shows the old and new style tooth. Fig. 7, at C, represents the con- 




FiG. 7. 
ditiou the tooth should be in for work. Point B shows a tooth thr>t is 
dull, and a great many teeth are broken, as shown at D, from this very 
cause. The tooth of a 24 inch circular saw passes through the log 2030 
times per minute, 120,000 times per hour, or 1.200,000 times per day, im- 
pelled by a tremendous force through knots. &c., and if not kept sharp 




Fig. 8. RIGHT-HAND SAW. 



642 



DIRECTIONS TO MILL-MEN, &C. 



the severe strain is bound to break the teeth. If the teeth were kept 
properly set and well filed the work would be performed in better shape 
with half the power. Eigs. 8 and 9 represent rio-ht and left hand saws 
and a very slight inspection of the cuts will enable any person to observe 
a most iiuporfcint distinction in ordering circular saws. Jn operating the 
mill, avoid tlie use of short bearings tor the mandril, and sliort, ti'-ht 
belts, these, tj^ether with the mandril crowding against the collar, are 
apt to cause lieating. Along, free belt, with long '"bearings, and a 'saw 
cuttmg freely, will give the best results in every case. 




Fig 



9. LEFT-HAND SAW. 

The improved pattern of saw teeth, &c., outlined above, is the form 
originated and commended by the celebrated saw manufacturing firm of 
Henry Disston & Sons, of Philadelphia, and is the result of the anxious 
study, experience, and careful labor of many years. The high standing 
of the firm, together with the excellent reputation of their goods, fur- 
nish a sufficient guarantee that every improvement introduced by them 
will be found based on correct principles. 

Saw Mill.— T'u'o Vertical Scncs o/"34 in. Stroke, Lathes, &c. Cvlinder 
10 ms. diam. by 4 ft. Stroke. Pr^ssiire 90 to 100 lbs. per square in., full 
stroke. Revolutions, 25 per minute. Boilers, three plain cylindrical, 30 
ins. in diam. by 20 ft. in length. 

Note. This engine has cut of yellow pine, 30 ft. by 18 ins. in one minute, 
Engineers & Contractors Focket-Book. 

For further information on Saw mills, see page 87. 

Weight of Lumber per Thousakd (M.) Feet Board Measure. 



Pine and hemlock 

Norway and yellow pine. 

Oak aiid Walnut 

Ash and Maple 



Dry. 



2,500 lbs. 
3,000 " 
4,000 " 
3,500 " 



Partly 

Seasoned. 

2,700 lbs. 
4,000 " 
5,000 " 
4,000 " 



Green. 



3,000 lbs. 
5,000 - ^: 



SI-XTIONAL VIEW OF A FLOUR MILL. 



643 




SECTIOXAL Ymvr OF A COMPLETE FLOUR ^LL. 

The above cut, from the 2f>n Stone, published by the ^vell known mill 
fomishino: firm of Xordvke & Marmon Co.. of Indianapolis, Ind., affords 
a sectional view of a complete flour mill with a three run outfit, two runs 
for wheat, and one run for com. 

The New Process of Milling, Htoh-grouxd a>-d Patent Flouk, 
ETC. — In considerhig this important subject, John "W. Hopkins writes to 
tlie Mill Stoxe as^follows :— The new proceeds means a first-class steam 
enCTjiie, jrrinding the flour and heatin.sr the mill on a cent's worth .of coal 
to the bushel of Avheat, fcikins: the wheat from the car on the side line 
and nci or t<^:ichincj it by manual labor until the flour barrels arc L-ikcn 



04:4 NEW PROCESS OF MILLING, &C. 

from the packer, instead of tlie shovelling and sweating which was and 
still is in vo;;ae in some places. 

Where water power is used instead of steam, the new process means 
the use of turbine wheels, givin<? over 80 per cent, of the full power of 
t.ic water, instead of the old breast wheel giving onl}' 50; the boss going 
i;ita a nice warm mill on a frosty winter morning and linding every thing 
going right, instead of going into an ice-bound mill of the old breast- 
wheel style, with a couple of half starved youths trying to cut her loose 
and knock her to pieces at the same time. 

The new process means nicely turned iron shafting and pulleys, with 
belt gearing, in place of wooden shafts and cog gearing, Avith two or 
three old millwrights slashing around with sledge hammers to keej) tlieni 
wedged, and assisted occasionally hy two or three millers making frantic 
efforts to start the break downs. It also means closely jointed old stock 
burrs, and plenty of them — 36 inches in diameter for middlings, and 
from 42 to 48 inches for wheat, according to the hardness or softness of 
the wheat — all in perfect balance and true smooth face, and the lands 
thereof to be from one-third to one-fourth of the whole surface of the 
burrs, instead of one-half as in hy-gone times. It does not, however, 
mean any particular patent dress, the common equalizing dress is good 
enough ; but it does mean that the furrows shall be smooth and straight 
in all directions, not less than two inches broad and deep enough at the 
eye to bury the largest grain of Avheat, and about the fourth of that at 
the skirt, the draft of the feather edge to be one inch to the foot in diam- 
eter of the burr, and all furrows of the same kind to bear the same rela- 
tion to the centre and circumference, and also that the miller shall have 
the power and means to alter the speed of any run Avithout affecting the 
remainder, ^. e. speed to be altered instead of draft. 

To mill mider the uew process means that the chop shall roll instead of 
slide between the burrs, or, in other words, the substitution of a system 
of granulation in jilace of grinding. 

We know a millwright who was lately called to reconstruct the bolting 
machinery of a considerable merchant mill. Upon mentioning the word 
purifier, the head miller in charge of the mill gave a jump as if he had 
received a mild stroke from a galvanic battery. "I want," says he, 
" nothing but fine cloths, and plenty of them, j^os. 12, 14 and 1(5," to 
which I AA'^ould only say that it must follov/, as a matter of course, that if 
you grind so close as to grind a fourth of the bran into powder, it Avill 
require fine cloths to take it out, and even they Avill fail to do it perfectly, 
whereas if the grinding is properly done, XX, 10, and 12, will be the 
thing. 

We come now to the middlings — the large particles which have with- 
stood the action of the burrs most, and Avhich have at the same time the 
highest specific gravity and the greatest bulk. They must be separated 
from the very light, dead fine brown dust (which is principally pulverized 
bran, insoluble in the acids of the stomach), the first would not go 
tlirough the superfine cloths, on account of their bulk, neither would the 
latter, on account of their hghtness. They must, however, not only be 
separated, but also graded, and while this is almost impossible of accom- 
])!ishment with cloths alone, it is rendered comparatively easy hy the use 
of cloths and blast combined, and therefore the necessity of the purifier. 
I do not refer to any ijarticular make or patent in the way of purifiers, 
as there are several good ones in the market, and any number of poor 
ones, but whatever kind is used should have capacity enough, and do 
their work vi'ell. 

The old process or sj'Stem that required a man to jump on the burrs 
every twenty-four or twenty-six hours and slash them ail over with a 



VALUABLE ADVICE TO MILLERS. 645 

pick so as to make tliem cut up 15 bushels of wheat an hour, and make 
24 bushels of flour to the 100 bushels of wheat, is fast becoming obsolete. 

Tlie idea of m.aking such Hour either for home consumption, or to ship 
to foreigners, is plaj-ed out ; the foreigners, in particular, ha^■e stojiped 
buying such flour, and want the wheat instead to grind for themselves. 
Instead of this old-time system it is now required of the niillcr that the 
face of the burrs shall be smooth and true, and if any high places develop 
themselves -they must be gently touched by the hand of a master either 
with pick, diamond, or emery wheel, and not more than six bushels an 
hour should be ground on a pair of burrs, and this should be ground 
cool or not at all. Moreover, it should be ground higli enough to take 
off abroad, clean bran, and to make one half middlings, and finally last, 
though not least, the substitution of the new process, as herein delineated 
in outline, nieans to realize 20 cents per bushel more out of the Avheat 
than by the old style, and a showing of a good and satisfactory balance 
on the right side of the ledger at the end of the year. At least such is tho 
new process or high-grinding system, as'I understand it. 

Fast a:sd Slow Grinding. Valuable Advick to Millers. On 
this all important subject, J. M. Truax, a practical miller, Avrites to tlie 
M'.ll Stone as follows : — " The quantity to be ground must depend upon 
the texture or density of the stone, the draft, the number and depth of 
furrows, and the grinding without heating. No more grinding should bt 
done than can be done without heating. The heating is the stopping 
spot. The quantity that every mill ought to grind is that quantity that 
can be ground and not heat, whether it is 5, 10, or 20 bushels ])er hour. 
If every miller Avill observe this as his guide, he will do the best work 
that he^ is able to do. 

In speaking of heating, I mean to say that the grain should not be so 
heated by pressure or rubbing, as will start the juice or essential oils of 
the grain. If the grain oil is started by friction, that friction produces 
lieat, and that heat dries and evaporates the grain juice, and the virtue 
of the flour is impaired. Any amount of cooling will not repair the dam- 
age done by heating. The steam that rises from the hot running mill is 
the vapor from out of the essential oils of the grain, and is lov'^t in the 
bread. To recommend the grinding of 10, 15 or 25 bushels of wheat per 
liour, is bad advice, imprudent. Millers differ in the selection of stones, 
And differ about their dress, and the motion of their mill. One will have 
one kind and way, and another another kind and May ; but whatever 
way they select, when they go to grinding, their quantity per hour should 
be that which they can grind and not heat, whether it is 3, 5, 10 or 20 
bushels per hour. Do not impair the substance for the bulk per hour. 
Blood heat is as high as can be warranted without im])airing the product. 
It may be an ambition to grind fast, but an old adage is " haste makes 
waste." If millers are ambitious, let that ambition be applied to the 
making of a perfect running mill. Select the very best burrs, and put in 
a thoroughly common sense dress ; a dress that will granulate the whole 
kernel as nearly as possible. Keep the stones as far apart as possible, and 
keep the texture or grain of the stones clean. Let this be the miller's 
ambition. But stop adding to quantity Avhen the mill is at blood heat, 
and as much less heat as they are able to, and let the bread makers and 
eaters have in the flour all the virtue that mother earth has produced. 

One of the great evils in millhig is low grinding, and its evil effects are 
only second to those produced by fast grinding. Wheat is composed of 
two parts — an inner and an outer part. The inner part is meaty, and 
the outer is a shuck, or skin, or hull ; the meaty is pulverizable, while 
the hull or covering is a leather-like substance, and has thickness, which 
thickness equals the meshes of No, 14 or 15 bolting cloth. Now, the 



646 BALANCING OF MILLSTONES. 

qnestion arises, how shall the miller grind this compoiiud kernel and 
clean this leather-like covering, and granulate the inner meat to a proj)- 
er fineness for bread puri:)oses, and not over rub or grind to dust a part 
of the hull ? This is the qnestion. And how is wheat being ground all 
over the world to-daj-^ ? I need not answer, for all know that lieavy 
grinding has been the order. The lands or face of one burr rubs the 
other, or nearly so. So much so that that portion of the bran that is 
caught between the face of the mill near the skirt is more than twice 
overground, and this overgrinding or rubbing tlie bran makes a brown 
dust, and blackens the flour. It is like brown paint, and bolts with the 
Hour and goes into the bread. 

This is a mistake, and should be avoided. Bran may make bread, but 
not the bread millers feel proud of. And to avoid this, millers must run 
a lighter mill. Heavy grinding is an evil. It not only powders a portion 
of the bran and blackens the flour ; but grinds at the same time a portion 
of the kernel to dust ; also destroying its juicy substance ; and at the' 
same time the fine groi:nd dust is rubbed into the texture of the stone, 
and the face of the stone becomes glazed and smooth, and of course dull. 

Millers, so dress your mill as will enable you to grind the inner part 
of the kernel to flour, and avoid makijig brown paint dust from the bran. 
A miller that runs a heavj'- mill is likely to look for a medicine to doctor 
Ills flour. Medicine for flour is a poor substitute for a good dress and 
clean stones. Bread eaters much jirefer the full life of the cereals, not a 
doctored article. Grain once killed by overgrinding and heathig will not 
be brought to life by the best medicines. All the flour-doctors in the 
world can not repair the life that is first produced in natural growth. 
They may help a deadened flour, but a whole reparation is impossible. 
Throw away the drugs ! Let us have a pure flour." 

BalancijStg Mil,l,stones.— To examine the conditions relative to 
balancing, and to trace the effects produced by an unbalanced runner, to 
their cause, we refer to the adjoining figure in which R, R, reju-escnts 
a section of thu runner-stone ; B, B, a section of the nether stationary or 
bed-stone, S, the mill-spindle provided at the upper end with a f^teel 
pivot P, ui3on which the runner-stone is suspended, so as to admit of free 
oscillation. The distance from the face F, F, of the runner-stone to the 
pivot P, is found in practice to be from 5 to 8 inches, according to the 
size of the stone. Since the thickness of the runner-stone varies from 12 
to 20 inches, this would bring the centre of gravity of the runner-stone 
below the pohit of suspension P, a condition favorable to stability, or, in 
other words, the millstone, when disturbed, will oscillate until equilibri- 
um is restored. It will not be so easily upset. In order that the runner- 
stone may be in " balance," or the distance between the face F, F, of the 
runner-stone and the face of F', F', of the bed-stone, be equal, when the 
latter is perfectly horizontal, and former freely suspended ; the weight of 
the portion of the runner on one side of the line, A, A, drawn through 
the point of suspension P, and perpendicular to the faces F', F,' must bo 
equal to the corresponding half on the other side of the same line. Should 
this not be the case, the deficiency is easily made up by cutting a cavity 
at the light side, near the circumference, and filling it with an amount of 
lead sufficient to establish a proper equilibrium. 

Mill stones when balanced while at rest are usually found, when run- 
ning, not to retain an equal distance between the face ; one side will drag 
— bear harder on the meal subjected to its action, consequently a mill- 
stone in this condition will grind unevenlj^ It is said to be out of " nm- 
ning balance," 

From the very nature of the construction of the French millstone (thJ 
kind used at present most exclusively), being an assemblage of blocks^ 



BALANCING OF MILL STONES. 



G47 



called " burr blocks," of various sizes, and on an average about 5 inches 
thick, the remainder of the body of the mill stone being made up of 
spawls, all cemented together with plaster of Paris ; it is evident that 
tlie material can not easily be distributed symmetrically as to weight. 
To illustrate — conceive a line K, E, drawn tlirongh the pivot P, and par- 
allel to the face F, F. We will also suppose a section (> inches thick cut 
out of the center of the mill stone. Such section from a mill stone 4 feet 
in diameter Avould weigh about 260 pounds, taking the weight of the 
plaster at 90 pounds per cubic foot, .and that of the burr block at IGO 
pounds. 




Now it may happen that in the construction of the millstone, 45 pounds 
fiiay be placed to the right of the center line A, A, and below the hori- 
zontal line E, E ; 35 pounds may come above this line on the same side 
of A, A ; 55 pounds and 25 pounds may chance to be on the opposite, 
below and above E, E, respectively. The sum of the weights on the right 
of A, A, is equal to the sum of the weights on the left, viz. : 80 pounds. 
The standing balance still obtains. The center of gravity r/, and //' of 
each half of our section taken separatelj"-, however, will not be in or at 
equal distances from the Ijne E, E, with the material thus distributed ; 
but will ^1 above on the right to r/", and below on the left to r/'" ; a line 
joining these centers of gravity will take the direction N, N. Now when 
ji mill stone so constructed is rotated about its axis A, A, the center of 
gravity r/'" Avill rise, and g" tend to fall. The line N, N, would become- 
nearer horizontal as the speed increases, the line E, E, becomes inclined 
and the face F, F, imtrue. The mill stone is out of " running balance." 

Tlie amount of pressure produced in our example assumed, we com- 
pute as follows : We draw a line through the center of gravit}^ /y" par- 
allel to the face F, F, until it meets the perpendicular line A, A ; we sim- 
ilarly draw a line through r/"'. We will also suj)pose the centers of grav- 
ity r/" and r/"' to be removed ^ of an inch from their proper place on the 
liiie E, E. The centrifugal forro would be given, by the known cxpres- 

whero m, represents the masSj or the weight divided by the 



sion 



;mv2 



648 



BALANCING OF MILL STONES. 



80 

force of gravity, in our case for ^ of the section -^ v, is the velocity ni 

this instance, for tlie point .7" or //'" and in a stone 4 feet in diameter at 
175 revolutions per minute, 18 feet per second, about ; r represents the 
radius, equal to P, 7 = 1 ft. in our case. Hence substituting these values 

80 18 18 

is the formula, we obtain g., ^ = 810 lbs. for the centrifugal force. The 

part of this force which is effective in producing the pressure at X equals 
810. Cosine of the angle EP x -= 734 pounds nearly. The force acts with 
the lever arms (j O" h iwch and PX = 25 inches. We have, therefore, for 

734 
the total pressure at the point X ^^- - X 2 = 14.68 pounds ; an amount 

frequently present in millstones in actual use, producing, by this unequal 
l^ressure, a flour or meal less advantageous to the miller, both as regards 
quality and quantity. 

What is required, therefore, to adjust the " Running Balance " with- 
out distui-bing the " Standing Balance "is to add or remove the same 
weight from each side. Thus, if we add 10 pounds to the part weighing 
25 pounds, and the same amount to the part weighing 45 pounds, we have 
not disturbed the sfcmding balance, while we have made the weights of 
the parts above and below the line E, E, equal respectively. 

To balance in an actual case, we proceed as follows : First, put the run- 
ner-stone in good standmg-balance, having leveled the bed-stone, and 
trammed the spindle previously. We then raise the stone, place two 
strips of wood between the faces, start the runner and turn off the back 
true with the face with a chisel, having first arranged a firm rest. Wo 
then remove the strips, run the stone at its proper speed, and mark the 
high side by bringing a pencil against it. The high side requires, as we 
have seen, an addition of weight at the top, close to the circumference, 
and the opjiosite low point at the bottom, near the circumference 
and the face. By means of two long leather straps, Ave tic several bars of 
lead at these places, repeating the operatioii until the jiroj^er amount of 
weight is found, which is then securely fixed to the stone, making a pro- 
l)er allowance for any plaster removed from the stone, or any waste in- 
curred in melting the lead. 




Several patent balances w^hich facilitate the operation have been intro- 
duced. A more common one consists of a cast iron box, which is insert- 
ed in the stone at the circumference, and in Avhich a weight can be raised 
or lowered by means of a screw. All that is required in this case is "to 
find the high point in the maimer described ; raise the Aveight at this 
point, and lower it at the opposite low point, thus taking weight from the 
upper half of the stone and adding it to the lower half and the reverse. 

it is not to be supposed that if a mill stone is put in good running bal- 
ance, that it will remain in this condition for any length of time. B&t, 
on the contrary, its balance will change from the effects of the weather ; 
\hat is, by an unequal absorption' of moisture, due to an unequal distribiti- 



PORTABLE GRIST MILL. 



G4U 



tion of the plaster fonning the back, and from an unequal wear of the 
face as well. It is, therefore, expedient to frequently examine the balance 
and adjust tlie same. V. Bachman in Mill Stone. 

The art of balancing? mill stones is greatly simplified by an ingenious 
arrangement used by the Nordyke & Marmon Co., of Indianapolis, Ind., 
who imbed 5 cast iron boxes, like the one represented in the right hand 
cut, in the body of the runner stone. They are placed in the runner 
w^^j the lid of the box a little below the plaster back with the roiinding 
])art in contact with the band. Tlie left hand figure illustrates the inner 
adjustable box, and screw for adjusting the same when in the stone. It 
will be noticed it has two parts, divided by a partition. Tlae cover to this 
inner box, shown in the central figure, is secured Avith a screw, and fits 
down upon the box and close over the division, so that either side may bo 
used when the weight is wanted at a point between any two of the bal- 
ance boxes. These balance boxes gives the miller full control of the run- 
ner ; a wrench is the only tool required, and the requisite weights, wlien 
once placed in the box, are not liable to derangement like those ordinar- 
ily used. 




THE NORDYKE & MARMON PORTABLE GRIST MILIi. 

The above illustration represents a Portable Grist IMill made by the ex- 
tensive mill furnishing firm of Nordyke, Marmon & Co., Indianapolis, 
Ind. It is constructed of the best French burr, is self-oiling, self-feeding, 
adjustable-balanced, and is Avell calculated to render efficient service to 
farmers, saw-mill owners, &c., as it dispenses with skilled attendance, is 
■well adapted to any kind of suitable power, and is capable of grinding 20 



GjO 



MILL STONE DRESS, &C. 



busliels of corn per hour. The great variety and immense number of first, 
class water and steam mills erected by this firm all over the fertile regions 
of the West and South, form a sufficient attestation of tlieir abilities and 
resources as flouring mill contractors, engineers, and mechanical experts. 
In addition to their regular mill furnishing business, -which has expanded 
to vast proportions since its establishment in 1851, this firm publish tlie 
Mill Stone (terms $1 per annum), a monthly journal of paramount utility 
to every miller, farmer, and mechanic. Of this periodical, suffice it to 
say, that one of the articles transferred to these pages and credited to the 
MlU Stone, has been pronounced by a practical man belonging to the craft, 
to be worth of itself $10 to any miller. The articles are pregnant with 
interest to every miller and will doubtless be read and studied Avitli the 
attention which they deserve. 

KuMBEB OF Meshes in Boltino Cloth. — The following Table exhibits 
the number of meshes contained in each number of cloth from No. 0000 
to No. 16, of Dufour & Co.'s Anchor Brand of Bolting cloth : 



"No. 0000 contains. 400 



000 

00 



1 

2 

o 
O 

4 
5 
6 



No. 7 contains 7,744 

" 8,464 

" 10,0C0 

" 12,100 

" 14,400 

" 16,000 

" 19,600 

" 22,500 

" 25,600 

" 28,900 



676 
1,024 
1,764 
2,704 




8 

9 

10 

11 


3,600 
4,096 




12 
13 


4,624 




14 


5,184 




15 


6,400 




16 



Mill, Stone Dress. — On this subject a practical miller writes to the 
3Iill Stone as follows: *' In the first place the burr must be brought to a 
perfectly true face, and then lay off the furrows with a straight edge, 1^ 
inches wide at the eye, and 1| inches wide at the skirt. Let the flare be 
on the feather edge, and just as many quarters as may be thought best, 
and which will depend somewhat on the speed. I generally give a lour 
foot burr from' 13 to 16 leading furrows, stepping them off Avith a pair of 
compasses on the outside edge of burr, from 9 to 12 inches apart, and 




then dividing the spaces between theni into quarters. The accompanying 
draft of the dress that I use will give a very good idea of my plan. I have 
been using this dress for years, and find" it gives better satisfaction in 
quality of flour than any other dress I ever used. It grinds cooler and 
longer than the old style of dress, and it Avill grind wet or damp Avheat 
better, because there is less friction about it and there is more room for 
t^'i meal to get out from under the burrs, and therefore the meal mustbci 
J^ter." 



spi:i:d, capacity, ^''^c, of mill stones, 



G51 



ESTOIATE OF THE SpEKD, PoT^EU, CAVACiTy" A'iVD i3liil~;S OF 'MlL.T.- 
STOXES AS niACTICED IN GllEAT BrITAIX FOR CilUXDIXO WhEAT "WHERE 

KO Exhaust or Co^ibixed Blast axd Exhaust are used. The Miller. 





« 




Average capa- 










city per ]iour 




Diameter of 


Revolutious 


Horse power. 


of grinding in 


Usual dress. 


Millstone. 


per Minute. 




bush.'tlirough 
the journey. 




Feet. Inches. 










2 6 


200 


2^ 


2% 


. 7.3 


2 10 


ISO 


2% 


2% 


8.3 


3 


170 


3 


3 


9.3 


3 2 


100 


3V4 


314 


9.3 


3 4 


150 


3^ 


3^ 


10.3 


3 G 


140 


334 


33/4 


10.3 


3 8 


130 


3% 


SVb 


10.3 


3 10 


125 


3% 


Nearly 4 


11.3 


. 4 


120 


4 


4 


10.4 


4 2 


115 


4^8 


41/4 


D.l 


4 4 


110 


414 


41/2 


11.4 


4 G 


105 


•4^/2 


5 


12.4 


4 8 


100 


4% 


G 


12.4 


4 10 


95 


5 


Gy2 


12.4 


5 


90 


G 


7 


12.4 



Draught from 
fore edge of 
furrow. 




Ill reference to the foregoing Table, The Miller quotes the opinion of a 
Scotch engineer and millwright whose experience entitles hiin-to rank as 
an authority, to the effect that there should be only four standard diame- 
ters of millstones, viz. : 3 ft. 3 ft. 6 ins. 4 ft. 4 ft. 6 ins. for 
which the speed should be 170 revolations for the 3 ft., 155, 135, and 
115 for the other sizes respectively, and he estimates that all their sizes 
Avould each absorb 6 indicated horse power to grind 4 bushels of Avheat 
per hour ; iu other words, the smallest stone at its high rate of speed, Avith 
equal duty, would require as much power to propel it as would be taken 
by the largest stone with its low rate of speed. The same authority ex- 
presses a conviction, based on a mature experience of 30 years, that a vast 
improvement could be effected on the system presented in the abovo 
Table by taking the 4 foot stone, running at 135, as the standard for 
universal use in grinding wheat. It is recommended further that all mills 
should be so constructed that the velocity of the stones could be varied at 
pleasure, lohen in operation, either by running each pair by conical pul- 
leys or drums, or by a separate engine, as the state of the weather, or the 
different varieties of wheat, may demand. 
Concerning the blast and exhaust the Miller remarks : 
" It is stated by some parties favorable to the combined Blast and Ex- 
haust that, by the adoption of that system, a saving of power is effected, 
and that eight bushels of wheat can be ground by s/x-horse power. Tlie 
power, however, being unlimited, the quantit\^ ground can be increased 
almost indefinitely, in the above proportion, according to the weight of 
the millstone, sixteen bushels per hour often being ground on this sy.'-- 
tern, Theajiplication of the Exhaust, drawing the air through the eye of 
the running millstone, does not produce a greater current than that of at= 
mospheric pressure, the millstones grind s«omewhat faster, and there is a 
corresponding amount of economic power, the millstones workiiig more 
freely. Many advantages in this respect result from the adoption of 
the simple Exhaust, having for ita object the removal ouly oi tlxQ stive 
irom the millstoue case." 



652 



SPEED AND riTCII OF BOLT, AC 



To Remove Glaze from Millstones.— Take the burrs, clean all the 
flour off with a broom and wash them with first rate vinegar. This will 
leave the stones free from glaze. The better way is to wash the stones at 
night and leave them to dry until morning. A miller Avho has used tlio 
method for 25 years, recommends to take up the stones while waiin, 
and Avash them with a mixture of one half pail of soft water and one 
quart sharp vinegar, apjjlied with a woollen cloth. LeffeVs Neics. 

Speed and Pitch of Bolt, — An experienced miller writes on this 
subject as follows : 

Many years of practical experience in custom milling and in grinding 
all kinds of wheat, hard and soft, wet and dry, has convinced me tltjit 
the best speed to give a bolt cloth to accomplish the most and best work, 
is 200 feet per minute. The reel should have ^ to § inch pitch per iool 
and should be kept as full as its capacity requires. Reels when working 
on hard wheat should have more jDitch than when working on soft wheat. 
More millers get into trouble with their bolts by running them too fast 
than by any other cause, The faster you run the cloth after you get up 
to 200 feet per minute, the less it will bolt and you can give it speed 
enough to carry all the flour, middlings and bran together out of the tail 
eud of the reel. LeffeVs Neics. 




THE HOLMES AND BLANCHARD PORTABLE MILL. 

The above illustration represents an excellent type of a geared Portable 
Grinding Mill manufactured by the well known mill furnishing firm of 
Holmes & Blanchard, Boston, 'Mass. They also manufacture the same 
class of mill, at less cost, with vertical pullej^ The stones are made in 
one entire piece from the best French burrs^ and are well adapted for 
flouring wheat, grinding corn, grain, feed, plaster, salt, coffee, spices, &c . 
The makers claim that the capacity of their mills, of which they build a 
great variety, can be increased to almost any extent, b.y an increase of 
power or speed, or they can be worked with light power by diminishing 
the speed and quantity of work. Their mills, now numbering many him- 



CALCULATIONS FOR BELTS, &C. 



Cd^ 



dreds of every size and class, are highly spoken of by the purchasers, 
and the write\- can bear -witness to the utility of one wliich reiidered ex- 
ttbllent service to a large community on his own premises in New Bruns- 
wick, Canada, until its career of usefulness was terminated by a fire 
Avhich destroyed the mill building with all its contents. 

The folio wing Table exhibits the proper speed, power required, perform- 
ance, &e., of the Holmes & Blanchard Portable Mills. 



DIAM- 
ETER 
OF 
STONES 


BEST SPEED 
PEB MIXUTE. 


BUSHELS CORN 
GROUND PER HOUR. 


H. P. 

re- 
quired. 


SIZE OF 
PULLEYS. 


Steam 
or wa'r 
power. 


Animal 
Power. 


Fine. 


Coarse. 


Crack- 
ed. 


Dia, 
Inches- 


Face. 
Inches 


42 iuclies. 


275 




20 


30 


200 


15 


28 


10 


36 " 


300 1 


15 


22 


150 


10 


24 


10 


33 


325 j 


12 


18 


150 


8 


20 


8 


30 


325 




10 16 


150 





20 


8 


26 


325 


8 14 


125 


5 


16 


6 


24 


350 200 





12 


100 


4 


16 


6 


20 " 


350 


275 


4 1 8 


40 


3 


14 


5 


18 


350 


275 


o 


6 


30 


2 


14 


5 


16 


350 275 


2 


4 


30 


1^ 


14 


5 



To FIND THE Length of a Driving Belt before the Pulleys 
ARE IN Position. — Add the circumference of the two pulleys, divide the 
product by two, and add the quotient thus obtained to double the distance 
between the centres of the two shafts, which will give the length of belt 
required. For a cross belt, add the circumference of the two pulleys, mul- 
tiply the product by three, and divide by two ; the quotient added to double 
the distance between centres of both shafts Avill give the length required. 
Horse-power of a belt equals velocity in feet per minute multiplied by 
the width, the sum divided by 1000. 

One inch single belt, moving at 1000 ft. per minute = 1 horse power. 

Double belts about 700 ft. per minute, per one in. in wudth=l horse 
power. 

For double belts of great length, over large pulleys, allow about 500 ft. 
per minute per inch of width pev horse-poAver. 

Power should be communicated through the lower running side of a 
belt, the upper side to carry the slack. 

Average breaking weights of a belt, 3-10 x 1 inch wide. Leather, 
350 lbs ; 3 ply rubber, GOO lbs. Tlie strength of a belt increases as its 
width. The co-efflcient of safety for a laced belt is leather = 1-16 break- 
ing weight, rubber — 1-3 do. 

To Determine avhere to cut Bell holes in Floors. — Measure 
the distance in inches from centre of driving shaft to under side of floor, 
on the upper side make a mark over the centre of shaft. Now measure 
the distance from centre of shaft on machine to be driven to floor, raakiug 
ainark on the floor immediately beneath the centre, then measure the 
distance between the two marks. Transfer these figures to a board or 
paper, draw off the driving and the driven pulleys, after finding their 
diameters at the distance from each other and the floor line previously 



654 CALCULATIONS FOR BELTS, '&C. 

obtained, and draw the lines representing the belt catting the floor lines 
which will show where the belt passes through the floor. The drawing, 
can be made to a scale to reduce it to convenient dimensions, maintaining 
the proportions. The holes may now be marked off on the floor and cut 
with a cei-taiuty of being correct. In making the drawing it is best to do 
it full size on the floor if room can be had, and allowance must be made 
for the thickness of flooring. 

Working value of Pulleys. — Pulleys covered with leather, iron 
pulleys polished, and mahoganj^ pulleys polished, rank for working 
value as 36, 24, and 25 per cent, respectively, wood and iron uncovered be- 
ing almost identical. The smoother a j)ulley is turned the greater will be 
the power imparted by it, and the better will be the hold of the belt. A 
pulley which is slightly higher in the middle of its width exerts the 
greatest power in retaining the belt from slipping off as well as making 
it last longer by imparting the greatest tension to the middle, or strong- 
est part of the belt, to the manifest relief of the edges or weakest part. To 
obtain the best results from belts it is necessary, in lacing or cementing 
the ends, that the latter should be cut exactly square across, and the 
junction should be equally true, otherwise the belt will be strained and 
torn on the tightest side, besides being rendered liable to run off the i5ul- 
ley at any time. 

Belts connecting pulleys perpendicular to each other should be kept 
tight, and should me made of firm, well stretched leather, in order to 
work to the best advantage. 

To COMPUTE THE HOKS£-POWER OF A BELT, ITS VELOCITT AND THE 
NUMBER OF SQUARE INCHES IN CONTACT WITH THE SMALLEST PULLEY 

BEING KNOWN. — Divide the number of square inches of belt in contact 
with the pulley by 2, multiplj^ this quotient by the velocity of the belt in 
feet per mmute, and this amount divided hy 36,000 and the quotient will 
be the number of horse-power. 

To COMPUTE THE WIDTH OF BeLTS REQUIRED FOR TRANSMITTING 

VARIOUS NUMBERS OF HORSE-POWER. — Multipl}"^ 36,000 by the number of 
horse-power, divide the product by the number of feet the belt is to run 
per minute, divide the quotient by the number of feet or parts of a foot 
in length of belt contact with the smaller pulley ; divide the last quotient 
by 6, and the result will be the desired width of the belt in inches.* 

To Prevent Accidents fro3I Shafting. — These may be rendered 
impossible by loose sleeves formed of tin or zinc fitted to the" shafting, and 
lined with cloth or leather to prevent noise. 

To Grind Burrs into Face with Water. — Make the face of the 
stone absolutely true, then bosom each stone slightly and grind them in 
water at a low speed. Let the speed be high enough, however, to bring 
the water to the lands. To grind in face the spindle should be slightly 
loose in the bush and the running stone made to oscillate 1-16 of an inch 
or more. This will prevent the burrs from creasing each other, and will 
leave a perfect face. Tlie bosom of the mill should be two brans at the 
eye and one bran at the skirt ; just enough to prevent centre riding. A 
wedge face from eye to skirt, is faulty for the manufacture of pure flour. 
The bran should lie horizontally throughout its passage through the" mill. 
The furrows serve as squashing surfaces. Where there are furrows, no 
bosoming is demanded. Leffel's Neios. 

To Prevent Burrs Heating. — Dress from centre to circumference, 
leaving no bosom. Draw a line across the centi-e, each way, dividing a 
four foot burr into 16 squares or divisions, and other sizes, more or less, 

*NoTE The above estimate is based on the rule of allowing each square 
inch of belting in contact \\\t\\ the pulley to raise half a pound 1 ft. high in 1 
minute and the raisiug of 36,000 lbs. same height in same lime as a horse- 
power. 



INSTRUCTIONS TO MILLERS, &C. G5a 

ill the same proportion, v^iih all straight furrows. Let the draft be h the 
diameter of the rock. Lay off the lands and furrows J inch each observ- 
ing to dress smooth. Sink the furrow at the eje^ inch deep for corn, 
and run out to f'j at the periphery ; for wheat i^J at the eye, and ^ at the 
peripliery. AVhen thus furnished, crack the lands in straight lines, square 
with the draft of cross lines, so as to make the lauds face in the ruunei 
and bed direct. 

Simple Alakm for Mill HorPERS. — Take a piece of spring steel 
about h ill. Avide, and bend one end of it so as to form a foot by which to 
screw ft to the bottom of the shoe, the balance of the spring passiug up 
through and into the hopjier, and bent over at its upper end so as to form a 
pendant to Avhich rivet a small bell. As soon as the grain in the hopper 
gets below the bell, it will commence to ring and thus notify the attend- 
ant LeffeVs Xeics. 

Temperature of Oat Meal Kiln. Grinding of . Oatmeal . — In 
response to a request from a correspondent, Mr. Gray, an experienced 
miller, says, "There is no given temperature in drying oats ; it is the 
plate you bring to the necessary heat, not the house. Oats Jire not all 
tlie same grade, some kinds are thinner in the hull than others. I always 
prefeiTed a cast iron plate in place of tile, as you get more heat. I do not 
think a perforated cylinder will make sweet meal, that is still the great 
Avant in the country, the meal is stewed in the drying, and has not a fine 
fciste. The good old plan to find out when your kiln floor is ready to re- 
ceive the oats is just to spit on the i^late and if it raises the bead you can 
at once load your kiln six niches deep Avith the oats. The cold oats will 
cool it down a little Avhen the miller must look to his furnace and keep 
up the same heat he started with — not any liotter. It will soon begin to 
steam, and in about half an hour skim off the oats with the hand down 
to tlie plate, and he will see whether it is hot or cold; when the oats are 
dry, say two inches on the bottom, that Avill be perhaps over an hour, 
take the wooden shovel and clean off its breadth around three squares of 
the kiln by throwing them over on the oats. Then turn the oats over to 
the one end (not the sides) neatly turning them on top from the bottom. 
This takes some practice. When done your kiln head will be same as at 
beginning. It Avill steam again after about an hour ; when the steam is 
off, turn it over again but reverse the end (turn back). Don't let the fur- 
nace get too hot now, keep its temperature down rather. In about an 
hour more the miller will find his oats dry. He must now open his fur- 
nace doors and cool down, let the oats la}' on the kiln 20 minutes even 
after they are dry. He will find that this will give them a sweet taste , 
Never dry Avith seeds as it imparts to the meal a tar taste. I have tried 
a good many kinds of millstones for oat meal, and I find in my long ex- 
])erience that four foot porous burrs driven 120 revolutions, Avitli a three 
toed rynd loose on the spindle and resting in 3 dents in the runner, are the 
best. I think the 20 inch Acrtical burrs Avill make the oat meal too floury, 
as oat meal don't take so much friction, the stones being kept so high- 
more so than in making flour." LeffeVs News. 

Note. — " Leffel's MUling and Mechanical Newa," from Avliich the above 
items are transcribed, is a monthly journal (terms 50 cents per amuim), pub- 
lished by James Leffel& Co., manufacturers of the celebrated Leffel Turbine 
"Wheel, Springfield, Ohio. The paper is edited with consummate ability, and 
jt ifi safe to say that very many of the items contained iu it are singly Avell 
worth the whole year's subscnption tenfold. 

The Indianapolis Mechanical Journal (monthly, 50 cents per annum), J. H. 
Kerriek, publisher, Indianapolis. Ind., is a most useful periodical to every 
one who either operates or wishes to procure machinery, and the Western 
Manvfactnrer (monthly, $2 per annum), Coyne & Co., publishers (and Patent 
Aeents") Chicago, Ills., is unexcelled on the subject of statistics and general 
information of interest to manufacturers. 



Go 6 



HARRISON S GRINDING MILL. 




HARRiSO-s'S IMPR0VP:D STANDARD GRINDING MILL. 

Tlic jibove illustration represents a new improved liglit standard 20 
inch- grindinq; mill as constructed by Edward Harrison, of New Haven, 
Conn. It weighs 600 lbs. and the manufacturer claims for it a grinding 
caiTJicity (with from 6 to 20 horse-poM-er) of from 6 to 40bnshels per hour, 
and that with 1200 revolutions per minute, it has a grinding surface 
equal to ^ more than a common 48 inch run with 175 turns per minute. 
He claims that the high speed adds a large grinding surface to the burrs, 
that the grain is exploded into meal, bran, &c., as soon as it touches the 
burrs, that tlie vertical position of the stones perniits easy delivery of the 
Tueal and cool grinding, and that there is not only no poFsibility of the 
runner following up the bed face and grinding itself out of true, but that, 
on the contrary, the runners are self-facing (tlie bed being stationery, the 
runner rigid, no pivot, bale and driver being used) and grind theniselves 
so true that with but little additional labor they Avill run to within the 
thousandth part of an inch without touching. 

The mill in its complete form, combining grinder, scourer, and bolter, 
(the last two are shown in the next cut) is a decided novelty, and when 
(Contrasted with other mills, presents many startling points of difference. 
IJriefiy described, the bolter, or mill-case is a cylinder about 10 ft. long 
by 3 ft. in diam., made of staves and held together by a band and iron 
heads, into one of which the grinder is fitted, which is merely a 20 inch 
pair of burrs, set verticalh^, with the runner turning on the inside, its 
spindle passing horizontally through the bed stone in a journal about 10 
ins. in length. The scourer and bolter is connected to the grinder by in- 
genious machiner5^ On the top of the case a ventilator runs the entire 
len^^tli, having an opening of about 20 superficial square feet, which is 



HORSE POWER OF STREAM?. 



Cj7 



constructed for cooling the bolter quickly, the opening being covered with 
;i tibrous cloth material which permits the air to escape freely, causing a 
low and even temperature, while detaining the fine flour dust. A dis- 
cliarge spout runs the whole length of the case. The silk bolter occupies 
nearly the entire space in the cylinder, and is fully protected from hot 




substances passing into it from the grinder by a wire screen. The mid- 
dlings cloth is attached to the finer silk, on the reel, continuouslj^, and 
around it the middlings chamber is formed the full circumference of the 
] eel-head, through which passages connect to the delivery spout, in the 
middle of the cylinder head at the tail of the mill, while sweeps are at- 
tached to the reel of the bolter for scraping the flour up to the discharge 
opening. 

Horse Po"wter of Streams. — Taking Watt's estimate that the average 
power of a horse is sufficient to raise 33.000 lbs. 1 foot in vertical height 
])er minute (by means of compound pulleys) a waterfall has one horse 
power for every 33.000 lbs. of water flowing in the stream per minute, for 
each foot of fall. To compute the power of a stream, therefore, multi- 



G58 . HORSE POWER OF STREAMS. 

plj- the area of its cross section in feet by the velocity in feet per mhiute, 
and we have the number of cubic feet flowing along the stream per min- 
ute. Multiply this by G2;V, the number of pounds in a cubic foot of 
water, and this by the vertioal fall in feet, and we have the foot-pounds 
per minute of the" fall ; dividing by 33,000 gives us the liorse-])on-er. 

For example : a stream flows through a Hume 10 feet wide, and the 
depth of the water is 4 feet ; the area of the cross section will be 40 feet. 
The velocity is 150 feet per minute — 40 x 150 = 6000 = the cubic feet of 
w^ater flowing per minute. 0000 x 02^ = 375,000 = the pounds of water 
flowing- per minute. The fall is 10 "feet ; 10 x 375,000 = 3,750,000 = 
the foot pounds of the w aterfall. Divide 3,750,000 by 33,0C0 and we have 
113§i as the horse-power of the fall. 

Rule. — Divide the continued product of the width, the depth, the 
velocity of the water per minute, the height of the fall, and the weight of 
a cubic foot of water (02^ lbs.) by 33,000. 

Example. — The flume of a mill is 10 feet wide, the water is 3 f'^et 
deep, the velocity is 100 feet per minute, and the fall 11 feet. What is 
the horse-power of the fall ? 

Operation.— (10 x 3 X 100 x 11 X 62\) ^ a3,000 = 62\ horse-power. 

" Almost every man has about him in his daily walk sufficient appara- 
tus for a tolerably accurate estimate of the quantity of water flowing in 
any stream. A walking stick, a jack-knife, and a Avatch, provided the 
walking-stick is just three feet long, are all tlte tools necessary ior the 
purpose. 

" Take a section of the streiim as uniform in breadth and depth as pos- 
sible, and measure off upon its bank some definite length, say from one 
to four hundred feet, according to the rapidity of the Avatcr ; set a stake 
close to the water at each end of this section, then throw into the water, 
opposite the upper stake, a green twig or limb of a tree or other object of 
such specific gravity as to nearly but not quite sink, and of such size that one 
portion shall remain at the surface while another iwrtion nearly touches 
bottom, the object being to get the average speed of the water. The re- 
sistance caused by the bed and banks of the stream necessitate some 
care in this part of the experiment. 




"Note accurately the time the object is passing from stake to stake, 
and repeat the operation several times and at as many points towards the 
opposite shore ; the sum of the several times divided by the number of 
points at which the speed was taken, gives the average speed of the 
water. 

" Now measure the depth at several equidistant points across th6 
stream, as a, b, c, d, e, f, (the diagram showing a cross section of the 
stream). The sum of these depths divided by the number of jioints at 
which the deptli was measured gives the average depth ; this average 
depth multiplied by the breadth of the stream gives the area of the cross 
flection ; this area,*multiplied by the length of ithe section, gives the cubic 
contents of the bod.y of water embraced in the section. Thus we hnve 
the quantity and its velocity, which are elements necessary to show the 
value of a stream for manufacturing purposes, provided it has sufficient 
fall anywhere to render it available. 

" Allowing 02 pounds for each cubic foot of water, a supply of 1,000 



TERFOKMANCK &,C. OF A IIOIlSi:, 



C59 



cubic feet per minute, .ind a fall of 10 feet, ^ve have 1,000 x 02 = 02,000 
pounds ; 02,000 x 10 ^ 020,000 ])0uuds momentum, Avliich last divided by 
33,000=18.7-horse poAver, oue-filtli of •which being deducted for friction 
and loss, would leave in this case about 15-horse power." The Millstone. 

Water-wheels lose from 10 to 50 per cent, of the power, and the actual 
power of the steam engine is less than that indicated by the horse-power, 
owing to a loss by friction, the amount of which depends on the perfec- 
tion of the machinery, arrangement, &c. For horse-power of steam-en- 
gines, consult page 370. 

Performance, &c., of a Horse — Ahorse will travel 400 yds. in 4^; 
minutes at a icalk, 400 yds. in 2 minutes at a trot, and 400 yds. in 1 minute, 
at a f/allop. The usual work of a horse is taken at 22,500 lbs. raised 1 
foot per minute, for 8 hour^er day. A horse will carry 250 lbs. 25 miles 
per day of 8 houi-s. i\n a^rage draught-horse will draw 1,000 lbs. 23 
miles per day on a level road, weight of wagon included. The average 
weight of a horse is 1,000 lbs . ; his strength is equal to that of 5 men. In 
a horse mill moving at 3 feet per second, track 25 feet diameter, he exerts 
with the machine the power of 4^ horses. The greatest amount a horse 
can pull in a horizontal line is 900 lbs. ; but he can only do this momen- 
tarily, in continued exertion, probably half of this is the limit. He attains 
his growth in 5 years, will live 25, average, 16 years. A horse will live 
25 days on water, without solid food, 17 days without eating or drinking, 
but only, 5 days on solid food, Avithout drinking. 

Table exhibitixg the Performance: of a Horse at different^ 

RATES of SPEEB ON RAILROADS, CaNALS, TURNPIKES, &C., DRAWING 

Force 83i lbs. 







Useful effect for 1 day iu tons, drawn 1 mile- 




Duration of 
day's work 






Speed per hour. 


Ou canal— 


On a railroad- 


On a turu- 


Miles. 


— hours. 


' tons. 


tons. 


pikc— tons. 


21/2 


n'A 


520 


115 


11 


3 


8 


213 


92 


12 


31/3 


G 


154 


82 


13 


4 


4K 


102 


72 


9 


5 


2rli 


52 


57 


7.3 


G 


2 


30 


48 


6 


7 


i:i 


19 


41 


5 


8 


12.8 


3G 


4.5 





t 


9. 


32 


4. 


10 


r,.5 


28.8 


3.G 



Gain in Fuel and Initial Pressure of Steam Required when 
Acting Expansively, Compared with Non-Expansion or 
Full Stroke. 



Point 

of 

Cutting 

Off. 



Stroke, 



Gnin 

in 
Fuel. 


Initial Pkessure 
Requireu, 


Point 

of 

Cuttinir 

Off. 


Cutting 
Off. 


Full 
Stroke. 


Per cent. 
11.7 
22.4 
32. 
41. 


Stroke. 
1.01 
1.03 
1.09 
1,18 


Stroke. 
1. 
1. 
1. 
1, 


Stroke. 



Gain 


Initiat. Phessuki: 
Requiked. 


in 
Fuel. 


Cutting 
Off. 


Full 
Stroke, 


Per cent, 
49.6 
58.2 
67,Q 


Stroke. 
1.32 
1.67 
2.G 


Stroka 
1. 
1. 
1. 



GGO 



COMPOUND :makixi: engini-:. 




IMPROVED COMPOUND SURFACE CONDENSING jNIARINE ENgJNE. 

Extraordinary Duty of Steam Machinery. — Two Locomotives 
belonging to the Pennsylvania R. B. Co. , are credited with the following 
performances : — 

Engine No. 55 ran two years, ten months, and twenty-five days, and 
made 161,47(5 miles, without once being off her wheels, or receiving other 
repairs than such as are common to round-house work. The cost of run- 
ning her during this period was $1.88 per mile. The other engine, No. 
422, ran three years, six months and nineteen days, and made 153,280 
miles, at a cost of ^2M per jnile without uudergoiwg the elightest 
repairs. 



COMPOUND MARINE ENGINE. 



GOl 



To FTND T?iE Quantity of Watkii necessary for a Steam r.o:i.- 
ER. — Ascertain the number of lbs. of coal consumed per hour, divide it 
by 7'5, and the quotient ■v\ill be the desired quantity of Avater in cubic ft. 
pe" hour. A cubic ft. of water weighs G2*5 lbs. See page G29. 




The above sketch represents an outline of the Teast-com plicated and 
lowest-priced form of compound-engine, as at present constructed on the 
Clyde, in Scotland, and on the Delaware, in the United States. The 
cranks Y, Z, are coupled at an angle of 90° ; only two cylinders, A and 
B, are nsed ; a uniform distribution of steam pressure is secured by a 
large allowance of steam pipe, and by the steam reservoir, O, P, between 
the two cylinders. The valves, ?/, t/, are adjusted like those of an oidi- 
nary engine, the essential difference being that the steam exhausted by 
the first cylinder. A, is used over again in the second and largest one, 13, 
the combination effecting a steam expansion of about six times, the pres- 
sure in the boiler usually ranging between 60 and 75 lbs. per square inch. 

In the City of Peking, a 5,000 ton vessel, built on the Delaware for the 
Pacific Mail Company, there are two pairs -of compound engines, witU 



CG2 



CONSUMPTION OF COAL, AC. 



cylinders of 51 and 88 ins. diara. The crank shafts are 18 ins. diam. 
lioiler pressure is 60 lbs. Steam is expanded 9 times . The boilers are 
10 (cylindrical in form, with cylindrical flues), lOh ft. long, 13 ft. diam. ; 
sliells, 13- IG in. thick, witli 520 ft. of grate surface, 10,500 sq. ft, of heat- 
ing surface, and 1,600 sq. ft. of superheating surface. Avith smoke stacks, 
8.^^ ft. diam., and 70 ft. high. 

Tlie simplest form of superheater used on board steamers consists of a 
Avrought-iron drum filled with tubes. They are i)laced usually in the 
np-tjxkes, or at the base of the funnel of a marine boiler, so disposed 
that the waste heat and flame from the furnaces will pass through 
the tubes and around the shell of the drum, the steam being inside. 
Connection is made with the boiler and steam pipes of the engine, and 
fitted with stop valves to govern the admission of steam according to 
requirements. A safety valve and gauge glass is also fitted, to show 
whether the superheater is clear of winter, as priming is liable to fill it 
up. It has been shown that this contrivance often effects a saving of 20 
to 25 per cent, in the fuel consumed. 

Table for finding the Consumption of Coal per How- in Stemners, 
either Paddle or Screiv {the same Screio beinc/ used throiupioxit), at any 
Rate of Speed, the Consumption for a particular Bate heincj known. 
{At a given Amount of Coal, the Enc/ineermay determine the mostprxi- 
dent Hate of Engine for reaching next coaling Port.) 



Speed. 


Consumption 
of Coal. 


Speed. 


Consumption, 
of Coal. 


Explanation, 


3 


.21G 


9 


5 83 




3i 


.343 


9^ 


G.8G 


The speed for the consump- 


4 


.512 


10 


8 00 


tion of an unit of coal is sup- 


4^ 


.729 


10\ 


9.2G 


posed here to be 5, which may bo 


5 


1000 


11 


10 65 


5 miles or knots, or 5 times any 


5^ 


1 331 


11^ 


12 15 


number of miles or knots ; then 


() 


1.728 


12 


13,82 


if 5 of such number of miles re- 


Gi 


2.197 


m 


15 61 


quire 1 unit of coal per hour, 9 


7 


2.744 


13 


17.58 


of siich units wall, by the table, 


7^ 


3 375 


13^ 


19.68 


require 5.83 units of coal, and 3 


8 


4.09G 


14 


21.95 


of them .21G units of coal. 


8-^ 


4.910 









It will be evident that this table is calculated on the principle that the 
horse power varies very nearly as the cube of the speed ; the enormous 
increase of consumption at increased velocities is in fact a little greater 
than that shown by the Table. 

The advantages in'dicated above to be obtained at Ioav velocities are 
evidently indiepeudent of those obtained at those velocities by using the 
Hteam expansively. Engineer's and Contractor' s Pocket Book 

To Pkeserve Boiler Tubes.— A coating of red-lead and boiled linseed 
oil, applied to iron boiler tubes acts as a powerful preservati\e. 

A lacquer of linseed oil and caoutchouc applied to the Avails of a steam 
boiler prevents the adhesion of sediment so that the scale admits of easy 
removal. 

To Protect Polished Steel or Iron from Rust.— Go over the sur- 
face Avith parafline, or steep the ir<m for a few minutes in a solution of 
sulphate of copper and then transfer it into a solution of hyposulphite of 
Foda acidulated Avith hydrocliloric acid. Tho result is a blue-black coat- 
ijig- not affected by air or water. 



CONSUMPTION OF FUEL, AC. GG3 

Bkeaivi>-g and crushing stkains of Iron and Stee-l. Aver ace 
caujulations. 

Breaking strain of wrought iron = 23 tons per sq. inch of section. 

Crushing do, do. = 17 " do. do. 

Breaking strain of cast iron = 7^ " do. do. 

■ Crushing do. do. ==50 " do. do. 

Breaking strain of steel bars =50 "' do. do. 

Crushing do. do. = IGG " do. do. 

Memoranda of Temperatures for Engineers, &c.— Melting ice 
is 32° ; hoiling Avater at atmospheric pressure or exposed to air 212° ; 
steam at GO lbs. pressure by steam guage 307° ; usual heat of superheated 
steam 380° to 400° ; siiioke in the funnel G00° ; water in hot well from 
100" to 120°. For raising steam, the horizontal surfaces over the firCr 
have double the value of vertical surfaces for economy of heat. Boiler 
plates increase in strength up to 570° of heat, and get weaker with the 
increase of temperature. 

Temperatures at sundry subtei-ranean depths, in deg. Fahr. 
At 08 ft. 47,9 At 021 ft. 50.7 At 1290 ft. 58 3 At 1G()2 ft. 01.2 
" 299 *' 48.8 " 939 " 57.8 " 1414 " 59.4 " ICOO " G1.4 

Fresh water begins to freeze at 32°, called the freezing point, but salt 
water not till 28^°. The atoms lose the motion, called heat, and become 
fixed in crystiils. 

Consumption of Fuel in IMarine Boilers. — This will average 
about 15^ lbs. of coal per square foot per hour. In 4 furnaces 3 ft. wide 
by G ft. long with 72 sq. ft. of surface, about 12 tons of coal Avill be burnt 
per day. 

feet. lbs. 
72 X 15^ 

Thus, =9.9 cwts. per hour, say 10 cwts. per hour or 12 'tons per 

112 
day. A much simpler and equally correct rule is, that one foot in width 
of fire bar equals 1 ton of coal per day ; so that in the example above the 
total width of four furnaces is 3ft. x "= 12 ft, wide, or 12 tons per day as 
before. 

A ship having 40 ft. beam and ordinary condensing engines, will re- 
quire 40 tons of coal per day to drive her at 10 knots. The reason for 
stating this is, that it is Avell known from ordinary experience of average 
steamers that the beam squared equals the consumption of fuel for 40, 50, 
or 60 daj'S, according to whether the engines are ordmary jet, surfacfe 
condensing, or compound. Thus, in present example : — 

davs 

4/d)lG0^0 5/0)160/0 0/0)160/0 



40 tons for one day 32 tons for 26 tons 8 cwt. 

for ordinary con- surface for compound 

densing. condensing. engines. 

A pair of surface condensing engines (not compound) having 40 inch 
cylinders, doing average Avork, wilJ require 16 tons of coal per day ; it be- 
ing a well known practical fact that the diameter of one cylinder, squared 
and divided by 100, gives the average consumption of fuel iu this class of 
engine per day. Thiis, in ijresent example : — 

42=* = 40 X 40 = 1000 ; then, = 16 tons per day. 

Compound engines burn 5 less, and ordinary jet S more than the above. 
Heed's Encjineer's Hand Book. 



CG4 



RULES FOR ENGINEERS, &C. 



Ratio of Combustion per hour uxder yartous Boilers. — Cor- 
nisli, = 3^ lbs. per square foot; land boilers = 10 to 20 lbs. (English) 13 
to 14 lbs. ; marine boilers (natural draught), 10 to 18 lbs. ; (blast), 30 to 
60 lbs. ; locomotive boilers, 80 to 120 lbs. 

To FIND Horse Power of Engine to raise Water to a givpn 
Height.— Weight of column of water X by its velocity, in feet, per min- 
ute, product -^ 33,000 = H. P. 

To FIND the Velocity required to Discharge a given yolume 
of Water in any Giyen Time. — Number of cubic feet X 144 ; pro- 
duct -T- by area of pipe, or opening in inches = Velocit}-. 

To Ascertain the Breadth of the Ports.— Half the throw of the 
valve should be at least equal to the lap ou the steam side added to the 
breadth of the port. If tliis breadth does not give the required area of 
port, increase the throw of valve until the area is attained. 

Proper Lift of Poppet Valves. — The best results from poppet or 
conical valves are obtained by giving them a lift equivalent to one half 
the semi-diameter of a circle, or | the diameter of the valve. This will 
afford an opening equivalent to the area of the port and the eccentrics and 
the lifting toes should be adjusted so as to produce this effect. 

To find Dimensions of ; Chimney for a Land Engine. — Multiply 
number of lbs. of coal consumed under the boiler per hour by 12 ; divide the 
product by square root of the height of chimney in feet. Quotient is area 
of chimney at smallest point in square inches. 



Table Showing Diameter^ and Height of Chimney for any Boiler. 



Horsc-powc) 


Alt. of Chimnev 


Interior Diameter 


H. P.of 


Alt. of Chiniucy 


Interior Diameter 


of Boiler. 


in Feet. 


at Top 


Boiler. 


in Feet. 


nt Top. 


10 . 


60 


14 inches. 


70 


120 


30 inches. 


12 


75 


14 " 


90 


120 


31 " 


16 


90 


16 " 


120 


135 


3R " 


20 


99 


17 " 


160 


150 


A3 " 


30 


105 


21 " 


200 


105 


47 " 


50 


120 


26 " 


250 


ISO 


52 " 


60 


120 


27 " 


380 


195 


57 " 



To Clean Greasy Cotton Waste. — Boil it in a strong solution of 
common soda in Avater, and save the resultant soapy liquid to keep your 
drills and reamers lubricated when drilling iron,. 

To Clean Grease from Bolts. — Moisten with benzine, roll in saw- 
dust, and brush afterward. 

Calculations regarding Dimensions, Power, &c., of Steam 
Boilers. — Good authorities consider it quite a safe practice to allow 
9 square ft. heating surface for Cylinder boilers per H. P, 
12 (' (< <' (< '( finp '^ " " 

15 " " " " " tubular " 

One half the circumference of the boiler multiplied into the length and 
reduced to square feet will give the heating surface in cylinder boilers ; 
or, the heating surface in the shell of flue and tubular boilers. To find 
the heating surface in the tubes or flues, multiply their external circum- 
ference by their length and reduce to square feet. The heating surface 
of the tubes or flues added together and then adding the heating surface 
in the shell, will give the total heating surface. Tliis divided by 12 or 15 
as the case may be will give the horse power of any jjarticular boiler in 
terms of heating surface as given above. This is to be understood as 
being purely conventional and arbitrary, and not the actual horse power, 
whicii can only bo determined by an experimental test, made by a com- 
petent expert. 



HEATING SURFACE, &C., OF BOILERS. 6G5 

The followin.s: Tables will serve as a guide in the selection of boilers, 
and may be quite serviceable to millwrights and others. 

Table I.— H. P. of Cylinder Boiler at 9 feet. 





H. P. Diam. Length 


Heating Surface 




10 


36 


m. 


19 ft. 


00 


sq. ft. 




12 


38 




22 


108 






15 


40 




26 


135 






18 


44 




28 


162 




. 


20 


46 




30 


180 




Table II.— H. P. 


OF 


2 Flue Boilers at 12 feet. 


H. P. 


Diam. Boiler, 


Diam. Flues. 


Length. 


Heat.. Surf. 


15 


34 in 




10 in. 




18 ft. 


176 sq. ft 


18 


36 




12 




20 


222 


20 


40 




14 




20 


254 


22 


44 




16 




18 


260 


25 


46 




17 




20 


302 


Table III.— H. P. 


OF 


5 Flue Boilers at 12 


FEET. 


.P. 


Diam. Boiler. 




Diam. Flues. 


Length. 


Heat Surf. 


20 


44 in. 




(2-10 
\ 3— 8 
i 1— 13 


in. 


14 ft. 


245 sq. ft. 


25 


46 




^2— 9 
(2— 8 
» 1— 14 
<2— 10 
(l-8 




10 




30 


50 






18 


350 















Table IV. — H. P. of Boilers with O-ixch lap welded Tubes at 

12 FEET. 

H. P. Diam. Length. No of Flues. Heat Surf. 



15 


42 in. 


12 ft. 


6 


179 ft. 


20 


42 


16 


6 


239 


25 


44 


18 


7 


302 


30 


46 


18 


9 


363 


36 


46 


20 


10 


434 


42 


48 


20 


12 


503 


Table V.- 


-H. P. of 


Boilers with 


3-INCH 


tubes at 15 1 


H. P. 


Diam. 


Length. No of Tubes. 


Heat Surf. 


15 


36 in. 


8 ft. 


30 


227 ft. 


19 


36 


10 


30 


283 


22 


36 


12 


30 


339 


27 


40 


12 


36 


402 


31 


44 


12 


42 


465 


.36 


44 


14 


42 


543 


42 


48 


14 


50 


038 



xn regard to the diameter and length of a boiler, it might be observed 
that cylinder boilers are usuallj^ made from 18 to 30 feet in length, and 
from 30 to 48 inches in diameter. Flue boilers from 18 to 24 feet in 
length, and from 36 to 60 inches in diameter. Tubular from 8 to 18 feet 
in length, and from 30 inches to 5 feet in diameter. 



coo 



ON BOILERS, POWER OF EXPLOSIVES. 



Boilers liaviii:: lap-welded tubes increase in extra cost when their 
lengths exceed 18 feet. These tubes would have to be made to order, 
which, in case of repairs, might cause considerable loss of time in having 
to wait for them to be made. It is better to keep the diameters of boilers 
below 4 feet than go over it, using two or more boilers as may be needed 
to furnish the requisite amount of steam. 

In large and important works the subjects of boilers, engines, etc., 
ought to be referred to a competent mechanical engineer, who will ad- 
vise as to the kind, si«e, and number to be employed. The Mill Stone. 

To find the contents of cylinder boilers nuiltiply the area of the head 
in inches by the length in inches and divide the product by '1728 ; the 
quotient will be the number of cubic feet of water the boiler- will con- 
tain. Example : Diameter of head, 36 inches ; area of head, 1017.87 
inches ; length of boiler, 20 feet or 240 inches. Now multiply 1017.87 by 
240 and the product will be 244,283.80 ; divide this by .1728 and the re- 
sult will be 141. 37 cubic feet, which will be the contents of the shell. 

In fine boilers, multiply area of the head in indies by the length of the 
shell in inches ; multiply the combined area of the flues in inches by 
their length in inches, subtract this product from the first and divide the 
remainder by "1728 ; the quotient will be the number of cubic feet of 
water the boiler will contain. 

To FIND THE Length of Belting when closely Rolled. — Tlie sum 
of the diameters of the roll and the eye in inches, multiplied by the num- 
ber of turns made by the belt, and tliis product multiplied by the decimal 
.1301), will be the length of the belt in feet, Andiinchloss. 

To Measure Scantlings, Joists, Plank, Sills, &c. — 7?»?e.— Multi- 
ply the width, the thickness and the length together (the width and thick- 
ness in inches and the length in feet), and divide the product by 12 ; the 
result will be the square feet. To Measure Boards — Multiply the length 
(in feet) by the width (in inches) and divide the product by 12 ; the re- 
sult will be the number of square feet it contains. 
Explosive force of various substances used for fire arms, 
artillery, blasting, &c. 



Blasting Powder 

Artillery " 

Sporting ** 

Powder, Nitrate of Soda for its base 

Powder, Chlorate of Potasli for its base . . 

Gun Cotton 

Picric Acid 

Picrate Potash 

Gun Cotton mixed with Cbl, Potash 

Picric Acid •' " " 

Picrate " " «•' 

Nitro-Glycerin 



Heat. 



509 

C08 

G41 

764 

972 

590 

687 

578 

1420 

1424 

1422 

1320 



Volume 


of Gas. 


0.173 liter. 


0.225 




0.216 




0.248 




0.318 




0.801 




0.780 




0.585 




0.484 




0.408 




0.337 




0.710 





Estimated 

Exp'osive 

1 o.ce. 



137 
139 

190 
309 
472 

536 
680 
680 
582 
478 
939 



The above. instructive table is by the celebrated M. Berthelot, who 
farther describes nitro-glycerin as "really the ideal of portable force. 
It burns completely without residue ; in fact, gives an excess of oxygen ; 
it developes twice as much heat as powder, three and a half times more 
gas, and has seven times the explosive force, weight for weight, and, 
taken volume for volume, it possesses twelve times more energy." From 
the extreme danger of the work, none but a competent chemist should 
attempt to manufacture it. . " ■ 



GOLD. MINING, SPEED OF BODIES. 



6^ 



Many other explosives derive their energy from iiitro-glycerin. Dy- 
namite is nitro-glyceriue compoujuded with rotten-stone, or silicious, or 
infusorial earth, tripoli, &c. ; a compound of nitro-glycerin and saw-dust 
has been sold under the name of dualin ; a mixture of i)laster of Paris 
and nitro-glycerin has been sold under the name of " selenitic powder;" 
and fine ix)wder, blended with nitro-glycerin, has been yended under the 
name of " lithofracteur," or "rendrock." The practical mhicr will be 
interested in the above, as well as in the following : — 
Tahlk showing the quantity of gold to the -ton of ore, cor- 
responding TO the weights in grains obtained from 400 

GRAINS OF MINERAL. 



If 400 grnlns o 
Ore give 
Fine Gold, 


One tnn of 

Ore 
.will yield. 


If 400 Grniiis of 

Ore give 

Fine Gold, 


One ton of 
Ore 

will yield. 


Grains. 
.001 


Ozs. Dwts. Grs. 

1 15 
3 6 
4 21 
6 12 
8 4 
9 19 
11 10 
13 1 
14 16 

16 8 

1 12 16 

2 9 

3 5 8 

4 1 16 

4 18 

5 14 8 

6 10 16 

7 7 

8 3 8 


Grains. 
.200 


Ozs. Dwts. Grs. 
16 6 10 


.002 


.300 


24 10 


.003 


.400 


32 13 8 


.004 


•500 


40 16 10 


.005 


.600 


49 


.006 


.700 


57 3 8 


.007 


.800 


65 6 16 


.008 


.900 


73 10 


.009 


1.000 


81 13 8 


.010 


2.000 

3.000 

4.000 


163 16 16 


.020 


245 


.030 


326 13 8 


.040 


5.000 


408 6 16 


.050 


6.000 

7.000 


490 


.0«0 . 


570 13 8 


.070 


8.000 


653 6 16 


.080 


9.000 


735 


.090 


10.000 

20.000 


816 13 8 


.100 


1633 6 16 








1 





Mr. Black, of San Francisco, estimates that in mining opemtions the 
average cost of handling a cubic yard of auriferous gravel with the j)an 
is $20 ; with the rocker, $5 ; with the long torn, $1 ; and with the hy- 
draulic process, 20c. See other items for miners on page 451. An ex- 
cellent compilation on this subject is " Tlie Miner's Hand-Book," by 
Julius Silvermith, for sale by D. Van Nostrand, New York. 

Table showing the Average Velocities of Various Bodies ., 

f er hour. Per sec 

A man walks 3 miles, or 4 feet- 

A liorse trots 7 " or 10 " 

A horse runs 20 " or 29 *• 

Steamboat runs 18 " or 26 " 

Sailing vessel runs 10 " or 14 " 

Slow rivers flow 3 " or 4 " 

Rapid livers flow 7 " or 10 " 

A moderate wind blows 7 *' or 10 " 

A storm moves 36 '* or 52 " 

A hurricane moves 80 *' or 117 " 

Arifleball " 1000 " or 1466 " 

Sound " 743 '« or 1142 «♦ 

Light '• 192000 miles per sec. 

Electricity «' '. 288000 " " *« 

Parker! s Philosophy. 



CG8 



ON SUGAR MILLS, &C. 



Enormous Results of SteamPower.— The aggrcj^atc stcara-power 
in use in the world is at present three aiul one-half millions horse-power 
employed in stationary engines, and ten millions horse-power in locomo- 
tive engines. This force is maintained Avithout the consumption of 
animal food, except by the miners who dig the coals, and the force main- 
tained in their muscles is to the force generated by the product of their 
labor about 1 to 1,080. This steam-power is equal to the working force 
of 25 millions of horses, .and one horse consumes three times as much 
food as one man. The steam-power, therefore, is equivalent to the sav- 
ing of food for 75 millions of human beings. Further, three power-looms 
attended by one man, produce 78 pieces of cotton fabric, against 4 pieces 
l)roduced by one hand-loom, worked by one man in the year 1809. A 
carpenter's planing machine does the work of twenty men. 




SUGAR MILL. 

Sugar Mill. — The sugar canes are crushed in a press consisting of 
three hollow cast iron rollers, represented in the cut by a b c, placed 
horizontally in a cast iron frame. By means of the screws, i, i, the ap- 
proximate distance of the rollers is adjusted. One roller is half as large as 
the others, and is moved by three cogged Avheels fitted on to the axis of the 
rollers. The sugar canes are transferred from the slate gutter, d, d, to the 
rollers, a, c, which press them a little, and from thence they are carried 
to the arched plate, n, to the rollers c, b. The pressed sugar canes fall 
over the gutter/, the expressed juice collecting in r/, (/, and running off 
through h. The middle roller is termed the king roller ; the side cylin- 
ders are individually the side roller and raacasse. 

Sugar Mill. — For Uxpressing 20,000 lbs of Cane Juke per day. 
Non-condensing Engine. Cylinder 15 ins. in diameter by 4 ft. stroke. 
Pressure, 50 lbs. per sq . in., cut off at ^ the stroke of the piston. Revolu- 
tions. 36 per minute. Boiler. One of 62 ins. diam. by 30 ft. in length, 
with 2 18-in. return flues. Grates. 36 Square ft. Rolls. Two sets of three 
each, of 24 ins. diam. by 5 ft, in length ; geared 2^ to 36 of engine, giving 
a speed of periphery of 15^ ft. per minute. Fly- Wheel. 18" ft. diam. ; 
weight 5 tons. 

This arrangement of a second set of tolls is a late improvement ; its 
object, that of expressing the cane a second time. An increase of 30 per 
(■:^nt. is effected by it. 



RULKS FOR 3IACHINISTS, &C. 



669 



FoK A Crop of 3000 Boxes of Sugar of 500 lbs. F^Ac^.—Cijlindcr. 
10 ins. in diam. bv 4 It. stroke. Pressure, 60 lbs. per square in. Revo- 
lutions 48, driving 1 set of rolls, 24 ins bj- 4 ft., at a speed of periphery of 
3() ft. perminute. Boiler. 52 1ns. by 24 ft., with 2 16-in return flues. 
Grate Surface. 25 square ft. Fhj Wheel. 10 ft. diani. ; weight. 4 tons. 
Enqineers' and Contractors' Pocket Book. 

Cotton Press. Non-condensing Engine. For 1000 Bales in 12 7iOM?-.<?. 
Cylinder 14 in. in diani. by 4 ft. stroke. Pressure. 40 lbs. per sq.. at full 
stroke. Revolutions. GOper minute. Boilers. Three, plain cylindical, 
without flues, 30 in. in diam. by 20 ft. in length. Grates. 32 square ft 
Presses. Four, geared G to one, with 2 screws each of 7^ in. diam., by Ig 
in. pitch. Shaft ( Wrought Iron). Journal, 8^ in. F(y-v)heel. IG ft. 
diameter, weight, 4 tons. 

Rules to Ascertain the Pressure ov Sltde Yalyes.— Multiply 
the unbalanced area of the valve in inches by the pressure of steam in 
lbs. per square inch, and the weight of tlie valve in lbs., and multiply the 
sum by 15 

To get an Engine into Line and Square the Shaft.— Set up 
two lines, one parallel to the axis of the cylinder, or through the cylmder, 
if possible, and the other perpendicular to tlie first, in the same plane. 
These are reference lines to measure from, to bruig the shaft and guide 
into line. 

Hint to Machinists. — In turning steel or other hard metal, use a drip 
composed of petroleum 2 parts, and'turpentine 1 part. This Avill ensure 
easy cutting and perfect tools when otherAvise the work would stop owing 
to the breakage of tools from the severe strain. • 

To Melt Brass Turnings and Filings with Little Waste — 
Compress firmly in a crucible until it is full ; then cover, and lute the 
top with pipe or fire-cla}^ Brass scraps may be melted with new brass, 
putting it in with the zinc after the copper is melted. 

To Temper Anvils. — Heat the anvil and immerse it in a tank of 
cold water to a depth of two or three inches, or play a stream of cold 
water from a hose on its face. 

PROPER SIZE, SPEED, &C., OF EMERY WHEELS. 



Diam. of Wheel 
in inches. 



Rev. per 
iiiiuutc. 



Number of 
Emery. 



4. 

G. 

8. 
10. 
12. 
14. 
IC. 
18. 
20. 
22. 
24. 
26. 
.30. 
3!J. 



"j600. 
3000. 
2000. 
1500. 
1200. 
1100 

900. 

750. 

700. 

600. 

.550. 

500. 

450. 

400. 

325. 



8 to 
IG to 
21 to 
36 to 
46 to 
70 to 



10.. 
20 . 
30.. 
40.., 
60.., 
80.., 



90 to 100 . 



Grade 
of Cut. 



Wood Rasp. 
KaspFile. 
Rough File. 
Bastard File. 
Second Cut File. 
Smooth File. 
Superline File- 



120 Dead Smooth File. 



Emery wheels may be trued by means of a diamond tool, a red hot 
iron, or by a file applied to the wet periphery of the wheel. For emery 
cement, see page 424. In using emery paper or cloth for finishing, the 
paper, although the easiest to destroy, imparts the smoothest polish to 
the metal, and the longer it is used the better it polishes. 



G70 WEIGHT, DIMENSIONS, &C., OP TIN PLATES. 



Number, Weight, Size, Length, and 


Breath of Tin Plates. 


Brand Makk. 


No. of 
Slieots 
iiiBox. 


Length and 
Breadth. 


W( 


Mght iier 
Box. 








Inches. Inches. 


Cwt 


. qr. lbs. 




1 C 


225 


14 by 10 


1 







1 X 


225 


14 by 10 


1 


1 




1 XX 


225 


14 by 10 


1 


1 21 


Each 1 X advances 


1 XXX 


225 


14 by 10 


1 


2 14 


\ $1.75 to $2.00 


1 xxxx 


225 


14 by 10 


1 


3 7 




1 xxxxx 


225 


14 by 10 


2 





2 M 6 Jj • 

>*r flN J. s; 


1 xxxxxx 


225 


14 by 10 


2 


21 


D C 


100 


17 by 121 





3 14 


tn ^, 


D X 


100 


17 by 12l 


1 


14 


X 1^^ 


D XX 


100 


17 by 12i 


1 


1 7 


£.5^ 


D XXX 
U xxxx 


100 

foo 


17 by 12; 
17 by 121 


1 

1 


2 
2 21 


C3 2 ^^ 


D xxxxx 


100 


17 by nl, 


1 


3 14 


+3 a;-3 ^ . 


D xxxxxx 


100 


17 by Vll 


2 


7 




S D C 


200 


15 bv 11 


1 


1 27 


.iJ '^■i 


S D X 


200 


15 bv 11 


1 


2 20 


H _. B. r*^ 


S D XX 


200 


15 by 11 


1 


3 13 


.2i^^§ro 


S D XXX • 


200 


15 by 11 


2 


G 


SoS^I 


S D xxxx 


200 


15 by 11 


2 


27 


'O P' >> rtTJ 


S D xxxxx 


200 


15 by 11 


2 


1 20 


In a 
•e in 

jrtio 


S D xxxxxx 


200 


15 by 11 


2 


2 13 








about 1 


5p ft^ 


TTT Taggers, 


225 


14 by 10 


1 







1 C 


225 


12 by 12 


• 






1 X 


225 


12 by 12 








1 XX 


225 


12 by 12 








1 XXX 


225 


12 by 12 






About the same weight 


1 xxxx 


225 


12 by 12 
















. per Box, as the plates 
above of similar brand, 
14 to 10. 


1 c 


112 


14 by 20 






1 X 


112 


14 by 20 






1 XX 


112 


14 by 20 






1 XXX 


112 


14 by 20 








1 xxxx 


112 


14 by 20 


- 






Leaded or)\C 


112 


14 by 20 


1 





1 For Roofing. 


TornoR \ 1 X 


112 


14 by 20 


1 


1 



UIL CANrSTERS, {from 21, to 125 r/a??s.) WITH THE QUANTITY AND 
QUALITY OF TIN REQUIRED FOR CUSTOM WORK. 



Golls. 


Quantity and Quality. 


Galls. 

33 


Quantity and Quality. 


2* 


2 Plates, IX in body. 


13| Plates, IX. in body, 3 


3i 


2 " SDX 




breadths high. 


fiS 


2 " DX 


45 


13i Plates, S D X in body 


8 


4 " IX " 


60 


13S " DX " 


10 


3| " DX 


90 


15| " DX " * 


15 


4 . " DX 


125 


20 " D X " 



The bottom tier of plates to be placed lengthwise. 



DIAGRAM FOR BEVEL COVERS, &C. 



671 



Varxishes for Pipes and Iron- Work.— Coal tar, 30 j?als. ; tallow, 
6 lbs. ; rosin, 1^ lbs. ; lamp-black, 3 lbs. ; fresh slaked lime, finely sifted, 
30 lbs. Stir alfthoroughly together, and apply hot. Another.— Tut oil, 
20 lbs. ; asphaltum, 5 lbs. ; powdered rosin, 5 lbs. Heat all together in 
an iron kettle, very carefully, to prevent ignition. 




To Strike out can tops and Bevel Covers For Vessels. — 
Describe the angle M A C, and from the point F, the altitude height 
you desire the breast, erect a perpendicular line H ; then on the line C, 
mark the point E one-half the diameter of the can, and on the line H 
mark the point G one-lialf of the opening in the top of breast ; draw the 
line B to cross through the points E and G to intersect the line M ; place 
one foot of the compasses at the point I and the other on the point E, and 
delineate the circle E N L ; next, span the compasses from point I to 
])oint G and outline the circle G D K ; then span from A to E, and step 
the compasses six times on the circle E N L, which gives the dimensions 
of the breast. The allowance for the locks is represented by the dotted 
lines. 

Beautiful Bronze, Applicable to all INIetals. — Take 10 parts 
aniline red (fuchsine), and 5 of aniline purple, and dissolve in 100 parts of 
95 per cent, alcohol, taking care to help the solution by placing the vessel 
in a sand or water bath. As soon as tlie solution is effected, 5 j)arts of 
benzoic acid are added, and the whole is boiled from five to ten minutes 
until the greenish color of the mixture is transformed into a fine light- 
colored, brilliant bronze. Apply with a brush . 

Imitation Nickel Platino. — Coarse rasped granulated zinc is boiled 
for some time in a mixture of 3 parts by weight of ral ammoniac, and 



G72 



FRUSTRU-AIS, ELLIPSES, NAILS, &C 



10 of water, the objects immersed and stirred up -with a zinc rod. The 
deposit is silvery bright, and resists mechanical action as Avell as a coat- 
ing of nickel. The process can be recommended for goods which are 
meant for a second coating of some other metal, since any other is easily 
deposited on zinc. 

A 




How TO Strike out the Frustrum of a Cone.— In the figure E 
G H D represent the desired frustrum ; continue the lines D E and G H 
until they meet at the apex C ; then from C as a centre, with the radius 
C H, lay off the arc H B ; also from C, with the radius C G, describe the 
arc G A ; make G A twice the length of E F G, drawing the line C A, 
and G H A B, is the desired outline of the plate j-ou require. 

TO FIND THE AREA OF AN ELLIPSE. 

Rule. — Multiply the longer diameter by the shorter diameter, and by 
•7854, and the product will be the area. 

Example. — Required the area of an ellipse whose longer diameter is G 
inches and shorter diameter 4 inches ? 

6 + 4 + • 7854 = 18-8496, the area. 

To FIND THE SURFACE OF A SPHERE OR GLOP.E. — Multiply the diameter 
by the circumference ; or multiply the square of the diameter by 3-141G ; 
or multiply four times the square of the radius by 3"141G. 

No. OF American Machine made Cut J^ails in a Pound as 

VERIFIED BY ACTUAL COUNT. 



Size. 



Number. 



3 penny 408 G penny 

4 " '. 275 

5 '• 227 




Size. | Number. 

12 penny 52 

20 " . ,32 

30 " L5 



Spikes. 
Boat. 

No. 4 1-4 in 13 to 1 lb 

No. 5 5-16 in 8 " 

No. 6 3-8 in 5 " 



No. 7 5-8 in. 



No. 
No. 
No. 
No. 
No. 
No. 
No. 



Ship. 

4 5-16 in Stollb. 

5 3-8 in 6 '• 

6 3-8 in 5 " 

7 3-8 in 3* 



.3-8 

.3-8 

8 3-8 in 3' " 

9 9-lGin 2 " 

10 9-16 in 1\ " 

Note on Forcings. — Iron, while heating, if exposed to air, will 
oxydize ; when at white beat, if in contact with coal, it will carbonize, or 
become steely. Iron should be heated as rapidly as possible. 

To Restore Burnt Iron. — Give a smart heat, protected from the 
air ; if injured by cold hammering, anneal slowly and moderately ; if 
hard or steely, give one or more smart heats, to extract the carbon. 



COST OF CARS, CAR BUILDING, &C. G73 

Cost of a Penxsylvania Railroad Passenger Car.— The Lou- 
dou Emiineering gives in detail the cost of constructing one first-chiss 
Standard Passenger Car, at the Altoona shops of the Penusj-lvania R.K., 
the total cost being §4,423.75. The principal items are as follows : — 



Labor S12G3 94 

Proportion of Fuel and Stores 28 61 

2480 feet Poplar 86 80 

3434 feet Ash 127 08 

1100 feet Pine 20 90 

2350 feet Yellow Pine 70 50 

500feetOak ..., 10 00 

450 feet Hickory 13 50 

700 feet Micliigan Pine 49 00 

400 feet Cherry 16 00 

439 feet Maple vineer 24 14 

4 pairs Wheels and Axles. . . 332 K 



57 Sash Balances 44 61 

61 Lights Glasses 65 83 

2 Stoves 77 56 

25 Sets Seat Fixtures 60 5o 

3 Bronze Lamps 13 50 

2 Bronze Door Locks 15 20 

Butts and Hinges 15 58 

13 Basket Racks 77 35 

12 Sash Levers 42 00 

61 Bronze Window Lifts.... 24 40 

61 Window Fasteners 16 47 

238 Sheets Tin 41 44 



2 pairs Passenger Car Trucks 533 62 273 lbs. Galvanized Iron 25 31 

13 gallons Yarnish 52 34 96 vards Scarlet Plush 228 87 

451bs. Glue 14 33 1 44 yards Green Plush 109 99 

29251bs.Iron 87 751 61 yards Sheeting 10 30 



792 lbs. Castings 16 99 

Screws 51 88 

Gas Regulator and Gauge 25 25 

2 Two-Light Chandeliers.. 50 72 

2 Gas Tanks 84 00 

1 Air-Brake, complete.... 131 79 



243 lbs. Hair 72 95 

12 Springs 22 96 

12 Spiral Elliptic Springs. . . 20 29 

1 Head Lining 80 63 

2 packets Gold Leaf 14 58 

Various small items 261 44 



$4,423 75 
Co:mparative Cost of Freight by "Water a>t) Rall. — The Mis- 
sissipi Transportation Co. have proved by actual test that a single Tow- 
boat can transport at one trip from the Ohio to New Orleans, 29,000 
tons of coal loaded in barges. Tliey estimate that in this way the boat 
and its tow, -worked by a few men, carries as mnch freight to its destina- 
tion as 3,000 cars and 100 locomotives, manned by 600 men, could trans- 
port, and they propose to undertake the shipment of wheat, pork, and 
other produce on the same plan . 

A standard locomotive of the New York Central Railroad, 32^ tons 
weight, wuth cylinders 16 inches diameter, 24-inch stroke, 60-inch drivers 
with four drivers and four truck wheels, Avill haul over the Central Rail- 
road, with its level grades and straight line, 1,000 tons, or say 50 loaded 
cars. The same locomotive would work as follows : 

20-foot grade 460 tons or say 23 loaded cars. 

40-foot grade 290 tons or say 14^ loaded cars. 

60-foot grade 205 tons pr say 10 loaded cars. 

80-foot grade 150 tons or say 8 loaded cars. 

100-foot grade 120 tons or say 6 loaded cars. 

Passenger Cars — 4 feet 8^ inches Gauge. — For 60 persons ; Body 
48 ft. ; length over platform, 54"^ ft. ; width, D ft. 6 ins. ; height at sides, 7 
ft. 10 ins. ; at dome, 10 ft. 3 ins. ; saloon, ft. x 2 ft. 9 ins. ; passage be- 
tween seats, 1 ft. 10 ins. ; seats 1 ft. 4 ins. w^ide, 3 ft. 2 ins. long inside. 1 
ft. 4 ins. from floor ; sash lights, 2 ft. x 2 ft. 7 ins. ; doors, 2 ft . 3 in. x 6 ft. 
4 ins.; framing— 2 side sills, 5^x 9 ; 4 inside do., 4X9 ; end do., 6x9 ; 
transom beams, 9x14 ; pillars," 2X3 ; end do., 5 ins. rad. ; flooring 1-^ 
ins., double, laid diagonal, crossed at angle of 45° ; 2 truss rods, 1\ ins., 
iron ; dome braced by iron knees, 2xf ins. ; platforms, 2 ft. 6 ins. wide ; 
bumper beam, 7x8 at centre, 4x3^ at ends ; weight, empty, 39,000 lbs. ; 
dead weight per passenger, 650Ibs."; weight, loaded, 46,980 lbs. ; load on 
each wheel, light, 3,250 lbs. ; if loaded, 3,915 lbs. 

Sleeping Coach.— For 64 passengers : Body 61 ft. long, 8 ft. 10 ins, 
wide inside, 7 ft. 10 ins. high at sides, 9 ft. 7 ins. at dome ; carried on 



674 DIMENSIONS OF CARS, &C. 

twelve 33-in. wheels, 16 elliptic springs, 36-iu, centres, 5 leaves, 5-lG ins., 
1 do., §X3^, steel — weight, 93f lbs. each — and 8 rubber si)riugs over 
axles, 8x7 ; 'dead weight, without passengers, 26 tons, or 812.5 lbs. per 
passenger ; if loaded, 945.5 lbs. per passenger ; load on each wheel — 
5.042 lbs. Western Palace Cars, on 16 wheels, loaded, weigh, 78,500 lbs., 
or 4,907 lbs. load on each wheel. 
Box Caes. — 27 It. 5 ins. long, 8 ft. 6 ins. wide, 7 ft. 3 ins. high at sides, 

8 ft. at roof ; doors, 5 ft. x5 ft. 10 ins. ; track to top of car, 10 ft. 10 ins. ; 
timbers— 2 side sills, 4^X8 ; 4 inside do., 3^x8 ; end do., 5x8^ ; tran.soms, 
5x12 ; pillars for doors, 3ix4 ; end do-, 3^x4^; phites, 5x3i ; ridge 
beam, 2iX3|; rafters — 1^x3^ at sides, 1^x12 at centre: intermediates If x 
2.^ ; weight, 17,800 lbs. ; do., loaded, 37,800 lbs.'; dead Aveight for 
each ton carried, if loaded, 1,780 lbs. ; load on each wheel, if light, 2,225 
lbs. ; if loaded to capacity, 4,725 lbs. 

Baggage Cars. — 45 ft. long, 9 ft. 4 ins. wide, 7 ft. 4 ins. at sides, 9 ft. 
at crown of roof ; end doors, 2 ft. 2 lns.x6 ft. 4 in. ; end side doors, 3 ft. 
x6 ft. 2 ins. ; centre doors, 3 ft. 10 ins. x 6 ft. 2 ins. ; timbers — G longitu- 
dinal sills, 5^x91 ; 4 truss rods, 1^ ins., iron ; weight of c^r, 27,000 lbs. ; 
capacity, 12 tons ; total weight, if loaded, 51,000 lbs. ; carried on 8 wheels 
=6,375 lbs. on each wheel. 

CoAii Cars — 8 Wheels.— 10-ton, 8-wheel cars : Body, 20 ft. long, 21 
ft. 10 in. over all ; 7 ft. wide, 7 ft. 8 m. over allx4 ft. high ; from top of 
rail to body, 2 ft. 6^ ins. ; rail to centre of buffer, 2 ft. 7h ins. ; buffers, 10 x 
12 ins. ; 2 ft. 1 in. centre to centre ; total weight, einpty, 13,440 lbs. ; 
loaded, 35,840 lbs. ; per wheel=4,480 lbs. 

CoAii Cars — 4 Wheels. — 6 tons, 4 wheels : Body, 11 ft. long ; over 
all, 13 ft. x6 ft. 7 ins. wide ; 7 ft. 5 ins. over allx4 ft. 3 ins. high ; frame 
of oak, 4^X8^ ; end sills, 8^x9^ ; body carried on 4 oak springs, each 3 
X6f ; at ends, 2|x6|x9 ft. long, bolted together • wheels, 5 ft. centre to 
Centre ; journarboxes bolted to the springs ; weight, empty, 6,720 lbs., 
loaded, 20,160 lbs. ; on each wheel=5,040 lbs. 

English Railway Carriages — 4 feet 8i inches Gai^ge. — Extreme 
length over buffers, 22 ft. ; frame, 17 ft. 11 ins. longx6 ft. 8 ins. wide ; 
bodj"-, 18 ft. longx7 ft 4 ins.x6 ft. 2 ins. high ; compartments, each 6 ft. 
long ; sides and ends of under framing, 11x4 ; transoms, 9x3x11x3 ; 
framing of body, 3x2^x2^x2^ ; flooring, 2 thicknesses of f boarding, 
laid diagonally ; roof, | thick on ribs, 2^xl|, 2 feet apart ; doors, 1 ft. 11 
ins.x5 ft. 5 ins. high ; seats, 1 ft. 6 ins.li'om floor ; wheels, 36 ins. diam., 

9 ft. centre ; journals, 6 ft. 4 ins. apart. 

Freight Wagons.— Bodies, 7 ft. 6 ins. widexl6 ft. long, 20 ft. over buf- 
fers ; open wagons, sides, 2 ft. to 4 ft. 6 ins. high ; covered goods wag- 
ons, sides, 6 ft. 9 ins. high- 

mechanical moyeiments. 

In the construction of models, or machinery, the skilful mechanic and 
inventor will study to avoid clumsiness in the arrangement of parts, and 
will naturally take pride in selectmg, as far as possible, the simplest and 
best forms of mechanical movements. As suggestive for this purpose we 
have brought together and condensed an extensive series of mechanical 
movements. Here the mechanic may find at a glance the movement 
suited for his purpose, and may see the separate parts best adapted to 
any special combination of mechanism. 

The following is a brief description of the various movements as 
numbered : 

1. Shaft coupling. 2. Claw coupling. 3. 4. Lever couplings. On the 
driving shaft, a disk with spurs is mounted, and to the shaft to be driven 
a lever is hinged. By causing this lever to catch in the spurs of the disk 



MECHANICAL 3I0VEMENTS. 



675 



the coupling is effected. 5. Knee or rose coupling, of which 26 is a side 
view. 

G, Universal joint. 7. 8. Disk and spur coupling. 9. Prong and spur 
lever coupling. 




10. Fast and loose pulley. 11. Sliding gear, the journal boxes of one 
of the wheels being movable. 12. Friction clutch. By tightening or re- 
leasing a steel bandj encircling a pulley on the shaft, the machinery is 
thrown iu or out of gear. 13. 14. Shoe and lever brakes. 15. 16. Change 
of motion by sheaves. 17. Spiral flanged shaft. 18. Connected with the 
rod are pawl links, catching into ratchet-teeth iu the wheel to which 
rotary motion is to be imparted. When the rod moves iu one direction, 
one of the pawls acts ; and when the rod moves in the opposite direction, 



676 



MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS. 



the other pawl acts in the same direction as the first. 19, The recipro- 
cating motion of a rod is converted into rotary motion of the fly-wheel by 
a weight suspended from a cord, which passes over a small pulley that 
connects with a treadle, from which the motion is transmitted to the fly- 
wheel. 




20. " Fljing horse," used in fairs for amusement. By pulling the 
cords radiating from the crank, the persons occupying the seats or librses 
on the ends of tne arms are enabled to keep the apparatus in motion. 21. 

22. Bow-string arrangements to connect reciprocating into rotary motion. 

23. Same purpose by differential screw. 24. The same by double rack 
and wheels. 25. Coupling for square shafts. 26. Side view of Fig. 5. 
27. Slidiug-spur pulley coupling. 28. Lever with bearing roller to 
tighten pulley bands. 29. Chain wheel. 



MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS. 



677 



30. Reciprocating rectilinear into reciprocating rotary motion by two 
racks and cog-wheel. 31, Oblique-toothed wheels. 32, Worm and Avorni- 
■svheel. 33, 34. Claw coupling Avith hinged lever, 35, 36. Disk cou])lings, 
Avith lugs and cavities, 37. Disk coupling with screw bolts . 38, 39. 
40, Shaft couplings. 




41. Face view of Fig, 12. 42. Friction cones. 43. Friction pulley fi. 

44. Self-releasing coupling. Disks with oblique teeth. If the resistance 
to the driven shaft increases beyond a certain point, the disks separate. 

45. Hoisting blocks. 40. Elbow crank, for changing motion. 47. Re- 
ciprocating into rotary motion by zigzag groove on cylinder. 48. An- 
other form of Fig. 29. 49. Reciprocating into a rotary motion. 

50- Same purpose. 51. Same purpose, by double rack and two 
ratchet pinions. When the double rack moves in one dire; tioii, one 



G78 



MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS. 



pinion is rigid with the shaft : when the rack moves in the opposite 
direction, tlie otlier pinion is rigid, and a continuous rotary motion is 
imparted to the fly-wheel shaft. 52. Reciprocating into oscillating. 53. 
Rotary into reciprocating. By the action of the wheel-pins the carriage 




is moved in one direction, and by the action of said pins on an elbow- 
lever, it is moved in the opposite direction. 54. Stamp rod and lifting 
cam. 55. For giving reciprocating motion to rack. 56. Same motion 
to a bar with slot, by means of an eccentric pin, projecting from a re- 
volving disk, and catching in the slot. 57. Walking-beam and fly-wheel. 
58. Reciprocating motion to pump or other rod by means of eccentric disk 
and friction rollers. See 81 and 104. 59. Hoisting crane. 



MECilANICAL MOYi:?IEJsTJ5. 



679 



GD. Friction gears. See 43. Gl. Rotary into reciprocating- by rising 
nnd falling pinion acting on endless rack. ' 62. Bv the revolving cam, "a 
rising and faUing or a reciprocating rectilinear motion is imparted to a 
drum. G3. Reciprocating motion to a frame bv means of endless rack 
and pinion. 64. Reciprocating rectilinear motion to a tootlied rack by a 




toothed segment on a lever-arm, -which is subjected to the action of a 
weight, and of an eccentric wrist-pin, projecting from a revolving disk. (JS. 
Reciprocatmg motion to a rod. The wheels are of different diam^eters, nnd 
consequently the rod has to rise and fall as the wheels revolve. ( See 110. ) 
66. Cam and elbow-lever. 67. Rod reciprocates by means of cam. 68. 
Revolving into reciprocating motion, by an endless segmental rack and 



680 MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS. 

piuion, the axle of which revolves and slides iu a slot toward and from 
the rack. This rack is secured to a disk, and a rope round said disk ex- 
tends to the body to Avhicli a reciprocating motion is to be imparted. CD. 
Elliptic gears. 

70. Bevel gear. 71. Worm and worm-wheel. 72. Transmitting 
motion from one axle to another, with three different velocities, by means 
of toothed segments of unequal diameters. 73. Continuous revolving 
into reciprocating, by a cam-disk acting on an oscillating lever. 74. In- 
termittent revolving motion to a shaft with two pinions, and segment gear- 
wheel on end of shaft. 75. Oscillating lever, carrying pawls which 
engage teeth in the edges of a bar to which rectilinear motion is imparted. 
7G. Oscillating lever, connects by a link with a rod to which a recti- 
linear motion is imparted. 77. Oscillating lever and pawls, which gear 
in the ratchet-wheel. 78. Common treadle. 79. Describing on a re- 
volving cylinder a spiral line of a certain given pitch which depends 
uijon the comparative sizes of the pinion and bevel-wheels. 

80. Marking a spiral line, the graver moved by a screw. 81. (See 
Fig. 58. ) 82. Plunger and rods. 83, Crosshead and rods. 84 . Recip- 
rocating rod guided by friction rollers, 85. Revolving into reciprocating 
motion, by means of roller-arms, extending from a revolving shaft, and 
acting on lugs projecting from a reciprocating frame. 86, Crank motion, 
87. Reciprocating motion by toothed wheel and spring bar. 88: The 
shaft carries a taper, which catches against a hook hinged to the drum, 
so as to carry said drum along and raise the weight on the rope. When 
the tappet has reached its highest position, the hook strikes a pin, the 
hook disengages from the tappet, and the weight drops. 89, Reciprocat- 
ing motion to a rod by means of a groove in an oblique ring secured to 
a revolving shaft, 

90. pouble crank, 91, Cam groove in a drum, to produce recipro- 
cating motion, 92, Belts and pulleys. 93, Pullerys, belts, and internal 
gear. 94. As the rod moves up and down, the teeth of the cog-wheel 
come in contact with a pawl, and an intermittent rotary motion is im- 
parted to said wheel, 95, By turning the horizontal axles with different 
velocities, the middle wheel is caused to revolve with the mean velocity, 
95, Oscillatmg lever and cam groove iu a disk. 97, Lazy tongs, 9S, 
Oscillating segment and belt over pulleys, 99, Converting oscillating 
into a reciprocating motion by a cam-slot in the end of the oscillating lever 
which catches over a pin projecting from one of the sides of a parallelo- 
gram which is connected to the rod to which reciprocating motion is im- 
parted, 

100. Oscillating motion of a beam into rotary motion, 101, Motion of 
a treadle into rotary motion, 102, Double-acting beam. 103, Single- 
acting beam. 104, (See Figures 58 and 81.) 105, Device to steady a 
piston by a slotted guide-piece, operated by an eccentric on the driving- 
shaft, 106, Rod operated by two toothed segments, 107, Two cog- 
wheels of equal diameter, provided with a crank of the same length, and 
connected by links with a cross-bar to which the piston-rod is secured, 
108, Device for a rectilinear motion of a piston-rod based on the hypocy- 
cloidal motion of a pinion in a stationary wheel with internal gear. If the 
diameter of the pinion is exactly equal to one half the diameter of the in- 
ternal gear, the hypocycloid becomes a sight line. 109. Same purpose 
as 50. 

110, Action similar to 65, 111. Revolving motion by a circular slid- 
ing pinion gearing in an elliptical cog-wheel , 112. Similar to 96. 113. 
Carpenter's clamp. The jaws turn on their pivot-screws, and clamp the 
board. 114. An irregular vibratory motion is given to the arm carrying 
the wheel A, by the rotation of the pinion B. 115. Intermittent rotary 



MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS. G81 

motion of the pinion-shaft, by the continuous rotary motion of the large 
wlieel. The part of the pinion sliown next tlie wlieel is cut on tlie same 
curve as tlie plain portion of the circumference, and, therefore, serves as 
a lock whilst the wheel makes a part of a revolution, and uutil the pin 
upon the wheel strikes the guide-piece upon the pinion, when the pinion- 
shaft commences another revolution. IIG. Stop-motion used in watches 
to limit the number of revolutions in winding up. The convex curved 
nart, a, b, of the wheel B, serving as the stop. 117. Several wheels, by 
c >iiuecting-rods, driven from one pulley. 118. Intermittent circular mo- 
tion is imparted to the toothed wheel by vibrating the arm B. When the 
arm B is lifted, the pawl is raised from between the teeth of the wheel, 
and travelling backward over the circumference again, drops between 
two teeth on lowering the arm, and draws with it the wheel. 119. Re- 
ciprocating rectilinear motion is given to the bar by the continuous motion 
of the cam. The cam is of equal diameter in every direction measured 
across its centre. 

120. Mechanism for revolving the cylinder in Colt's fire-arras. When 
the hammer is drawn back the dos:, «, attached to the tumbler, acts on 
the ratchet,?), on the back of the cylinder, and is lield up to the ratchet by 
a spring, c 121. Alternate increasing and diminishing motion, by means 
of eccentric toothed wheel and toothed cylinder. 122. Oscillating or 
pendulum engine. The cylinder swings between trunnions like a pendu- 
lum. The piston-rod connects directly Avith crank. 123. Intermittent 
rotary motion. The small wheel is driven, and the friction rollers on its 
studs move the larger wheel by working against the faces of oblique 
grooves or i^rojections across the face thereof. 124. Longitudinal and 
rotary motion of the rod is produced by its arrangeme}it between two 
rotating rollers, the axles of which are oblique to each other. 125. Fric- 
tion indicator of Roberts. Upon the periphery of the belt-pulley a loaded 
carriage is placed, its tongue connected with an indicator. With a given 
load the indicating pointer remains in a given position, no matter* what 
velocity is imparted to the pulley. When the load is changed the indi- 
cator changes, thus proving that the friction of wheels is in proportion to 
load, not velocity. 126. Circular intermittent rectilinear reciprocating 
motion- Used on sewing-machines for driving the shuttle; also on three- 
revolution cylinder printing-presses. 127. Continuous circular into in- 
termittent eiix?ular motion. The cam is the driver. 128. Sewing- 
macliine, four-motion feed. The bar B carries the feeding-points or 
spurs, and is pivoted to slide A. B is lifted by a radial projection on cam 
C, which at the same time also carries A and B forward. A spring 
produces the return stroke, and tlie bar, B, drops by gravity. 129. 
Patent crank motion, to obviate dead centres. Pressure on the treadle 
moves the slotted slide A forward until the wrist passes the centre, when 
the spring B forces the slide against the stops until next forward move- 
ment. 

loO. Four-way cock. 131. One stroke of the piston gives a complete 
revolution to the crank. 132. Rectilinear motion of variable velocity is 
given to the vertical bar by rotation of the shaft of the curved arm. 133. 
Pantagraph for copying, enlarging, and reducing plans, etc. C, fixed 
l^oint. B, ivory tracing point. A, pencil trace, the lines to be copied 
with, and B, the pencil, will reproduce it double size. Shift the slide to 
which C is attached, also the pencil slide, and size of the copy Avill be 
varied. 134. Ball-and-socket joint for tubing. 135. Numerical register- 
ing device. The teeth of the worm shaft-gear with a ]iair of worm- 
wheels of equal diameter, one having one tooth more than the other. 
If the first wheel has 100 teeth and the second 101, the pointers will 
indicate respectively 101 and 10,103 revolutions. 13G. Montgolfier'a 



G82 



MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS. 



hydraulic ram. The right hand valve being kept open by a weight 
or spring, the current flowing through the pipe in the direction of the 
arrow, escapes thereby. When ithe i)ressure of the water current 




overcomes the weight of the right valve, the niomentum of the water 
opens the other valve, and the water passes into the air-chamber. Ou 
equilibrium taking place, the left valve shuts and the right valve opens. 
By this alternate action of the valves, water is raised into the air-cham- 
ber 5it every stroke. 137. Rotary engine. Sliaft B and hub C are ar- 



KNOTS, AND HOW TO TIE THEM. 



G83 



tanged eccentric to the case. Sliding radial pistons, a, a, move in and 
out of hub, C. The pistons shde througli rolling packings in the hub C. 
138. Quadrant engine. Two single-acting pistons, li, B, connect with crank 
D. Steam is admitted to act on the outer sides oi the pistons alternately 
through valve a, and the exhaust is between the pistons. 139. Circular 
into rectilinear motion. The scolloped wheel communicates motion to the 
horizontal oscillating rod, and imparts rectilinear movement to the up- 
right bar, 140. Rotary motion transmitted bj^ rolling contact between 
two obliquely arranged shafts. Scientitlc American Reference Book.. 

Special kote to inventors. — For full and complete information 
relating to the obtaining of Patents, Inventors, and others interested, are 
referred to the ScientMc American Hand-Book, forwarded free by mail on 
application to Munn & Co., 37 Park Row, New York. 

Information can also be obtained by addressing Coyne & Co., office 
Western Manufacturers Chicago, Ills. 

The knots represented on the preceeding page of engravings are as 
follows : 

KNOTS, AND HOW TO TIE THEM. 



1. Simple overhand knot. 

2. Slip-knot seized. 

3. Single bow-knot. 

4. Square or ruf-knot. 

5. Square bow-knot. 

6. Weaver's knot. 

7. German or figure-of-8 knot. 

8. Two half-hitches, or artificer's 
knot. 

9. Double artificer's knot. 

10. Simple galley knot. 

11 . Capstan or prolonged knot. 

12. Bowline-knot. 
Rolling-hitch. 
Clove-hitch. 
Blackwall-hitch. 
Timber hitch . 
Bowline on a bight. 
Running bowline. 

19. Catspaw. 

20. Doubled running-knot. 

21. Double knot. 
Six-fold knot. 
Boat-knot. 
Lark's head. 
Lark's head. 

20. Simple boat-knot. 

27. Looj>-knot. 

28. Double Flemish knot. 

29. Running-knot checked 

80. Crossed running-knot. 

81, Lashing knot. 



13. 
14. 
15. 
10. 
17. 
18 



22 
23. 
24. 
23. 



32. Rosette. 

33. Chain-knot. 

34. Double chain-knot. 

35. Double running-knot, with 
check-knot. 

36. Double twist-knot. 

37. Builders' knot. 
Double Flemish knot 
English knot. 

Shortening-knot. '■ 

Shortening-knot. 

42. Sheep-shank. 

43. Dog-shank. 
Mooring-knot. 
Mooring-knot. 
!Mooring-knot. 
Pigtail worked on the end of a 

rope, 

48. Shroud-knot 

49. A bend or knot used by sailors 
in making fast to a spar or a 
bucket-handle before casting 
overboard ; it will not run. 
Also used by horsemen for a 
loop around the jaw of a colt in 
breaking : the running end, af- 
ter passing over the head of the 
animal and tjirough the loop, 
will not jam thereiUv 

50. A granny's knot. 

51. A weaver's knot 



38. 
39. 
40. 
41. 



44. 
45. 
40. 
47. 



The principle of a knot is, that no two parts which would move iutha 
game direction if the rope were to slip , should lie alongside of aud toucU^ 
tag each other. 



684 CAPACITIES OF VARIOUS IRON WORKS 

Cost of Iron Production. — In Staffordshire, the makiug of bars 
marked "best, best, best," corresponds to a consumption of 5 tons of 
Coal per ton of Iron made from the forge pigs, wliich tliemselves require 
from 2 to 2^ tons of Coal for their production. Calculating Avaste of iron 
in puddling", &c., one ton of the best brands of Staffordshire bars repre- 
sent 8 to y tons of good coal consumed. 

Gartshekrie Iron Works, Scotland.— Furnaces, 16. Proportion 
of charges, about 32 cwts. of calcined ore are used to the ton of iron, (> 
cwts. of pure limestone, or 10 cwts. of limestone containing a high per- 
centage of alumina, which is sometimes preferred, forming a surijlus of 
quicldy melted slag. The charges are made up "svith the coal in quan- 
tities of about 30 cwts. each, and are hoLsted to theto^Dof the furnace by a 
\evy simple contrivance. Temperature of blast 800°. Weekly production 
of each furnace about 160 tons. 

Coltness Iron Works : — Furnaces, 12. The calcined Ironstone 
contains from 60 to 65 per cent, of iron, and the furnaces are charged 
with an addition of 12 cwts. of unburnt limestone, and 48 cwts. of coal for 
every ton of iron made. The make per furnace varies from 12 to 15 tons 
at a cast, the furnace being tapped once in every 12 hours. From 8 to 12 
tu5'eres are in each funiace arranged in groups of 3 in each arch formed 
by the square foundation. The tuyeres are usually 1^ in. diam. at the 
nozzle, temperature of blast is between 600° and 700°. Power is furnish- 
ed by a pair of condensing beam engines, worked with 32 lbs. steam pres- 
sure and a vacuum of 26 ins. The steam cylinders are 48 ins. diam. and 
the blowing cylinder 100 ins., pressure of blast in the blast mam is 3^ ins. 
The blowing cylinder in the lower row of furnaces is 120f ins. 

GovAN Iron Works, Glasgow. — Furnaces, 6 ; height 50 ft. The 
charges are made up in loads of 15 cwts. of ore and limestone for every 
load of 10 cwts, of coal. Consumption of coal for everj^ ton of iron made 
is about 50 cwts. Blowing Cylinders 2 ; pressure of blast 2| lbs. The 
make of each furnace is about 12 to 15 tons per cast, tapped every 12 hours,' 
The blowing engine is supplied witli steam by 7 double-fined Cornish 
boilers fired with coal slack, and placed below the ground level close to 
the engine house. The charge of gray iron for each refinery is 24 cwts., 
and 6 or 7 charges are made per day witli ordinary coke for fuel. 

Barrow-in-Furniss Iron Works : — Furnaces, 11. The charge per 
ton of iron is 34 cwts. of ore, 63 cwts. of limestone, and from 10 to 21 
cwts. of coke. Ore yields 57 per cent, of iron, weekly production 4000 
tons. The dimensions of the larger furnaces which form the second 
group, are, height 56 ft., diam, at the boshes, 7 ft., greatest inner diam. 
16 ft 6 ins., diam. at top, 11 ft. 6 ins., they are tapped everj- 6 hours and 
give about 20 tons at each cast. The blast pressure varies from 3 to 3^ 
lbs. , each furnace has 6 tuyeres, diam. of tuyeres is from 21 to 3^- ins., 
temperature of blast 600° to 650°. Forty-two boilers, all fired with gas, 
supply the steam to the different engines; of these, 22 work up to 25 lbs,, 
and 12 to 35 lbs, pressure. The first set of engines comprise 3 vertical 
beam engines : diam, of one steam cylinder is 52 ins,, of the other two 
48 ins,, each blowing cylinder i)laced at one end of the corresponding 
beam, is 100 ins, in diam. with 9 ft, stroke. 

Iron Founding. — In dimensions, the McKenzie cupola, so extensively 
used in America, is from the drop bottom to the bottom of the charging 
door, 9 ft. high. The longer diameter outside is 5 ft. 4 ing., and the short- 
er diameter 4 ft 4 ins. The blast is admitted through an annular 
tuyere or opening which extends completely round the bottom part. The 
blast is led into a chamber surrounding the boshes of the cupola, and 
ifrom this chamber it escapes through the annular tuyere. The cupola 
{s fitted with a drop bottom. A cupola of that kind is charged with 1400 
lbs. of coal, tlien 4000 lbs. of iron, 400 lbs. of coal, 4000 Ibs/of iron again, 



CAPACITIES OF VARIOUS IRON WORKS. 08.3 

and the alternate charges of 400 lbs. of coal and 4000 lbs. of iron are re- 
peated for the necessary height. The blast is supplied, when the furnace 
is at work, at the extremely high pressure of 2^ lbs. per sq. inch ; but 
Avhen the furnace is first started the slight resistance met with by the 
blast does not permit a pressure of more than ^ lb. to be obtained. Tlie 
blast is applied in about 40 minutes after the fire is lighted, and the iron 
begins to run in about 20 minutes after the blast is turned on. When 
the furnace is fairly at work the melting pioceeds at the rate of almost 4 
tons per hour. Ojie of the McKenzie cupolas at Morris, Tasker & Co.'s 
tube Avorks, at Philadelphia, measures 7 by 4 ft., and is blown with a 
pillar of blast of about 24 ins. of water. The regular day's work is 23 
tons of metal run down in 2^ hours, the iron beginning to melt in 15 
minutes from the time the blast is turned on, and running at the rate of 
10 tons per hour. It is charged about 4^ ft. deep with iron and anthra- 
cite coal, and about 1 ton of the latter is burned for every 9 tons of metal 
melted. In melting small quantities, in say, a No. 3 McKenzie cupola, 
a good proportion is to put in a bed about UOO lbs. coal, and charge from 
4000 to 5000 lbs. of iron, then 150 to 200 lbs. coal, and charge ICCO to 2C0O 
lbs. on the top of it. In Ireland's cupola, the furnace should be filled with 
coke to the top of the boshes, and four separate cwts. of ircn, alternated 
with three cwts. of coke, should then be introduced to fill it up to tlie 
charging door. In these furnaces a ton of freely running iron has been 
run down by 1^ cwt. of coke, but more usually from 2 to 2| cwts. are re- 
quired. The furnace should be kept in careful repair and" each charge 
well levelled off. In the Woodward cupola a steam jet is used instead 
of a fan^and the steam required for the jet to create the draught is only 
equal in quantity to the requirements of an engine for driving a fan of 
sufficient power to work the same size of ordinary cupola ; and the con- 
sumption of coke in melting is 1^ cwt. per ton of iron. 

Blowing or Blast Engines. — Iron works at Mt. Savage, Md. For 
blowing 4 furnaces, 14 feet diam., each making 100 tons of pig iron per 
week. 

Engine (Condensing). Diameter of cylmder, 56 in. ; length of stroke, 
10 ft. 

Revolutions. 15 per minute. Pressure. 60 lbs. per square m., cut off 
at i of the stroke. 

Boilers. Six of 60 in. in diameter, and 24 ft. in length, with one 22-in, 
flue in each, double returned. Grates. 198 square ft. 

Blast Cylinder . 126 in. in diameter by 10 ft. stroke. Revolutions. 15 
l^er minute. 

Pressure of Blast. 4 to 5 lbs. per square in. 

Area of Pipes. 2300 square in., or \ that of the cylinder. 
For Blowing Two Furnaces and Two Fineries, making 240 Tons 
OF Forge Pig per Week, 

Engine {Non-condensing). Diameter of cylinder, 20 in. ; length of 
stroke, 8 ft. Revolutions. 28 per minute. Pressure. 50 to 60 lbs, per 
square in, (full stroke). 

Boilers. Six of 36 in, in diameter, and 28 ft, in length (without flues). 
Grates. 100 square ft. 

Blast Cylinders. Two of 62 in . in diameter, by 8 ft. stroke. Revolutions. 
22 per minute. Pressure of Blast. 2h lbs. ])er square in. 

Area of Pipes. 3 ft. or i that of the cylinders. 

One blast furnace has two 3-in., and one 3^ in. tuyeres, the other has 
three of 3 in 

One finery has six tuyeres of 1| in., and the other, four of IJ in. 

The ore yields from 40 to 45 per cent, of iron. The temperature of the 
blast is 60()o. 



686 



RULES FOR MECHANICS, &C. 



DowLAis Iron Works.— Furnaces 17, Weekly production about 180 
tons per furnace, total annual production of pig iron about 150,000 tons, 
total annual consumption of coal about 1,000,000 tons. The furnaces are 
blown by 6 beam engines. The largest has a 55 in. steam cylinder and 
13 ft. stroke of steam piston, while the blowing cylinder is 12 ft. diam., 
and the blast piston has a stroke of 12 ft., the great beam being divided 
unequally ; weight of working beam 44 tons, of fly wheel 35 tons. Blast 
is discharged into a main 5 ft. diam. and about 140 yards long. No fur- 
nace is more than 18 ft, in diam. at the boshes, and few are as much as 
50 ft. high, square at the base and assuming the circular form about half 
way up. They are tapped 3 times in 24 hours, are fed Avitli raw coal, and 
consume 30 cwts. of coal per ton of iron made. Temperature of blast 612°, 
pressure of blast 3 to 3^ lbs. 

The furnaces, mines, forges, Bessemer steel works, &c., employ in all 
nearly 100 steam engines, 9000 work people (of which about 5500 are 
under ground and 3500 above), and 700 horses. 

Cohesive Strength of Tie-Bars, Suspension Rods, &c. — Breaking 
weight in tons, equal area of section of rod in square inches, multiplied 
by cohesive force per square inch in tons. 



Cohesive 


strength of steel = 50 tons 






tons 




" Wrought iron 23 " 


Cohesive 


Str. 


of ash = 8 




" Cast-iron 7^ " 






Beech 5.5 




*' Wr'ght copper 15 " 






Oak 5.5 




" Cast-brass 8 " 






seasoned G 




" Lead 0.75 " 






pitch nine G 
Chestitut 5 




" Boxwood 10 " 














Fir 5.5 



In use, take J of the above as breaking weight. 

A mixture of 30 per cent, of wrought iron with, cast-iron, carefully 
fused in a crucible, increases strength of cast-iron one third. Chilling 
the under side of cast iron materially increases its strength. Chilled bars 
of cast iron deflect more readily than unchilled. Girders cast with face 
Tip are stronger than when cast on side, as 1 to .96 ; also strongest when 
cast with bottom flange up. Cast-iron and wrought iron beams, having 
eimilar resistances, have weights, as 2.44 to 1. 

To Test the Quality of Iron. — If fracture gives long silky fibres 
of leaden-gray hue, fibres cohering and twisting together before breaking, 
may be considered a tovc/h soft iron. A medium, even grain, mixed with 
fibres, a good sign. A short blackish fibre indicates badly refined iron. 
A very fine grain denotes a hard steely iron, apt to be cold-short, hard to 
work with a file. Coarse grain, with brilliant crystallized fracture, yel- 
low or brown spots, denote a brittle iron, cold-short, working easily 
when heated ; welds easily. Cracks on the edge of bars, sign of hot- 
short iron. Good iron is easily heated, soft under the hammer, throws 
out but few sparks. 

To FIND THE Weight of Timber Beams, Posts, and Joists. — Mul- 
tiply length in feet by the breadth in inches and the depth in inches, and 
the product by one of the following factors : For elm, 2.92 ; yellow pine, 
2.85 ; white pine, 2.47 ; dry oak, 4.04. 

Weight of Timber Work, Timber Flooring. — Multiply breadth 
in feet by length in feet by the thickness in inches and by one of the 
following factors, according to the material : For elm use, 3.50 lbs. ; 
for yellow pine, 3.42 ; for white pine, 2.97 ; for dry oak, 4.85. 

Nickel Plating without a Battery. — To a solution of from 5 to 
10 per cent, chloride of zinc, as pure as possible, add enough sulphate of 



SUNDRY USEFUL ITEMS. G87 

nickel to produce a strong green color, and bring to a boil in a porce- 
lain vessel. The piece to be plated, which must be perfectlj^ bright and 
free from grease, is introduced so that it touclies the vessel as little as 
possible. Boiling is continued from thirty to sixt}- minutes, water being 
addedfrom time to time to replace that evaporated. During ebullition 
nickel is precipitated in the form of a white and brilliant coating. The 
boiling may be continued for hours without increasing the thickness of 
this coating. As soon as the object appears to be plated it is washed in 
water containing a little chalk in suspension, and then carefully dried. 
The chloride of zinc and sulphate of nickel must be free from metals 
precipitable by iron. If, during the ])recipitation, the liquid becomes 
colorless, sulphate of nickel should be added. The spent liquid may be 
used again by exposing it to the air until the iron is precipitated, filtering 
and adding the zinc and nickel salts as above. Cobalt also maj- be de- 
posited the same waj^ 

To Remove Iron Mould from Marble. — Take butter of antimony 
1 oz., oxalic acid 1 oz. ; dissolve them m Ipt. water, add flour, and bring 
the composition to a i)roper consistence. Then lay it evenly on the 
stained part with a brush, and, after it has remained for a few days, 
wash it off, and repeat the process if the stain is not quite removed. 

Greex Traxsparext Varxish FOR Metals. — Grind a small quan- 
tity of Chinese blue with double the quantity of fineh-powdered chro- 
mate of potassa (it requires the most elaborate grindmg) ; add a suffi- 
cient quantity of copal varnish thinned with turpentine. The tone may 
be altered by more or less of one or the other ingredients. Green bronze 
liquid : One quart of strong vinegar, ^ oz. of mineral green, ^ oz. raw 
limber, h oz. sal-ammoniac, i oz. gum ambic, 2 oz. French berries, ^ oz. 
copperas ; dissolve over a gentle fire, allow to cool, and then filter. 

Profits of Maxufacturers. — In the State Census of Massachusetts, 
of 1875, Col. Wright, of Boston, separates the value of the raw material 
from the value added by work done. Thus we have under the head of 
boots and shoes, not the value of the boots and shoes, but the value 
addedto the leather by the work done to convert it into boots and shoes. 
This is stated to amount to $89,375,792, for which the emjiloyes received 
$18,727,124, or 8455.05 each on an average, and the employers appro- 
priated $70,648,668. Cotton and other industries show similar results. 

Proceeds of Oxe Tox' of Cottox Seed. — A correspondent of Lef- 
fel's J^qivs reports cotton seed as worth now, delivered at the mills in New 
Orleans, ^11 per ton, the mills furnishing the bags it is put up iu. from 
that ton of seed will be gotten : 

250 lbs. lint worth Sets, per lb., or §12.50 

About 500 lbs. hull worth 2.50 

About from 40 to 45 galls, oil, sav 40 galls, at 50 cents 20.00 

Say 800 lbs. oil cake, worth ly^ cent per lb 12.00 

Or, §11 worth of seed works to value of §47.00 

Arrangemext, Proportiox, Capacity, &c., of Graix Elevators. 
— On this subject Pallett rules that the pulleys should beat least 24 inches 
diameter, and about one inch thicker than the width of the belt, and 
nearly half an inch higher iu the middle than at the sides, to make 
the strap keep on. These pulleys should have a motion of twenty- 
five revolutions per minute. The buckets should be about fifteen inches 
apart. One hundred and twenty-five buckets will pass per minute, 
carrying 162 quarts and hoisting 300 bushels per hour. If this is not 
fast enough, make the strap wider and the buckets larger, increase 
the velocity of the pulley (not above 35 revolutions), nor place more 
buckets thrill one for every twelve inches, or they Avill not empty. 



C88 



ON FARM BUILDINGS. 




ON FARM BUILDINGS. 



The following plan for a "barn appeared iu the columns of the Country 
Gentleman, and is of a vsize suitable for about 75 acres of laud under cul- 
tivation on the system of mixed husbandry ; but the size may be either 
expanded or diminished to answer all possible requirements in any given 
case. 

The size is 42X60 ft. Fig. 1 shows the common or principal floor, and is 
so constructed that a loaded wagon can be driven in at one end, unloaded, 
and then pass out at the other. The contrivance for this purpose, so as 
not to interfere with the cellar or basement, is shown in the perspective 
view at the head of this article, an embankment being made at each end, 
which would be facilitated if the building were placed between two slight 
knolls or in a moderate hollow, in which case a)nple drains should be 



,flJlil.M.'»WJ.'JAMi^^^^^^^.-M^.WJJJJJJ^JJ^JJA^MAi^^^ 



JSAy. lUt(^ 



m. 



Al 



iHi »tTijSi B 



^l^QR!W^^^. 




Fig, 1. 
provided round the whole. In the plan fig. 1, V V represent ventila- 
tors or hay shutes ; A trap door for throwing down chaff or straw, G 
granary, and S stairs. The bay contains 950 square feet, and will 
iiold about 40 tons of compact hay of about 500 cubic ft. to the ton when 
Ai'ell settled. In addition, there is room on the platforms over the floor 
and horse stables to hold about 20 tons more. By marking off a scale of 
feet on one of the ventilators, the owner may at any time gain an approx- 
imate idea of the quantity of hay on hand. 



ox FARM BUILDINGS. 



689 



Fig. 2 represents the basements. The roots are drawn in on the bam 
floor and dumped down the trap A, shown in fig. 1. In fig. 2, AAAA re- 
present calf pens, or boxes for cows in calf. 



0^3 r> >^ - ■.-^^<^.>. .,-^-^.>^-.^>^AJ^;!ft>^,^— ^-i^ 



poors. 
PAssAcersxeo 



A A 



cow STABLE. 11X50 i 

SHED & MANURE! 

Fig. 2. 

Rules for Fakmers. — The prime auxiliaries to good farming are : 
1. Sufficient capital to buj- the farm and stock it well. 2. The proper 
selection of a farm commensurate witli these requisites. .3. The selection 
of good land and the rejection of barren, no matter how cheap. 4. To lay 
it out in good style, and provide it with good buildings, fences, and gates. 
5. Stock It with the best animals and implements at a reasonable price, 
and provide good shelter for both. 6. Bring tlie soil into good heart by- 
draining, killmg of weeds, manuring, deep ploughing, and a proper rota- 
tion of crops covering every part of it. 7. Diligence and careful oversight 
of all operations, correct accounts in the matter of wages, buying, selling, 
w^eighing, measurmg, cost of crops, animals, net returns of each, ac- 
cumulation and preservation of manure, &c. 8. Early rising, remembering 
that " He that would thrive must rise at five. He that has thriven may- 
lie till seven." 9. Regular and careful feeding of stock with considerate 
and merciful treatment of horses, cattle, &c., at all times. 

Touching the rotation of crops the following courses have proved well 
adapted to most of the Eastern and Middle States : 

I. 1st year, com and roots, well manured. 2nd year, wheat, sown 
with clover seed, 15 lbs. per acre. 3rd year, clover, 1 or more years, 
according to fertility, and amount of manure on hand. 

II. 1st year, corn' and roots with all the manure. 2nd year, barley 
and peas. 3rd year, wheat, sown with clover. 4th year, clover one 
or more years. 

The next illustration represents the frame of an improved stable and 
barn which appeared not long ago in the columns of the Globe and Canada 
Farmer, concerning which the owner furnished the following particulars to 
that journal : ' ' Barii 56 x 80 feet, outside posts 20 feet high, the purline posts 
33 feet ; has five bents, 20 feet spans, framed according to cut. The size of 
timber used is from to 8 inches ; tlie sills are 3 x 12 in. plank bedded on 
the stone wall. The bam proper is 56 x 60, leaving 20 x 56 feet for a straw 
house. The driving floor is 16 feet wide, the bays on each side, loft, all 
floored over witli double inch boards. The double doors Avork on rollers. 
There is a ventilating door in each gable end, working with a small pulley 
from the floor : also one on the roof, all very useful in the time of thresh- 
ing to allow dust to escape. On each side of the driving floor is a ladder 
reaching to the top of the barn. The granary is 20 feet square. The bins 
are six feet deep on each side, leavmg 8 x 20 feet to keep the mill in for 
clearing up. The barn is well lighted . If stone is scarce, the wall need 
be no higher than to clear the ground, as shown in the cut. No. 1 cut 
pine shingles are best for roof. This stable is in three jmrts. 1st. 25 feet 



GOO 



ON FARM BUILDINGS. 



is taken from one end and divided in three parts ; the centre is a feed 
room 20 x 25 feet ; stables 18 feet deep, with five stalls in each part. 2d. 
There is a yard 30 x oG for young stock. There is a trap door at the side 
of the drive floor to drop down straw. If water can be had a Avell is pre- 
ferable in this yard. There is a large door on each side to drive in and 
take out the manure. 3d. The cow stable is directly under the straw 
house, 25x50 feet, divided into three parts: the centre is the feed room, 25 
X 26 feet, with trap door above to let down the chaif . The stables are 15 




feet deep, with six stalls on each side. There will be sufficient light to 
all the stables, feed room and yard ; outer doors for stables and inner 
doors leading into the centre yards. Height of stables, Sh and 9 feet. 
The advantages over old style of building are as follows : — Lighter and 
shorter timber. There are two rows of central posts run to the top of 
building, forming the purliue Avork, and the whole building being framed 
into these ijosts makes a much stronger frame ; is handier for storing ; 
for forks working ; for threshing ; is better ventilated ; all straw inside ; 
all stock inside ; manure all under cover, and when a farmer has one of 
these barns he has all the outbuildings he requires." 

Weight OF Hay. — Hay, well settled in mows or stacks, .fifteen cubic 
yards make a ton. Rule for long or square stacks : Multiply the length 
in yards by the width in yards, and then by half the height in yards, and 
divide by fifteen. Rule for circular stacks : Multiply the square of the 
circumference in yards by four times the height iu yards, and divide by 
100 ; the fpiotient by fifteen. 



AGRICULTURAL FACTS. G91 

SUNDRY ITEMS OF INTEREST TO FARMERS. 

A BUSHEL OF WHEAT, 60 Ibs., shoiild yield, of flour, about 48 lbs., 
shorts, 8 lbs., brau 4 lbs. Wheat flour is of the best quality frouigniiu that 
has been cut before it comes to full maturity, beiug whiter and softer, and 
such flour carries a better figure in the market. Coarse or thick-husked 
grain will yield more bran and less Hour than the kind noted above. 

Proceeds of Grists. — On this subject a correspondent of the Coantnj 
Gentleman remarks : "The product and waste ui grinding depend 
much upon the quality and cleainiess of the wheat. I have had winter 
wheat turn out 40 pounds of flour and 12| pounds of bran, middlings, etc., 
to the bushel. The ' waste ' in grinding clean wheat should be not more 
than a pound to a pound and a quarter. Spring wheat will not make as 
much flour. The following from a ' grist' of the last crop of sprmg wheat 
is a good average of a dozen more that I have noted. 

Weight of wheat, l,48(ilbs. 

" " flour, 952 lbs. 

" " bran, 240 " 

" " screenings, --____ 32 " 

" " middlings (canaille) 88 " 

" " toll, 148 " 

" " waste, 2(j "-l,48Clbs. 

Here is 24| bushels, and the yield of flour is 38.45 pounds i^er bushel, 
and the offal amounts to 14.54 pounds per bushel, while the waste is 
only 1.05 i)ounds per bushel. It is proper here to stiite that I sent a ' grist ' 
out of the same bin, to a new mill a few Aveeks before, and the return was 
onh"36 pounds in flour and the ' waste' or wheat stuck to the mill, besides 
the toll, 5^ pounds to the bushel. I did not repeat my experiment at that 
mill. 

A miller, writing to the ^fiU Stone, claims that he can, on custom work, 
make from 38 to 42 lbs. of flour to the bushel of Avheat, besides his seventh 
for toll, and on merchant work he can make 1 barrel of fancy flour out 
of 4i bushels of wheat. This he cites as good work, and right here it 
may be remarked that many farmers raise an outcry against the miller, 
because he fails to give first class flour and ample returns from badly 
damaged or improperly cleaned grain. In a canticle descanting on tlie 
hard times, composed by a rural i)oet of the writer's acquaintance, the 
versifier sought to immortalize his name by a burlesque on the fair fame 
of everj- tradesman in the town. The stanza reflecting on the honest 
miller was as follows : 

And there's the luiller, he grinds for his toll, 

And he ought to do right for the ssUke of his soul. 
But still, there, lie goes, with the dish in his list, 
He gives you the toll and he keeps the grist. 

Millers, as a general rule, are fair-dealing men. From time immemorial 
they have been called " honest," and it is' no more than fair tliat they 
should be honestly dealt with. If you wish first class returns bring firs't 
class grain to the mill. 

Estimating the produce of an acre in oats at 50 bushels, they will 
contain 450 pomids of flesh-forming food, and 072 pounds of fat-forming 
food ; while three tons of hay off the same acre Avill carrv 480 })ounds of 
flesh-formers and 2790 pounds of fat-formers. Hay is a standard food 
for cattle, 

Measuri^tg Hat in Bulk.— To find the number of cubio feet ia a 
mow, multiply the length, width and depth together. Five hundred 
citbic feet of ordinary clover and timothy hay, packed under ordinary 
circumstances, will make a ton. Generally, so many things have to be 
taken into consideration, iu calculating the weight of hay iu bulk, it 



692 



AGRICULTURAL FACTS. 



makes it difficult to ascertain it precisely. For instance, tine new-mown 
hay, like red-top or herds grass, Avould probably not reqiiiie quite 'M) 
cubic feet lor the ton ; timothy alone, requires about 550 ; clover ("SD ; 
coarse meadow hay 700 or more. Alter being stacked thirty days, tlie 
bulk would be decreased from five to ten per cent. Again, hay will vary 
somewhat in measurement according" to the time it is cut. 

Tlie government standard for a ton is 7^ feet ; this gives 422 cubic feet. 
To find the number of cubic feet in a stack, multiply the area of the base 
by one third the perpendicular height. 

It is estimated that 25 cubic yds. of common meadow hay in the wind- 
tow compose a ton, and 10 cubic yds. of baled, or pressed hay, the same 
weight. 

A truss of neiv hay is 60 lbs. , of old, 56 lbs. , a load of hay, 36 trusses ; 
a bale, 300 lbs. A truss of straw is 40 lbs. 

Table exhibiting capacities or graix bixs, &c., 10 ft. high. 



^ 


Bin 


Bin 


Bin 


Bin 


Bin 


Bin 


Bin Bin 


Bin 1 Bin 


Bin 


Bin Bin 


•S C"*^ 


G ft. 


7 it. 


8 ft. 


1) It. 


10 ft. 


lilt. 


12 ft. 


lait. 


14 it. 


la It. 


10 ft. 


20 ft. 


22 It. 


p-^ 


Long. 
Bu. 


Long. 


Long. 


Long. 
Bu. 


Long. 
Bu. 


Long. 


Long. 


Long. 


Long. 


Long. 


Long. 


Long. 


Long. 




Bu. 


Bu. 


Bu. 


Bu. 


Bu. 


Bu. 


Bu. 


Bu. 


Bu. 


Bu. 


3 


145 


16<J 


192 


217 


241 


265 


289 


313 


338 


362 


386 


482 


530 


4 


193 


225 


257 


289 


321 


354 


386 


418 


450 


482 


514 


643 


708 


5 


241 


282 


321 


36i 


402 


442 


482 


522 


563 


603 


643 


804 


884 


6 


290 


338 


386 


43^ 


482 


530 


579 


627 


675 


723 


771 


964 


1060 


7 


338 


394 


450 


60( 


563 


619 


676 


731 


788 


844 


900 


1125 


1238 


8 


386 


450 


514 


579 


643 


707 


771 


836 


900 


964 


1029 


1286 


1414 


9 


434 


507 


579 


Col 


723 


796 


868 


940 


1013 


1085 


1157 


1446 


1592 


10 


482 


563 


643 


72? 


804 


884 


964 


1045 


1125 


1205 


1286 


1607 


17C8 


11 


531 


619 


707 


79( 


884 


972 


1061 


1149 


1238 


1326 


1414 


1768 


If 44 


12 


579 


675 


771 


86.^ 


964 


1061 


11.57 


1254 


1350 


1446 


15431 1929 


2122 



Measuring Corn in the Crib. — Many rules are given hy which the 
number of bushels of corn in a crib may be ascertained, but all of them 
must be more or less unreliable, from the fact that they assume that two 
bushels of ears are equal to one of shelled corn— some corn will not make 
it, while some will more than do it. We give several such rules, any one 
of which will be, probably, sufficientlj^ accurate. 

1. Measure the length, breadth and height of the crib, inside the rail ; 
multiply them together and divide by two, the result is the number 
of bushels of shelled corn. 

2. Level the corn so it is of equal depth throughout, multiply the length, 
breadth and depth together, and this product by four, and cut off one 
figure to the right of the product. The others will represent the number 
of bushels of shelled corn, 

3. Multiply length by height and then by width, add two ciphers to the 
result and divide by 124. This gives the number of bushels of ea7-s. 
Another rule is to proceed as above to obtain the cubic feet, and then 
assume that 1 1-5 cubic feet make one bushel of ears. 

4. Multiply length by breadth and the product by the height, all in 
inches, divide this bv 2,748, and the quotient will be the number of bushels 
of ears. From two-thirds to one-half of this will be the number of bushels 
of shelled corn, depending upon the kind and quality. The first of 
these rules is the one generally used as an approximate estimate. 

To Measure Grain in the Granary. --Divide the cubic feet by 50 
and multiply by 45, and the result will be struck measure. 

Loss FROM Shrinkage. — It is said that corn loses one-fifth and 
wheat one-fourteenth by drying. From this estiniate it seems tli: t 
it would be more profitable to the farmer to sell unshclled com in the fall 
at 75 cents per bushel, th.^.n to keep :t r.ntil Spring r.nd rell it ixt tl, and 



AGRICULTURAL FACTS. 



G93 



that wheat at Si. 25 in December, is equal to Sl-50 the succeeding June. 
In cases of potatoes, taking those that rot and are otlierwise lost, togetlier 
with the shrinkage, there is little doubt that between October and June 
the loss to the owner that holds them is not less than o'6 per cent. 

The English Quarter, at which wheat is quoted in the Eng i h reports, 
is 560 i)0uuds or one-fourth of the ton gross weight of 2240 pounds. The 
English legal bushel is 70 pounds, and consequently 8 of those bushels is 
a quarter — equal to 9§ of our statute bushel of 60 pounds. 

TABLE EXHIBITING CONTEXTS OF CORN-CRIBS, CONTAINING CORN IN THE 
EAR, COMPUTED ON A BASIS OF 3,840 CUBIC INS. PER BUSH. HEIGHT 
OF CRIB, 10 FT. 



Lgth 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


18 


20 


22 


24 


26 


28 


30 


r^3 


135 


149 


162 


175 


189 


202 


216 


243 


270 


297 


324 


351 


378 


405 


aii'A 


15S 


173 


189 


205 


221 


236 


258 


284 


315 


347 


378 


410 


441 


473 


•p4 


180 


198 


216 


234 


252 


270 


288 


324 


360 


396 


432 


4G8 


504 


540 


;^4V, 


203 


223 


243 


263 


283 


304 


324 


365 


405 


446 


486 


527 


567 


608 


2^ 


225 


218 


270 


292 


315 


337 


360 


405 


450 


495 


540 


585 


630 


675 


«5K2 


218 


272 


297 


322 


347 


371 


396 


446 


49i: 


545 


594 


&44 


693 


743 


6 


270 


297 


324 


351 


378 


405 


432 


486 


540 


594 


648 


702 


756 


810 


G% 


293 


322 


351 


380 


410 


439 


468 


527 


585 


644 


702 


761 


819 


878 


7 


315 


347 


378 


409 


441 


472 


504 


567 


630 


693 


756 


819 


882 


945 


^V2 


338 


371 


405 


439 


473 


506 


540 


608 


675 


743 


810 


878 


945 


1013 


8 


360 


396 


432 


468 


504 


540 


576 


648 


720 


792 


864 


936 


1008 1080 


«J^ 


383 


421 


459 


497 


536 


574 


612 


689 


765 


842 


918 


995 


1071 1148 


y 


405 


446 


486 


526 


567 


607 


648 


729 


810 


891 


972 


1053 


1134 1215 


10 


450 


495 


510 


585 


539 


675 


720 


810 


900 


990 


1080 


1170 


1260 


1350 


11 


495 


515 


594 


643 


693 


742 


792 


891 


990 


1089 


1188 


1287 


1386 


1485 


12 


540 


594 


648 


702 


756 


810 


864 


972 


1080 


1188 


1296 


1404 


1512 


1620 



Example.— Under 28 and opposite 8 is 1,008, repreBenting the number of 
bushels of corn in the ear contained in a crib 28 ft. long, 8 ft, wide, and 10 ft. 
high. This space would contain 1,800 bushels of shelled corn. 

Rule when the Crib is Flared at the Sides,— Multiply half the 
sum of the bottom breadths in feet by the perpendicular height in feet, 
and the same again by the length in feet, multiply the last product by "63 
for heaped bushels of ears, and by '42 for the number of bushels in 
shelled corn. This rule is based on the generally accepted estimate that 
3 heaped half bushels of ears, or 4 even full, form 1 of shelled corn. 

Another Rule with Equal Sided Cribs.— Multiply the length in 
feet by width in feet, and this last by the height in feet, multiply the 
resulting product by '63 and the proceeds will show the heaped bushels of 
ears. To get the number of bushels in shelled corn multiply by '42. 

Memoranda.— A barrel of corn is 5 bushels shelled. By 'this latter 
measure crops are estimated, and com bought and sold throughout 
most of the Southern and Western States, At New Orleans a barrel of 
corn is a flour barrel full of ears. In some parts of the west it is common 
to count 100 ears to the bushel. 

Another Way to Measure Corn is the CRiB.—Multiply the 
length, breadth, and height together in feet, to obtain the cubic feet ; 
multiply this product by 4 and strike off the right figure, and the result 
will be shelled bushels, nearly. 

To Find thr Contents op a Barrel or Cask,— Multiply the 
square of the mean diameter (in inches) by the length of the barrel (also 
in inches), divide this product by 29.5 and point off one figure to the 
right; the result will be the answer in wine gsdlons. 

It may be necessary to add that to find the mean diameter, we add 
together the fjreatest and least diameters uud divide by 2, 



1,500 








2,250 


2,000 








3,000 


3,000 








4,500 


4,000 








6,000 


7,000 








10,500 


10,000 








15,000 


Capacity 


OF Wacon-Beds. 


—Jiule 



! 



694 AGRICULTUKAL FACTS. 

To Find the Number of Bushels of Apples, Potatoes, &c., in 
A Box OH Bin. — Ivlultiply the length, breadth and depth together (all in 
feet), and this product by 8, pomting off one figure in the product 
for decimal. 

Storage of Roots in Cellars, &c. — It will require about 15 cubic 
feet of space to hold 10 bushels of roots. At this rate the following table 
will serve to estimate the dimensions of a root house or cellar required 
for the storage of various quantities of roots. 

1,000 Bushels of roots will require 1,500 cub. ft., or j ^J \q^ 9.4 x"f h'igh 

20'x 12.6 X 9 high, 
or, 20x14.0 X 8 high. 
20x16.8x9 high, 
or, 20x18.9x8 high. 
( 20 X 25.0 X 9 high, 
t or, 20 X 28.0 x 8 high. 
20 X 33.4 X 9 high, 
or, 20x37.6x8 high. 
20 X 58.4 X 9 high, 
or, 20x65.7x8 high. 
» ( 20x83.4 X 9 high, 

( or, 20 X 93.9 X 8 higli. 
1. — If the opjKJsite sides are 
parallel, multiply the length inside in inches by the breadth inside in 
inches, and that again by the depth inside in inches, and divide the 
product by 2,150.42 (the number of cubic inches in a bushel), and the 
quotient will be the capacity in bushels. 

Example. — What is the capacity of a wagon-bed 10 ft. long, 4 ft. wide, 
and 15 inches deep. 

"Work. — 120 inches, length, x 48 inches, width, x 15 inches, depth, 
= 86,400 -f 2,150.42 = 40 bushels. Ans. 

Rule 2. — Should the head and tail boards, or either of them, be set in 
l)evelling, add the top and bottom lengths together and divide by 2 for the 
mean length, and proceed by the foregoing rule. Should the sides 
be sloping add the top and bottom widths, and divide by 2 for the mean 
width, and proceed by the foregoing rule. 

Should the contents be required in cubic feet, divide the product by 
1,728 (the number of cubic inches in a cubic foot), instead of 2,154.42, and 
the quotient will be the contents in cubic feet. 

Gross and Net Weight and Price of Hogs. — A short and simple 
method for finding the net weight or price of hogs, when the gross 
weight or price is given, and vice versa. 

Note. — It is generally assumed that the gross weight of hogs, diTnin- 
ished by one-fifth or 20 per cent, of itself gives the net weight, and the 
net weight increased by one-fourth or 25 per cent, of itself equals 
the gross weight. 

To find the net weight, or gross price : Multiply the given number hj 
•8 (tenths). 

I 365 
Example.^^A. hog weighing 3G5 lbs. gross, will weigh 292 lbs. \ .8 

net, and pork at $3.65 net, is equal to $2.92 gross. ( 

1 292.0 
To find the grogs weight, or net price : Divide the given number by 8 
(tenths). 

Example.— A hog weighing 348 lbs. net, weighs435 lbs. gross; 1 __J_ 

(435 



and pork at $3.48 gross, is equal to. ^.35 net. 



AGRICULTURAL FACTS. Gi)5 

To Find the Number of Shingles Required in a Roof.— Rule. 
— Multiply tlie number of square feet by 8, if the shingles are exi)osed 4^ 
ins., or by 7 1-5 if exposed 5 ins. To find the number of square icct'^ 
multiply the length of the roof by twice the length of the rafters. 

To tiud tlie length of the rafters at one fourth pitch, multiply the width 
of the building by .56 (hundredths) ; at one-third pitch, multii)ly it 
by -G (tenths) ; at two-fiiths pitcli, by 'Gi (hundredths. ) This gives 
the length of the rafters from the apex to the end of the wall, and what- 
ever projects must be taken into consideration. 

J^ote. — By i or ^ pitch is meant that the apex or comb of the roof is to 
be I or J the Avidth of the building hiyher than the walls or base of the 
rafters. 

{ For I pitch, 30 X .6 = 18. 
With 1 foot projection ^ 19 

Example. — How many shingles are 2 times 19 = 38 
required to cover a building 42 feet 42 and 2 = 44 
long and 30 feet wide ; the roof to 
have J pitch, and to project 1 foot on 
each end, and 1 foot on each side for 
the eaves — the shingles to lie42 inches 
to the weather. 



1672 sq. feet. 
8 



Am. 13,376 
Capacities of Cisterns, 

For a circidar cistern, take tlie diam, in feet, square that (see 
table on page 612), and multiply by -785398 ; that gives the area in feet ; 
multiply this by 1.728 and divide bj' 231, and you will have the number 
of gallons capacity of one foot in depth of the cistern ; from this calculate 
the depth. 

If for a Square Cistern, multiply length by breadth, and proceed to 
multiply the result by 1,728 and to'divide by 231, as before. Calculated 
in this way we find that each foot in depth of a 



Circular Cistern. 



Square Cistern. 



5 feet 


in diam. 


holds 4.66 


bblB. 


5 feet 


by 5 


feet holds 5-92 bbls. 


6 •' 


<• 


'^ 6.71 




6 '< 


6 




" 8.54 " 


7 " 


(< 


" 9.13 




7 " 


r. 
( 




«' 11.63 " 


8 " 


(< 


" 11.93 




8 " 


8 




'< 15.19 " 


9 " 


i( 


'< 15.10 




9 " 


9 




«' 19.39 " 


10 " 


ft 


" 18.6.5 




10 " 


10 




" 23.74 " 



In calculating the capacit}- of cisterns, &c., 31^ gals, are estimated to 1 
barrel, and 63 gals, to 1 hogshead. 

To Compute thk Wj:ight of Live Cattle. For cattle of a girth 
of from 5 to 7 feet, allow 23 lbs. to the superficial foot. For a girth of 
from 7 to 9 ft. , allow 31 lbs. to the superficial foot. For small cattle and 
calves of a girth of li;om 3 to 6 ft. allow 16 lbs. to the cubic foot. For pigs, 
sheep, and animals measuring less than 3 ft. girth, allow 11 lbs. to the 
superficial foot. 

KuLE.— Measure the girth in inches back of the shoulder, and the 
length in inches from the square of the buttock to a point even with the 
point of the shoulder blade. Multiply the girth by the length, and di- 
vide the product by 144 for the superficial feet, and then multiply the 
superficial feet by the number of lbs. allowed as above for cattle of va- 
rious girths, and the product will be the number of pounds of beef, veal, 
or pork in the four quarters of the animal. To find the number of stone, 
divide the number of lbs. by 14, 

Example. — Wliat is the estimated weight of beef in a steer, whose girth 
is 6 ft. 4 ins., and length 5 ft. 3 ins, 

WoKK.~76 ins. girth, x 63 ins, length, = 4788 -f 144 = 33J square 
ieet, X 23 = 764| lbs,, or 54| stone. Ans. 



G'JG 



AGRICULTURAL TABLES. 



When the animal is bnt half fattened, a deduction of 14 lbs. in every 
2S0, or 1 stone in every 20 must be made ; and if very fat, 1 stone for 
every 20 must be added. See otlier rules on page 558. 

These rules are a very close approximation to tlie truth, subject to very 
slight variations owing to the condition, breed, &c. , of various animals. 
The following Table is compiled from two English authorities on the 
subject : 



Girth 


ft 


in 


5 





5 





5 


6 


5 


6 


G 





6 





6 


6 


6 


6 


7 





7 





8 





8 






length. 


ft. 


in. 


3 


6 


4 





3 


9 


4 





4 


6 


5 





4 


6 


4 


9 


5 


6 


6 





6 


6 


7 






Kenton's Table, 
stone lb. 



Car}-'* Table, 
stone lb. 



21 
24 
27 
34 
38 
43 
45 
48 
64 
70 
99 
107 



21 
24 
27 
34 
38 
43 
45 
48 
64 



00 
00 
00 
07 
11 
00 
07 
00 
07 



5 70 OJ 

8 99 1 

5 107 



In reference to the very important item of Sheep Husbandry, the fol 
lowing valuable Table presents the results of numerous experiments bj 
De Kaunier : 

TABL^. SHOWING THE EFFECTS PKODUCED BY AN EQUAL QUA>'TITy OF 
THE FOLLOWING SUBSTANCES AS FOOD FOR SHEEP. 



Increased weight of 
living animal in 
Lbs. 

4614 
44 " 
381/2 

155 

146 

136 

134 

133 
90 

129 

120 



libs. Designation. 

1000 potatoes raw with salt. . 

" •' '• without salt 

" niangel-wurtzel, raw 

" wheat 

" oats 

" barley 

" peas 

" rye, with salt 

" " without salt 

" corn meal, wet 

" buckwheat 

The following Table, from Deliss€7''s Horsemcui' s Guide, exhibits the 
percentage of different nutritive elements m the various kinds of food 
supplied to horses in this and other countries : 



Produced 

"Wool 

Lbs. 

GVa 
6I/2 
51/4 

14 

10 

IIV2 

llVa 

14 

12 

13V2 

10 



Produced 
Tallow 
Lbs. 

121/2 
IIV2 
6V2 
591/2 
421/2 
60 
41 
35 
43 

33 



Description of Food. 


Wood 
Fibre. 


Sugar and 
Starch. 


Fi brine and 
Albumen. 


Fattv Mat- 
ter. 


Saline Mat- 
ters. 


WatCT. 


Black Butter Corn. 


none. 


53.5 


15.5 


10.5 


9.2 


11.2 


Oats. 


30.0 


43.0 


11.4 


0.6 


2.5 


12.5 


Indian Corn. 


8.0 


53.0 


14.0 


6.0 


5.0 


14.0 


Linseed. 


1^.0 


35.0 


20.0 


8.0 


6.0 


12.0 


Beans. 


14 5 


40.0 


26.0 


2.5 


3.0 


14.0 


Peas. 


9.0 


48.0 


24.0 


2.0 


3.0 


14.0 


Barley. 


14.0 


52.0 


13.5 


2.5 


3.0 


15.0 


Old Hay. 


30.0 


40.0 


7-0 


2.0 


7.0 


14.0 


Clover, ^ 
Barley Straw. 


25.0 


40.0 


9.0 


3.0 


9.0 


14.0 


46.0 


340 


1.5 


none. 


6.5 


12.0 


Oat Straw. 


50.0 


31.0 


LO 


a trace. 


5.5 


12.5 


Wlieat Straw. 


55.0 


27.0 


0.5 


none. 


5.5 


12.0 


Bran. 


54.0 


2.0 


20.0 


4.0 


7.0 


13.0 


Carrots. 


3.0 


10.0 


1.5 


none. 


1.5 


M.O 



1 pt. of Black Butter-Corn as imported from the Indies, and sold in 
many (^f the feed v'^tores, is ("onsidered equivalent to 12 qts. of oats for 
nourishing qualities when fed to a horse. Hard working horses can be 



AGRICULTURAL TABLES. 



697 



kept in prime order hy feeding them, 1st, At Night after loork, I peck 
oats, and h pt. black butter corn, -with 8 to 10 lbs. .cood hay. 2d, In the 
Morning, | peck oats, 1 pt. Indian meal, with say, 2 lbs. hay. 3d, During 
the day] ^ peck of oats "svith a little hay. 4th, On Saturday Night a 
good warm bran mash. 5th, On Sunday, an extra allowance of hay. 

These rules followed out, will ensure to a horse a weekly allowance >f, 
Fibrine and Albumen, 22 lbs. ; Fat, 5^ lbs. ; starch and sugar, 85 lbs, so 
that the relative proportion of nitrogenous to carbonaceous food is as 1 
to 4 ; while for a fattening animal it is as 1 to 5. Horses should be water- 
ed before feeding. 

Table, showing the results of experiments in the feeding of 
good hay and other substances, as food for stock. 

10 lbs. of hay are equal to 
30 to 35 lbs. mangold wurtzel. 



10 lbs 


of hay are equal to 


8 to 10 lbs 


clover hay. 


45 to 50 


It 


greeu clover. 


40 to 50 


<( 


wheat straw. 


20 to 40 


« 


barley straw. 


20 to 40 


(I 


oat straw. 


10 to 15 


<( 


pea straw. 


20 to 25 


(< 


potatoes. 


25 to 30 


(( 


carrots (red). 


40 to 45 


(( 


" (white). 



45 to 50 




turnips. 


20 to 30 




cabbage. 


3 to 5 




peas and beans. 


5 to 6 




wheat. 


6 to 6 




barley. 


4 to 7 




oats. 


5 to 7 




Indian corn. 


2 to 4 




oil cake. 



Note. — In calculations of this kind, due allowance must be made for 
variations caused by the condition, age, digestion, breed, &c., of the 
animal, and the variety or mixture of the food dispensed. The same re- 
marks are eminently true of the following. 
Table, showing the difference between good hay and the 

substances noted below, as food for stock, being the mean 

cf experiment and theory. 



100 lbs. 


of hay are equal to 


100 lbs of hay are equal to 


275 lbs. 


green Indian corn. 


54 lbs. rye. 


442 •• 


rye straw. 


46 


" wheat. 


360 « 


wheat " 


59 


" oats. 


164 " 


oat " 


45 


*' peas and beans mixed. 


180 " 


barley ** 


64 


" buckwheat. 


153 «' 


pea " 


57 


" Indian corn. 


200 " 


buckwheat straw. 


68 


" acorns. 


201 " 


raw potatoes. 


105 


" wheat bran. 


175 " 


boiled potatoes. 


109 


" rye 


339 " 


mangold wurtzel. 


167 


** wheat, pea, and oat chaff. 


504 " 


turnips. 


179 


'♦ rye and barley, mixed. 


300 " 


carrots. 







The following Table shows the amount of hay or its equivalent per day, 
required by each 100 lbs. of live weight of various animals : 

Working Horses 3.08 lbs. 

" Oxen 2.40 " 

Fatting Oxen 5.00 " 

<• " whenfat 4.00 •' 

Milch Cows from 2.25 to 2.40 " 

Dry " 2.42 " 

Young growing cattle 3.08 " 

Steers 2.84 '• 

Pigs 3.00 " 

Sheep 3.00 ' 

Winter Treatment of Hens. — Hens will produce an abundance of 
eggs during winter if they are provided with a warm comfortable roost 
during the night, and a sheltered sunny exposure during the day. Give 
them plenty of dry ashes, gravel, and sand to roll in ; a box of slacked 
or old lime to nibble at, with an allowance of finely chopped meat every 
other day, and plenty of corn and oats, boiled soft, and spiced with 
cayenne pepper. Add the table crumbs, potato parings, &c., with plenty 
of lukewarm water, and they will render ample returns. No living thing 
kept on a farm pays better than hens if they are only well used. 



098 



AGRICULTURAL TABLES. 



Nutritive value of various crops, as to starch, gum, glutex, 
albumen, casein, oil, saline matter, &c. 



DESIGNATION. 



Wheat 

Barley , 

Oats 

Peas 

Beans 

Indian Corn.. 

Potatoes 

Turnips 

Wheat Straw. 
Meadow Hay. 
Clover Hay . . . 
Cabbage 



Bushels. 


lbs. 


25 


1500 


35 
50 


1800 
2100 


25 


1600 


25 


1600 


30 


1800 


12 tons 


27000 


30 " 


67000 


IVs " 


3000 


IV2 " 


3400 


2 " 


4500 


20 " 


45000 



•a 
o 
o ^ 

Otfl 



3£ 
<»3 



225 

270 

420 

130 

160 

100 

1080 

1340 

1500 

1020 

1120 

430 



30 

50 

75 

48 

50 

30 

240 

450 

150 

220 

400 

COO 

Johnston . 
In the following table, by Sprengel, the grain, leaves, peas, straw, and 
hay, are estimated after they have been dried in the air, the roots after 
they have been taken from the field. The potato loses in drying 69 ]ier 
cent, of water ; the turnip, 91; the carrot, 87; the turnip leaf, 86 ; the 
carrot leaf, parsnip, and parsnip leaf, each 87, and the cabbage 93. 
Table showing the quantity and kinds of inorganic biatter 
removed from the soil in 1000 lbs. each of the following 

CROPS. 



825 
1080 
1050 

900 

&40 
1260 
4800 
6000 

900 
1360 
1800 
2300 



£ 



H 5 
,c'3 



ISO 
230 
300 
380 
420 
220 
540 

1000 

40 

240 

420 

1300 



Oil. 



45 

50 

100 

34 

40 

130 

45 

200 

80 

120 

200 

130 



Wheat — Grain . 

'* Straw. 
Barley — Grain. 

'• Straw, 
Oats— Grain . . . 

" Straw . . . 
Rye— Grain.... 
" Straw . . . 
Field ) Bean. . . 
Beanj Straw... 
Field ) Pea .... 
Pea J Straw , . 

Tur I lioots. . 
( Leaves. 

Carrots 

Parsnips 

Rye Grass 

Red Clover 

White Clover,. 

Lucerne 

Sainfoin 



2.25 

0.20 

2,78 

1.80 

1.50 

8.70 

5.32 

0.32 

4,15 

16.56 

8-10 

2.35 

4.028 

8.19 

2.386 

3.23 

3.533 

2.079 

8.81 

19,95 

31.05 

13.40 

20.57 



2.40 
0.29 
2,90 
0,48 
1.32 
0.02 

0.11 

8,16 
0.50 
7.39 

2.334 
.09 

1.048 
2.22 
.922 
.702 
3.94 
5.29 
5.79 
6.15 
4.37 



0.96 

2.40 

1.06 

5.54 

0.86 

1.52 

1.22 

1.78 

1.65 

6.24 

0.58 

27.30 

.331 

12.97 

.752 

6.20 

.657 

.468 

7.34 

27.80 

33.48 

48.31 

21.95 



0.90 
0.32 
1.80 
0.76 
0.67 
0.22 
0.44 
0.12 
1.58 
2.09 
1,36 
3.42 
.324 
1.70 
.254 
..59 
.384 
.270 
0.90 
3.33 
3.05 
3.48 
2.88 



0.26 
0.90 
0.25 

46 
0.14 
0.06 
0.24 
0.25 
0.34 
0.10 
0,20 
0.60 
• 050 

.04 
.036 
.03 
.039 
.024 
0.31 



4.00 

28.70 

11.82 

38.56 

19.76 

45.88 

1.64 

22.97 

1.26 

2.20 

4.10 

9.96 

.084 

4.94 

.388 

1.28 

.137 

.162 

27.72 



0.14 3.61 
1.9014.73 
0.30 3.30 
0.661 5.00 



0.50 
0.37 

.59 
1.18 
0.35 
0,79 
0,23 
1.70 
0.89 
0,34 
0.53 
3,. 37 
,540 

,42 
.801 
2.52 
.270 
.192 
3.53 
4.47 
3.53 
4.04 
3.41 



0.40 
1.70 
2.10 
1.6C 
0.70 
0.12 
0.46 
0.51 
2.92 
2.26 
1.90 
2.40 
.401 
1.97 
.367 
.98 
.514 
.100 
0.25 
6.57 
5,05 
13.07 
9.1C 



0.10 
0.30 
0.19 
0.70 
0.10 
0.05 
0.09 
0.17 
0.41 
0.80 
0.38 
0.04 
.160 

.50 
.239 

.87 
.070 
.178 
0.06 
3.62 
2.11 
3.18 
1.57 



o ill 



trace 

trace 
0.14 
0.40 
0,02 
0.42 



0,07 
0,10 
0,20 
.032 

.02 
.032 

.17 
.033 
.005 



0.63 
0,30 



0.20 

0.02 
0.34 



0,05 
0.07 



,060 

9 



s=S 



11.77 
35.18 
23.49 
52.42 
25.80 
57.40 
10.40 
27.93 
21.36 
31.21 
24.64 
49,71 
8.284 
30.84 
6.303 
18.C9 
6.619 
4,180 
52.86 
74.78 
91.32 
95.52 
69.57 



Meadow Hav " 50 to 100 

Clover Hay " 90 lbs. 

Rye Grass Hay. " 95 " 

Potatoes •' 8 to 15 

Turnips , •* 5 to 8 

Carrots " 15 to 20 



AGRICULTURAL TABLES, AC 699 

As a means of enabling the farmer to form an approximate estimate of 
the amount removed from the soil hy his crops, we append the following 
valuable tables by Prof. Johnston :— 

Table showing the amount of organic substances removed from 

THE soil in 1000 LBS. EACH OF THE FOLLOWING CROPS WHEN PER- 
FECTLY DRV. 

Carbon. Hydrogen. Oxygen. Nitroscn. A-h. 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. i.bs. 

Hay. about 458 50 .38T 15 00 

Red Clover Hay.. 4li 50 • 378 21 77 

Potatoes 440 58 447 15 40 

Wheat 4C1 58 434 23 23 

Wheat Straw 484 53 389y2 33i/2 70 

0;vts 507 64 367 22 40 

Oat Straw 601 54 390 4 51 

Table showing inorganic matter removed froji the soil in 1000 
lbs. each of the following crops in their ordinary state 
of dryness. 

Wheat about 20 lbs. I Beans about 30 lbs. 

Wheat straw •' 50 " ! Peas " 30 " 

Barley *• 30 " I Pea straw " 50 

Barley straw " 50 " 

Oats.. " 40 " 

Oatstraw " 60 " 

Rve " 20 " 

Rye straw " 40 " 

Indian Corn -. *' 15 " 

Indian Corn Stalk... " 50 " 

Grand Idea, for Farmers ; Best Fodder at Si. 00 per Ton — Mr. 
Francis Morris of Howard Co. , Ind. , thus recounts a very unusual ex- 
perience in preparing and using com fodder. The system, if carried out 
to its ultimate residts, would render almost any farm a fair equivalent to 
a gold mine, so far as profit is concerned. 

" About the 1st of last August, I planted five acres of ordinary wheat 
land in Indian corn, and I allowed it to grow until the 1st of October, 
when it was in tassel. I then had it cut down with a reaper and passed 
through the ordinary process of chopping, using for that purpose an or- 
dinary feed-cutter. The fodder thus produced was mixed with straw in 
proportion of four-fifths corn fodder to one fifth straw. It was then put 
in trenches, trampled down, and covered with earth. The fodder re- 
mained in this state until last Christmas day, when the trenches were 
opened and the fodder taken out and fed to the cattle. The fodder was 
found to be in as perfect a state of preservation as when it was first put in, 
and the cattle seemed to relish it from the first, and now prefer it to any 
other kind of food. The cost of producmg this fodder was only Si a ton, 
which is only one-twentieth as much as the cost of timothy hay, which 
is not equal to it in any respect. If the land is planted early in the spring, 
20 or 30 tons can be raised to the acre, but in France the land is highly 
manured and the com is sowed only two feet apart, which often makes 
the yie'd as high as 80 tons to the acre. The .same land can afterwards 
be planted in barley, and loses none of its strength by the planting of the 
com, as it is a principle in agriculture that the strengtli of the land is only 
lost in the formation of the grain. By the use of this fodder every farm 
of 100 acres, planted with lO acres of this fodder, would be able to' fatten 
100 head of cattle during the winter, which would yield a profit of 50 per 
cent . besides the immense ad%-antage of having such an amount of stable 
manure, which in itself, if utilized, would pay for the fodder thus used." 

The advantages of this method, Mr. Morris states, are best shown by a 



700 



AGRICULTURAL FACTS, &C. 



comparison between the cost of production of this fodder and the cost of 
timothy hay . 

Phosphate, 10 acres, at $16 §160 

Team and plow for 30 days 60 

Man to tend the team 15 

Cutting 15 

Hauling and preserving 250 

Total cost 3500 

" A fair estimate of the crop of these ten acres would be 500 tons. 
Five hundred tons of timothy hay would cost $10,900, and as this 500 tons 
of chojiped fodder will answer the same purpose as the timothy hay, it is 
easily seen that every community can thus raise its own meat at about 
half the cost to import it." 

Of all the vegetable products used as food, it is to be noted that in their 
dry state, carbon forms almost ^ the weight, oxyr/en a little over ^, 
hydrogen a little more than 5 per cent, nitrogen from Ih to 4 per cent, and 
earthy matter from 1 to 20 per cent . 




A SIMPLE STUMP PULLER. 
The above cut represents a simple stump machine illustrated in the 
columns of the American Agriculturist. It is worked by a lever, moved 
preferably by a stout yoke of oxen. The end of the lever is supplied 
with a strong clevis, sufficiently long to pass around so as to be used on 
either side. The fulcrum of the' lever consists of a chain which is to be 
fastened to the largest stump near (a) ; on each side of this is a clevis, 
with a short chain and hook attached. To work the machine, fix a chain 
to the stump to be pulled, hook on to one of the short chains of the 
machine (6), draw up the oxen until that chain is tight ; hook on the 
other chain (c), turn the team, and draw up as far as they can go ; hook 
the chain (&), turn and draw again, and so repeat until the stump is 
drawn out. Then fasten on to another, and repeat the process until all 
the stumps are out within reach of the one the machine is anchored to. 
The machine will then have to be moved to another anchoring place, and 
so on until the field is cleared. The last .stump left must be grubbed 
out. It will be necessary to remember that the power of this lever is 



DYNAMITE VS. STUMPS, AC 701 

very great; and stump pulling requires stout implements and chains. A 
breakage may not only cause delay, but a blow from a snapping chain 
may very easily be fatal ; it is therefore absolutely necessary for safety 
that the chains be made of the best iron, with the best workmanship, and 
strong enough to hold against all the resistance they may meet. The 
lever should be strengthened with iron plates in those parts where the 
holes are bored for the clevis bolts. 

Dynamite vs. Stumps and Rocks. — Late experiments by John O'Don- 
nell, of Jamacia, L. I., before an invited party of farmers, prove con- 
clusively that stumps and rocks can be sent flying by means of dynamite 
at a very low cost. The stronger and fresher the stump is the further it 
flies. Five stumps were attacked. The first was of oak, partly decayed. 
The men employed punched a hole with a crowbar between two project- 
ing roots, but not being experts, did not insert the instrument fully under 
the stump. Consequenth^ only two-thirds of it was blown out. The 
partial decay of the vrood was another hindrance. It did not oiler the 
necessary resistance. A partially rotted chestnut stump was blown to 
fragments. The crowbar was badly inserted under an apple-tree stump, 
and that, like the oak, was shattered to the extent of two-thirds. With 
a sound and sturdy oak stump, however, the dynamite was fully 
triumphant. The stump was blown out utterly. 

A charge was place lander a rock weighing about tAvo tons. It was 
thrown from its bed and shattered to pieces. A rock half its size was 
thrown twenty feet, but not broken. A hole about a foot deep was then 
drilled into a well-embedded rock, and charged with four ounces of 
dynamite. It was much broken, and the pieces not dislodged were easily 
pried out with the crowbar. 

About two inches of a cartridge an inch in diameter had hitherto been 
used upon the stumps, but the closing experiment was made with an 
entire cartridge eighteen inches long upon a fresh oak vstump twenty 
inches in diameter. Many of the fragments were thrown 125 feet. 

The dynamite is put up in packages of oiled muslin, shaped like a 
candle, and impervious to water. One end is opened, and a hole is made 
in the powder with a stick for the insertion of the percussion cap, which 
is an inch long, and loaded for half its length with fulminate of mercury. 
A fuse is inserted in the cap, which is squeezed with nippers that it may 
fit tightly. The little interstices must be filled with soap, to render the 
cap waterproof. After the cap is in position in the powder, the top of 
the cartridge must be tied tight around the fuse, so that no water may 
enter. On the cartridge being placed against the stump, water must be 
poured into the hole and the ground around thoroughly soaked and 
pressed that it may offer a strong resistance. A little semi-circular dam 
should then be heaped around, within which more water should be 
poured, by way of adding to the resistance. The fuse, which should 
project outside of the dam, is then lighted. It reaches the cap in less than 
two minutes, which affords ample time for the operators to reach a safe 
distance. The explosion makes little noise, and after viewing a dance in 
the air of a myriad of fragments, spectators find a large hole, with a few- 
loose roots around and the ground ready for the plough. _ 

Cockroach Destroyer.— To destroy cockroaches, mix finely 
powdered borax and fine sugar, half-and-half, and spread around where 
the roaches are most troublesome. For a few days it may seem that the 
remedy is doing no good, but soon the roaches will begin to die. and in a 
short time you will be rid of them. This is said to be an infallible rem- 
edy. Cayenne pepper will keep the pantry and storeroom free from 
cockroaches and aut.^. 



702 



AGRICULTURAL TABLES. 



QUANTITIES OF SEED REQUIRED TO THE ACRE, &c. 
Table showing the quantity of garden seed for a given space. 

Designation. Space and quantity of seeds. 



Asparagus 

" Roots. 

Eng Dwarf Beans 

French " " 

Beans, Pole,large 

'< " small 

Beets 

Broccoli and Kale 

Cabbage 

Cauliflower 

Carrot 

Celery 

Cucumber 

Cress 

Egg Plant 

Endive 

Leek 

Lettuce 

Melon 

Nasturtium 

Onion 

Okra 

Parsley 

Parsnip 

Peppers 

Peas 

Pumpkin 

Radish 

Salsify 

Spinage 

Squash 

Tomato 

Turnip 

Water Melon — 



1 oz. produces 1000 plants and requires a bed 12 ft. sq. 

1000, plant a bed 4 feet wide, 225 long. 

1 quart plants, from 100 to 225 of row. 

" " •' from 100 to 150 feet of row. 

" " " 100 hills. 

" " "300 hills, or 250 feet of row. 

10 lbs. to the acre ; 1 oz. plants 150 feet of row. 

1 oz. plants 2500 plants, and requires 40 sq. ft. of ground. 

Early sorts same as broccoli, and require 60 sq. ft. ground. 

The same as cabbage. 

1 oz. to 150 of row. 

1 oz. gives 7000 plants, and requires 8 sq. feet of ground. 

1 oz. for 150 hills. 

1 oz. sows a bed 16 feet square. 

1 oz. gives 2000 plants. 

1 oz. gives 3000 plants, and requires 80 feet of ground. 

1 oz. gives 2000 plants and requires 60 feet of ground. 

1 oz. " 7000 *' and requires seed bed of 120 feet. 

1 oz. for 120 hills. 

1 oz. sows 25 feet of row. 

loz. " 200 " ■ " 

1 oz. " 200 " " 

1 oz. " 200 " " 

1 oz. " 250 " " 

1 oz. gives 2500 plants. 

1 quart sows 120 feet of row. 

1 oz. to 50 hills. 

1 oz. to 100 feet. 

1 oz. to 150 feet of row. ■ 

1 oz. to 200 feet of row. 

1 oz. to 75 hills 

1 oz. gives 2503 plants, requiring seed bed of 80 feet. 
1 oz. to 2000 feet. 
1 oz. to 50 hills. 



Table showing the quantity of seed required to the acre. 



Designation. Quantity of seed. 

Wheat 11/4 to 2 bush. 

Barley IJ^ to 21/2 " 

Oats 2 to4 " 

Rye 1 to2 " 

Buckwheat % to 11/3 " 

Millet 1 tol^ " 

Corn Vitol " 

Beans 1 to 2 " 

Peas 2J^to35^ " 

Hemp 1 tolj^ " 

Flax ^ to2 " 

Rice 2 to2J^ *' 



Designation. Quantity of seed. 

Broom Corn 1 to 1J4 bush. 

Potatoes 5 to 10 " 

Timothy 12 to 24 quarts. 

Mustard 8 to 20 " 

Herd Grass 12 to 16 '« 

Flat Turnip 2 to 3 lbs. 

Red Clover 10 to 16 " 

White Clover 3 to 4 " 

Blue Grass 10 to 15 " 

Orchard Grass 20 to 30 " 

Carrots 4 to 5 " 

Parnsnips 6 to 8 " 



Table showing the quantity per acre when planted in rows ob 

DRILLS. 

Broom Corn 1 to 1^^ bush 

Beans 1% to 2 " 

Peas lV2to2 " 



Onions 4 to 5 lbs. 

Carrots 2 to 2% " 

Parnsnips 4 to 5 " 

Beets 4 to 6 " 

To Estimate the Quantity of Peat. — Peat, as ordinarily in the bed, 
will weigh 2,100 to 2,400 lbs. per cubic vard, if drained in the bed, 
1,340 to 1,490; when air-dried, 320 to 380 lbs., when it will shrink to j 
or 1-6 its original bulk. 

Vitality of Seeds. — Beans will retain vitality for 2 years, beet 7, 
cabbage 4, carrot 2, sweet corn 2, cucumber 10, lettuce 3, melon 10, onion 
1, peas 2, parsnip 1, radish 3, squash 10, tomato 7, turnip 4. 



AGRICULTURAL TABLES. 



703 



Table showing germinatio^t of wheat sowed at various depths. 

Appeared above No. of plants 

Seeds sown to the depth of ^^ inch. 

t( <( «. <( 1 " 



ground in 


that 


came up 


11 days 




% 


12 " 




all. 


18 " 




'/s 


<< 




6 


(( 




V2 


« 
23 " 





« <( i< (( 4 " 

t( •< *< . It 5 " 

<( « '< »« 6 " 

In sowing wheat the rule is to give it a thinner covering in a close 
heavy soil, than in one that is light, gravelly, and sandy. 
Table, showing the period of reproduction and gestation of 

DOMESTIC animals. 



designation 



Mare 

Stallion, 

Cow, 

Bull, 

Ewe, 

Ram, 

Sow, 

Boar, 

She Goat, 

He Goat, 

She Ass, 

He Ass 

She Buffalo,.. 
Bitch, 

l>og, 

She Cai, 

He Cat, 

Doc Rabhit, . . . 
Buck Rabbit,. 

Cock, 

Hen, 

Turkey, 

Duck, 

Goose, 

Pigeon, 

Pea Hen 

Guinea Hen,.. 
Swan, 



si 
la ■ 



4 years. 

5 " 
3 " 

3 " 
2 " 
2 " 
1 •* 

1 " 

2 '• . 
2 " 

4 " 

5 " 

2 " 

2 " 

1 " 

1 " 

6 months 
6 " 

6 " 



m 

•Mlu O 


S2 

SI 

>> 


10 to 


12 


12 to 


13 


10 to 


14 


8 to 


10 


6 




7 




6 




G 




G 




5 




10 to 


12 


12 to 


15 


8 




8 to 


9 


8 to 


9 


5 to 


6 


9 to 


10 


5 lo 


6 


5 to 


6 


5 to 


6 


3 to 


5 



« a 



20 to 30 
30 to 45 
40 to 50 
6 to 10 
20 to 40 



5 to C 

30 

12 to 15 



TEEIOD OF GESTATION AMJ 1^ 
CIIBATIOK. 



Shortest pe- 
riod, days. 



Growth and life 
grows for 20 years, 



OF 
and 



8 



4 
4 
2 

1 

7 months, and lives 



322 

240 

146 

109 

150 

365 

281 
55 

48 

20 



19 

24 

28 

27 

16 

25 

20 

40 

ANIMALS, 
lives 90 
" 40 
" 25 
" ]5 



Mean peri- 
od, daj's. 



347 

283 

154 

115 

156 

380 

308 
60 

50 

28 



21 

26 
30 
30 
]8 
28 
33 
42 



Longest 
period, dya. 



419 



321 
161 



143 



163 

391 

335 
63 

56 



35 



24 
30 
32 
33 
20 
30 
25 
45 



or 100 years. 



to 20 



to 
or 



14 
10 



Man 

The Camel " 

The Horse " 

The Ox " 

The Lion " 

The Dog " 

The Cat " 

The Hare " 

The Guinea pig 
To Rid a House of Rats. — Wet a few pounds of unslacked lime with 
strong lye made from potash ; let it be quite soft ; spread it around the 
holes so that the rats cannot avoid treading in it ; let it remain a Aveek or 
so, and if it gets dry scrape it off and moisten again. The mixture burns 
their feet, and they will not be likely to make a second visit. Do not let 
it come in contact with oil cloth or paint. 



20 

12 

9 

8 
6 



704 



LAND MEASUREMENT. 



ON LAND MEASUREMENT. 

To aid farmers in arriving at accurate results in the measurement of 
an acre, we append the following table. A field of any of these dimen- 
sions contains one acre: 

10 yards wide by 483 long. 



5 vards wide by 968 long. 
- - .. 242 

" 60>^ 

" 161 
" 97 

" 303 



20 




80 




30 




50 




16 




3ne 


acre, 


V7. 


acre, 


% 


acre, 


V4 


acre, 


% 


acre, 



40 
70 
55 

47 
59 



THE SIDE OF A SQUARE TO CONTAIN 



208.71 feet ; 
147.58 feet ; 
120.50 feet ; 
104.3^1 feet ; 
73.79 feet : 



12.65 rods; 
8.94 rods ; 
7.30 rods ; 
6.32 rods ; 
4-47 rods ; 





121 " 




69 " 




88 " 




103 ** 




82 " 


64 


paces. 


Ab 


paces. 


37 


paces. 


32 


paces. 


22^ paces. 



Table for farmers, surveyors, &c., gia^ing exact proportions of 
an acre in square feet in a lot less than an acre. 



si 

V2 


2 ^ 
2^ 


C« <I> 


DO 'Vm 

o cS 


Square 
Feet. 


00 «5 


02 


o e3 


436 


.01 


11326 


.26 


22216 


.51 


33106 


.76 


871 


.02 


11761 


.27 


22651 


.52 


33541 


.77 


1307 


.03 


12197 


.28 


23087 


.53 


33977 


.78 


1742 


.04 


12632 


.29 


23522 


,54 
755 


34412 


.79 


2178 


.05 


13068 


.30 


23958 


34848 


.80 


2614 


.06 


13504 


.31 


24394 


.56 


35384 


.81 


3049 


.07 


13939 


.32 


2-1829 


.57 


3-819 


.82 


3485 


.08 


14375 


.33 


25265 


.58 


36255 


.83 


3920 


.09 


11810 


.31 


25700 


.59 


36690 


.84 


4356 


.10 


15246 


.35 


26136 


.60 


37026 


.85 


4792 


.11 


15682 


.36 


26572 


.61 


374C2 


.86 


5227 


.12 


16117 


.37 


27007 


.62 


37897 


.87 


5663 


.13 


16558 


.38 


27443 


.63 


38333 


.88 


6098 


.14 


1G988 


.39 


27878 


.64 


38768 


.89 


C534 


.15 


17424 


.40 


28314 


.€5 


39204 


.90 


U970 


.10 


178G0 


.41 


28750 


.66 


39640 


.91 


7405 


.17 


18295 


.42 


20185 


.07 


40075 


.92 


7841 


.18 


18731 


.43 


29621 


.68 


40511 


.93 


8276 


.19 


19166 


.44 


30056 


.69 


40946 


.94 


8712 


.20 


19602 


.45 


30492 


.70 


41381 


.95 


9l4g 


.21 


20038 


.46 


30928 


.71 


41818 


.95 


9583 


.22 


20473 


.47 


313C3 


.72 


42253 


.97 


10019 


.23 


20909 


.48 


31799 


.73 


42689 


.98 


10154 


.24 


21341 


.49 


32234 


.74 


43124 


.99 


1089(.ii 


.25 


21780 


.50 


32670 


.75 


43500 


1.00 



Sma /Wi Lots. — In laying off small lots the following admeasurements 
will be Sound to be both accurate and useful : — 

62J feet square, or 2,722 J^ square feet,= ,V of an acre. 



73% 
1041/3 
120 J^ 
147,^„ 

2082^ 



5,445 

10,890 
14,520 
21,780 
43,560 



= V<i 

= 1 acre. 



To?JND THE Number of Acres in a Body of Land.— iJi/Z^". — Mul- 
tiply the length by the width (in rods), and divide the product by 160 : 
the result will be the answer in acres and hundredths. 

When the opposite sides of a piece of land are of unequal length, add 
them together and take one-half for the mean length or width. Multiply 
this by the depth, and divide by 31^. This will give the result required. 



LAND MEASUREMENT. 70o 

Surveyor's long measure for measuring distances, boundaries, 
areas, railways, &c. 

7,Vo inches 1 link.*] 4 rods 1 chain. 

25 links 1 rod.. | 80 chains 1 mile. 

EQUIVALENTS. 

Mile. Chains. Rods. Links. Inches. 

1 =1 80 = 320 = 8,000 = 63,360 

1 — 4 = 100 = 792 

! = 25 = 198 

1 = 7.92 

Surveyor's long measure, scale of units, 7-92, 25, 4, 80. , 

TABLE OF MISCELLANEOUS LINEAR MEASURE. 

3 inches 1 palm. 

4inp'hpc 1 li'inrl ? Used in measuring the height of 

inCneS l liana.^ horses at tlieslioulder. 

9 inches 1 span. 

3 feet 1 pace or step. 

3.28 feet 1 metre. 

6 feet I fathom. ) ,, 

^o„ ™. , 1 '1 >■ Used in measunug depths at sea. 

880 fathoms 1 mile. ) 

3 geographical miles 1 league. 

CO '' "^1 ,] < Of latitude: 

69— statute " i ^cij^^cc. ^ of longitude on the equator. 

Surveyor's square measure, for measuring the contents of 

farms, fields, &c. 

625 square links (sq. I.) 1 pole, P. 

IG poles 1 square chain, sq. ch. 

10 square chains 1 acre, A. 

610 acres 1 square mile, sq. ml. 

36 square miles (6 miles square) 1 township, Tp. 

equivalents. 

Tp. Sq. Mi. A. Sq. Ch. P. Sq. Links. 

1 = 36 = 2304 = 230,400 = 3,086.400 = 2,304.000,000. 

1 = 640 = 6,400 3= 102,400 = 64,000,000 

10 = 160 = 10,000 

1 = 16 = 1,000 

1 = 625 

Survej'or's square measure, scale of units, 625, 16, 10, 640, 36. 

An Acre is the unit of land measure, and is 10 square chains (10,000 
links), or a piece of land 3 chains 16^ links (or about 69^ yds. ), on each 
of the four sides, or, if of a different shape, as much land as is embraced 
in that compass. 

A Rood is a quarter of an acre, or 40 perches, and contains 25,000. 
square links ; if square, it should measure 1 chain and 58 links, or about 
i^l 3'ds. on each side. 

A Perch (sometimes called a pole or rod) is the 160tli of an acre, and 
contains SOJ square yds., or 625 square links, and embraces 5^ yds., or 
25 running links of the chain, on each of the four sides. 

Gunter's Chain, the unit of measure used by surveyors, is a metallic 
chain 22 yds. in length, and is divided into 100 links of 7 iVo inches each. 
Measurements are calculated in chains and hundredths. As a substi- 
tute for the chain, some engineers use a steel measuring tape 100 feet 
long, with each foot divided into tenths. It takes 10,000 links to make 
1 square chain, as 100 times 100 is 10,000. An acre embraces 10 square 



700 



LAND MEASUREMENT. 



chains, or 100,000 square links. The outside measurements of land is 
estimated by runniiuj chains and links, the contents by square chains 
and links (being a regular system of <lecimals), the latter being a multi- 
ple of the former. In land measurement, the chain is drawn straight over 
hills and hollows. Correctness in the measurement is ensured by the use 
of a compass (sustained by a tripod) resembling a quadrant. 

Farmers and others not possessed of a Gunter's 9haiu or metallic 
measuring tape, may effect correct measurements by the use of a notclied 
pole I62 feet long, containing 25 divisions, formed by 24 notches, each of 
them a'trifle over 7g inches apart. The 25 spaces will represent 25 Unks, 
and the pole ^ of a chain ; be careful to get the spaces correctly laid off 
and accurately numbered on the pole with pen and ink. 

In the United States Government Land measurement a town- 
ship consists of 36 sections, each 1 mile square, a section contains G40 
acres, a quarter section, ^ mile square — 160 acres, an eighth section, -^ a 
mile long, north and south, and f mile wide — 80 acres, and a sixteentli 
section, \ mile square — 40 acres. In the surveys of the Public Lands of the 
United States they are laid out in ranges of townships which run longi- 
tudinally, and are numbered on the maps in Roman characters, or 
capital letters, according to their proximity to the jiorthern border of 
a State. The ranges of townships run from west to east, the extreme 
northern line of townships in any State would be all number 1, the next 
number 11 and so on down. In a township the sections are all numbered 
1 to 36, beginning at the north-east corner, as shown in the diagram. 

In drawing out deeds the area or contents of the 
land is described in acres, roods, and perches, the 
extent of each boundary is expressed by chains and 
links ; if the land is of extra value, the odd yards 
and links are noted in describing the contents. In 
laying off arms, less than half a perch is not 
reckoned, while a half perch or more is counted a 
full perch. The description of landed property as 
detailed in deeds should be definite and explicit as 
to contents and boundaries. Illustration— The dia- 
gram exhibits a piece of land, embracing, say 20 
acres fronting on the west of Stanley road, 

Land of John Ecid. 



6 


5 


4 


3 


2 


NVV 1 NE 

SW 1 se 



















7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


18 


17 


16* 


15 


14 


13 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 




19 


20 


21 


22 


23 


24 


— 


. — - 





— 


— 




30 


29 


28 


27 


26 


25 


31 


32 


33 


31 


35 


36 



eS 
O 
U 

a> 

c3 



ss 




y^ 















-1^ S 00 


Length, 




Is-g 


25 chains. 


■ 3 


S«;=3 




CO 


fQ 










Land 

of 
Daniel 
Wilson. 



Land of A. Rodgers. 

the laud of John Reid is on the south side ; that of Alex. Rodgers on the 
north side ; that of Daniel Wilson on the west side ; and the Stanley road 
on the east side. In the Deed the lot should be described as follows : 
" Beginning at a post, stake, or tree, on the west side of the Stanley 
road at the north-east corner of land owned by John Reid, running 
westerly, parallel with the land of said Reid, twenty-five chains, to land 
belonging to Daniel Wilson, thence northerly, parallel with the land 
of said Wilson, sixteen chains and sixty links, to land of Alex. Rodgers, 
then easterly, parallel with the land of said Rodgers, twentj'-five chains 
to the Stanley road, then southerly, along said road, sixteen chains and 
sixty links to the place of beginning,— ^containing twenty acres of land, 
be the same more or less." 



LEGAL WEIGHT OF A BL'SIIEL, 



707 



An English acre is a square of about 70 yds. each way ; a Scotch of 
77h yds. ; and au Irish of 88^ yds. Every mile of mere hedge and ditch 
is about an acre. Roads and fences, 1 rod wide, occujjy 1 acre for every 
mile of length. 

Note. — An English acre comprises 4,840 square yds. ; the Scotch, 
6,150 ; the Irish, 7,840 ; the French (hectare), 11,950 ; the Dutch, 9,722 ; 
the Prussian (morgen), 3,053 ; the Dantzic, G,G50 ; that of Amsterdam, 
9,722 ; that of the United States is English measure. 

FOR TABLE OF SURFACE MEASUREMENTS, SEE PAGE 128. 
EQUIVALENTS. 

Sq. Mi. A. Sq. Kod. Sq. Yd. Sq. Ft. Sq. Ins. 

1 = 640 r= 102,400 = 3,097,000 = 27,878,400 — 4,014,489,600 

1 = 160 = 4,840 =; 43,560 = 0,272,640 

1 =: 301/4— 2721/4= 39,204 

1 = y = 1,296 

1 = 144 

Table of avoirdupois pounds in a bushel, as prescribed by 
statute in the several states named. 
The letter m signifies sold by vieasure. 



COMMODITIES. 



Barley 

Beans 

Blue Grass Seed... 

Buckwheat 

Castor Beans 

Clover Seed 

Dried Apples 

Dried Peaches 

Flax Seed 

Hemp Seed 

Indian Corn 

Indian Corn iu ear. 
Indian Com meal. . . 

Oats 

Onions 

Potatoes 

Kye '. 

Rye Meal 

Salt 

Timothy Seed 

Wheat 

Wheat Bran 



45 



60 



56 



28 



45 



56 
44 
56 

50 

33% 
57 
60 



32 



50 



40 



40 



48 



42 



48 



00160 

28128 
28i28 
m!mi. . 



48 
60 
14 
42 52 
46 
60 
24 
33 
50 
14 



50 50 50 



50 5G 



. . 50 50 
!32 30 30|32 

52 
..|00 
32 



56 



60 60 
20I.. 



50 50 
45 45 
60^60 
20 20 



50 
. . 150 50 



60 



56 



m m 

60160 



48 



50 48 



44160 



32 35 



50 



00 



55 1 55 

50 '58 



30 



60 



32 



00 



48 46 



56 



47 . . 40 



42,58 



60 ^ 

281. 
281 . 



56 50 



. 40 



.. 50 



32 34 



CO ..iOO 
5015650 



56! ... . 
44 .|.. 
60 00160 

.. ..I.. 



32 



56 



60 



32 32 

60 1 60 
56 56 



..46 
60 60 



In Pennsylvania 80 lbs. coarse, 70 lbs. ground, or 62 lbs. fine salt malte 
1 bushel, and in Illinois, 50 lbs. common, or 55 lbs. fine salt mnke 1 bushel. 
In Tennessee 100 ears of corn are a bushel. A heaping bushel contjtins 
2815 cubic inches. 

In Maine 64 lbs. of ruta baga turnips or beets make 1 bushel. 

A cask of lime is 240 lbs. Lime in slacking absorbs 2^ times its volume, 
and 2| times its weight iu water. 

The United States Standard bushel contains 2150. 42 cnbic inches. A 
cubic foot contains 1728 cubic iuches, so that a bushel is to a cubic foot, 
as, say 2150 to 1728, or about the proportion of 4 to 5 ; hence to convert 
cubic feet to bushels, multiply by |. 

To find the CONTENTS OF A B IN IN CUBIC FEET. — Abate the couteuts 
one-fifth, and the result will be the contents in bushels. 



708 



AGRICULTURAL TABLES. 



ON FENCES. 

As the maintenance of fences is a most important consideration on 
everj' farm, we present the following 

Table showing the number of rails, riders, and stakes required 
for every ten rods of zig-zag fence, 



Length 
of rail. 


Deflec- 
tion from 
right line. 


Length 

of 
panel. 


Num- 
ber of 
panels. 


No. of rails for eachlO rods 


<M 

(-1 to 

4) <V 
^^ 

£ es 


<4-l 


Feet, 


Feet. 

6 

7 
8 


Feet. 

8 

10 
12 


Feet. 


5 rails 
high. 


6 rails 
high. 


7 rai^s 
high. 


§ (H 00 

125 


12 
14 

16K 


20% 
133/4 


103 
83 
69 


123 
99 
84 


144 

116 

95 


42 

28 


21 
17 
14 



For longer distances than 10 rods, the proper number of rails, &c , 
may be computed by multiplying. For instance : If for 50 rods of 
fence, multiply the above number by 5 ; if for 100, multiply by 10, &c. 
The like rule will apply to the next 

Table, showing the number of rails and posts required for 
each ten rods of post and rail straight fence. 



«M+3 


4J 
(O 





^ 


Number of rails for each 10 rods. 






S 5? 








5 rails 


6 rails 


7 rails 


8 rails 


^2 


^ P. 


3 0, 




high. 


high. 


high. 


high. 


10 


8 


20% 


21 


103 


123 


144 


165 


12 


10 


.16^ 


17 


83 


99 


116 


133 


14 


12 


13% 


14 


69 


84 


95 


109 


le^A 


li'A 


llVs 


12 


57 


69 


81 


93 



Approximate comparative cost of zig-zag and straight rail 

FENCES. 

Zig-zag rail fence — 

Twelve rails, at $25 per thousand • • 30 cents. 

Ground covered by fence, with total worm from stake to stake, 

in alternate panels of six feet, at §50 per acre .78 " 

Two stakes, at two cents apiece 4 " 

«1.12perl2ft. 
Straight rail fence — 

Eight rails, at $25 per thousand 20 cents. 

Ground covered by fence, two feet wide 26 " 

Two stakes 4 " 

Wire 2 " 

$0 52 per 12 ft. 

A board fence, 4 ft, 6 ins. high, with cedar posts 6 ft. apart, 4 boards, 
respectively, 6 inches, 6 inches, 9 inches, and 12 inches broad, with a 
coping board and vertical board covering the joints against the posts, 
may be constructed, when lumber costs not over $16 per 1000, at a cost 
of not more than $1 for every 12 ft. in length, without counting labor. 

The cheapest,and everything considered, the most efficient fence a farm- 
er can construct, is one made of wire; such fences vary in cost according 
to the number of wires used, the number oi posts, size of wire, &c. The 



AGRICULTURAL TABLES. 



09 



following table exhibits the length of wire of each nuinber that a given 
•\vei"-ht will make, from which may be computed the cost of a wire fence. 
C3 lbs. of No. 6 runs 223 yards, and costs $3 45 or 8^ cents per rod. 
" 7 " 229 " '' " '6 55 or 7^ " 

" 8 " 322 " " 3 05 or g| " 

Cost of materials of a loire fence, posts eight feet apart, with a bottom 
board twelve inches wide, and a scantling three by four on top: 

Ih posts, at 5 cents 7^ cents. 

12 feet of inch board, at $16.00 per thousand feet. 19 " 

Scantling, 12 feet, at $16. 00 per thousand feet 19 " 

5 wires=60 ft. of No. 6, at 8^ cents per rod 30 " 

75^ cents per 12 ft. 

In view of the increasing scarcity of timber in many parts of the 
country, it would be well for farulers to exercise greater care for the 
preservation of their standing trees, and as occasion offers, plant out 
more. Nature never fails to respond generously to all such investments. 
For interesting facts regarding the growth of forest trees, consult pp. 84 
and 118. This subject remijids the writer of the advice given by a Scotch 
laird to his son and heir on his death bed. The laird's ruling passion 
during a long life had been to set out trees, and when the closing scene 
arrived, the son was called to his father's bed-side, and while^standing 

there * ' ' "'" "' ' '"' 

evasion, 

tell ye, Aviien I'm gane be aye stickin' ni a tree, lor it ii grow wnen your 

sleepin'!" 

The chemical ixgredie>'t.s of pi,akt food, ix pounds aa'oirdupois, 

CO^'TAI^'ED !>' OXE Toy of the FOLLOAVIXG MAXlfKES. 




Manures . 


Chlorine . 

lb. oz. 
1 9 
3 


Sulphr,- 
ric Acid. 


Pliosplio- 
ric Acid 


Soda. 


nesia. 


Potash 


Am- 
monia. 


Farm Yard Manure. . . 
Kight Soil 


Ibis. oz. 

1 4 

2 3 


lbs. oz. 

5 1 
120 
580 


lbs. oz 
1 10 
4 10 


lbs. oz. 
18 3 

2 7 


Ibs.oz. 
24 
6 7 


lbs. oz. 

13 5i 
47 15V 


Fresh Bones 


145 5 


Dry Blood 












444 3 


Guano 

Soot 

Salt, Common 


62 
22 9% 
1344 


93 8 
194 31/4 


283 9 
5 123/4 


36 15 
2 11% 
833 


8'ii% 


66 8 
7 IV4 


221 9J 
50 2 


Gypsum 


1317 
3 8 










]\fxd. Urine p. 100 gals. 
Nitrate of Soda 


1 6 


2 6 


5 9 
8 3 




2 


18 314 
.364 


Sulp. of Arnica 




1.357 









470 









A dragoon-horse kept in a box-stall with 1 hour's exercise each day for 
a week, was fed as follows : — 

Oats each dav 10 lbs. = 70 lbs. per week 
Hav " "' 12 " = 84 " " 
Straw " " 8 " = 56 " " 
He drank within the Aveek 27 gals, of water ; during the time of his 
exercise the loss of manure is supposed to be 4 lbs. daily, or 28 lbs. per 
week, yet althogh the 

Total forage consumed amounted to 210 lbs., 
The manure and litter produced was 327^ lbs. 

Thus if lost manure be added, yielding with the addition of the moisture 
imparted to the litter by urine, an increase of two-thirds beyond the weight 
of the food consumed. Experiments proAe that a cow of average size voids 
about 60 lbs. of manure, or about I5 cubic feet per day, or more than 3 
cords, weighing over 10 ton.'s, per year. Ct)mix>sted with i^at or swairp 



710 



AGRICULTURAL TABLES. 



muck, three parts to one of manure, it would form 12 cords of excellent 
itouipost. It is further estimated that the liquid manure is equally valuable 
■with the solid, and if this also is utilized by the peat absorbents, either 
under the stable or in it, 24 cords of an excellent fertilizer is secured. 
This, applied to 2 acres of worn-out meadow, producing say, 1 ton of 
hay or less per acre, would increase the crop to 3 tons to the acre the first 
year, besides greatly increasing tlie crops for 5 years longer. In every 
case never fail to save your liquid manure, for it is well worth every effort 
that can be made. 

Table showing the compakative increase of corn by various 

fertilizers. 




1 No INIanure 

2 500 lbs. Superpliosphate of Lime 
31690 " Guano 



300 " Superphosphate Lime & 640 lbs. Guauo . . . 

320 " Guano and 640 lbs. dissolved Bones 

1040 '* Guano and 400 lbs. Superphosphate Lime 

16 loads Stable Manure 

32 <' '< 

16 " ** & 200 bus. leached Ashes 

16 " " & 640 lbs. Super P Lime 

32 '< " & 320 lbs. Guano & 1320 lbs. 

Superphosphate Lime 
Hog manure from 108 bus. corn 



28 
46 18 
50>^ 22^ 
58 130 

51 |23 

1 743/4 1 463/4 
351^1 7% 
423/41 1434 
',44 8 



17V4 

15 



6 


u 


3 


;:! 


es 


s 


•M 





+3 


03 








$ 


12 50 


19 00 


25 10 


18 40 


38 60 


16 00 


32 00 


12 00* 


17 80* 


10 80* 


|16 20 



bus 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 



qrls 
143/4 

6 

6% 

8 

6% 
15 

14% 
223/4 
28 



30 



*'/* 



* Only the increase over the experiments 7 and 8 Avith stable manure alone. 

Table exhibiting the number of loads of manure and the 
nu3iber of heaps in each load required to an acre, the 
heaps at given distances apart. 






NUMBER OF HEAPS IN A LOAD. 



3 I 4 I 5 I 6 I 7 I 8 I 9 I 10_ 



3 538 
3^ 395 

4 203 
4M 239 

5 194 
5^A 160 

6 131 
6K 115 

7 99 

7V2 m 

8 75% 
SVs 67 

9 GO 

oj^ 531^ 

10 481/2 

Explanation. - 
between the lieiips 



-The left hand column gives the 
each way in each row ; at the top 



269 


179 


134 


108 


89% 


77 


67 


60 


168 


132 


99 


79 


66 


56% 


49% 


44 


151 


101 


751/2 


60% 


50% 


431/4 


37% 


. 33% 


120 


79% 


60 


473,4 


39% 


341/4 


30 


26% 


97 


64% 
5314 


48% 


383/4 


32V4 


2V3/4 


24% 


21% 


80 


40 


32 


26% 


22% 


20 


17% 


67 


443/4 


33% 


27 


22% 


iyi/4 

16% 


16% 


15 


51% 


38V4 


283/4 


23 


19 


14% 


12% 


49% 


33 


243/t 


193/4 


I6I/2 
1414 


14 


121/4 


11 


43 


283/4 


21% 


171^ 


12% 


10% 


9% 


37% 


251/4 


19 


153/4 


12% 


10% 


9% 


^y? 


33% 


221/4 


16% 


131/2 


111/4 


9% 


8% 


7% 


30 


20 


15 


12 


10 


8% 


'<% 


6% 


263/4 


18 


131/2 


103,4 


9 


7% 


6% 


6 


241/4 


I6V4 


12 


93/4 


8 


7 


6 


5V2 i 



distance in 



51 

39% 

30% 

24 

191/4 

16 

13% 

11% 

10 

8% 
7% 
6% 
6 

5% 

4% 

yards 



of the columns are 



AGKICULTUKAL FACTS, &C. 711 

indicated the number of heaps in each load, and the number of loads re- 
quired per acre will be found at the point where the two lines meet. 

Memoranda. — 1 cubic ft. of half rotten stable manure will weigh 56 
lbs. ; if coarse or drj"-, 48 lbs. A load of manure is about 36 cubic ft., and 
if of the first quaUty will weigh 2,016 lbs. ; if of the second, 1728 lbs. 8 
loads of the first kind spread over an acre will give 108 lbs. to each square 
rod, and about 3^ lbs. to each square yard. 

To apply guano, mix it thoroughly for a few days with 5 times its bulk 
of vegetable mould or loam, and some charcoal or gj-psum, after break- 
ing the lumps and sifting in alternate layers. Avoid the use of ashes or 
lime, as they tend to expel the ammonia, and keep under cover, dry, 
until used. It may then be scattered broadcast upon meadows or grain, 
or placed near the seeds of young plants in the hill. Use from 200 to 500 
lbs. guano to the acre, the latter quantity to the more barren soils. 

The following Table shows the composition of Bone dust.' In 100 
parts, there are of 

Lime 55.5 

Pliosphate of Magnesia. 2. 

Soda, and Common salt 2.5 



Carbonate of lime 3.75 

Fluoride of calcium 3. 

Gelatine (the substance of horn) 33.25 

Analysis of a manure heap in the condition usually applied to a field. 

Fresh. Dried at 212°. 



Water 64.96 

Organic matter 24.71 

Inorganic salts 10 .33 



Carbon 37.40 

Hydrogen 5.27 

Oxj^gen 25.52 

Nitrogen. . 1.76 

Ashes (inorganic matter) 30.05 

The urine voided from a cow during one year contains 900 lbs. solid 
matter, and compared with Peruvian guano at $50 per ton is worth $20. 
It will manure l| acres of land, and is more valuable than its dung, in 
the ratio, by bulk, of 7 to 6, and in intrinsic value as 2 to 1. — Dana. 

The Urine of the Cow contains of water 92.C per cent. 

" '• Horse " " 94. " 

«' " Sheep " '•' 96.. " 

«« " Hog " " 92.6 " 

" '•' Human " '* 93.3 " 

The remainder is composed cx salts and rich food for vegetables. — 
Spreiiffel. 

Analysis of Bolivian guano by prof, johnston. 

"Water 6.91 

Organic Matter, containing Ammonia 55.52 

Common Salt and Sulphate of Soda 6.31 

Carbonate of Lime 3.87 

Phosphate of Lime and Magnesia 25-68 

Silicious Matter or Sand 1.71 

Analysis of Peruvian guano by prof, johnston. 

"Water 13.09 

Organic Matter, containing Ammonia 53.17 

Common Salt and Sulphate of Soda 4.63 

Carbonate of Lime 4.18 

Phosphate of Lime and Magnesia 23.54 

Silicious Matter or Sand ; 1.39 

Prof. Johnston's Tests for Good Guano.— The drier the better, 
there is less water to pay for and transport. The lighter the color the 
better, it is the less conipletely dissolved. If it has not a strong am- 
moniacal smell it ought to give off such a smell when a spoonful of it is 
mixed with a spoonful of lime in a wine-glass. When put into a tumbler 
of water and stirred well, and the water and fine matter poured off, it ought 



712 



AGRICULTURAL TABLES. 



to leave but little sand or stones. When heated to redness over a fire or 
a bright flame, until the animal matter is burnt away, tlie ash should 
nearly all dissolve in dilute muriatic acid. 

ANALYSIS OF FISH GUANO. 



"Water expelled by 212 " heat 8.06 

Sand 0.33 

Oil 2.40 



Sulphate of Magnesia 0-71 

" Potash 2.05 

'•' Soda 2.42 



Organic Matter 50.72 Chloride of Sodium 1.12 

Super-Phosphate of Lime 9. 85| Sulphate of Ammonia 2.72 

Sulphate of Lime, Hydrated 19.62[ J>r. Apjohn. 

Table, showing the effect produced upon the quantity of the 

CROP BY equal quantities OF DIFFERENT MANURES APPLIED TO 

. The: sAme soil, sown with an equal quantity of seed. 

Return in Bushels for each Bushel of Seed. 
Manure applied. Wlieat. Barley. Rye. Oats. 



Blood 

Night Soil 

Sheep Manure... 
Horse " 
Pigeon " 
Cow " ... 

Vegetable " 
Without Manure . 



14 
14 
12 

10 

7 
3 



16 

16 
13 
10 
11 

7 
4 



14 


i2y2 


isy. 


HVa 


13 


14 


11 


14 


9 


12 


9 


16 


6 


13 


4 


5 



Analysis of fresh farm-yard manure, composed of horse, cow, and pig 
excreta, about 14 days old, by Dr. Augustus Yoelcker, Professor of Chem- 
istry in the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester, England. Accord- 
ing to this analysis one ton (2,000 lbs. ) farm-yard manure contains — 

Soluble silica (silicic acid) 24 lbs. 

Ammonia (actual or potential) 15% '• 

Phosphate of lime IS/^j '•' 

Lime 23/u " 

Magnesia 3t7t " 

Potash 131/2 •' 

Soda If '< 

Common salt y"^ <' 

Sulphuric acid 2% '* 

Water 1323f ** 

Woody fibre, &c 579 " 

Of course no two samples of farm-yard manure are exactly of tlie 
same comix)sition. That analyzed by Dr. Voelcker was selected with 
much care, as representmg a fair average. 

Kote. — In estimating the value of barn-yard manure the value of the differ- 
ent excreta will always range in value according to the kind of food pi-o- 
vided for the stock. See last column of Table on page 716. 

Table showing the comparative value of animal manures, with 
farm- yard manure as the standard. 



100 lbs. farm-yard manure are equal to 
125 lbs. solid excrement of the Cow 

" Horse 

' " Cow. 

' " Horse. 

< <« Cow. 
' " Horse. 
' " Sheep. 

< " PiT. 



73 




(( 


91 




liquid 


16 




(( 


08 




Mixed 


54 




n 


36 




(f 


64 




(( 



3 lbs 


I>ry Flesh. 


5 " 


Pigeon Dung. 


15 " 


Liquid Blood. 


4 " 


Dry Blood. 


3 " 


Feathers. 


3 " 


Cow Hair, 


3 " 


Hair Shavings. 


31/2" 


Dry Woollen rags. 




Johnston. 



130 lbs. 


Wheat Straw 


Manure. 


150 " 


Oat " 


(i 


180 " 


Barlev " 


(( 


85 " 


B'kwli't " 


<( 


45 " 


Pea " 


<< 


50 " 


^Vlieat Chaff 


(' 


80 " 


Green Grass 


(< 


75 " 


Potato Tops 


i( 



AGRICULTURAL TABLES. 713 

Table sho\vi>-g the kelative value of decomposed vegetable 

MANURES, FROM THE IXORGAXIC MATTER THEY CO>TAI>-. 

Inorganic Matter. 
1 ton Wheat Straw made into ma.-,^„-„+„_„^ . ., ., ^i?^- Jbs. 

j^ << Oat " " u'^*^ returns to the soil 70 to 360 

1 ** Hay " " " " " 100 to 180 

1 " Barley " " " " *'• 100 to 200 

1 " Pea " " " " " ......100 to 120 

1 " Bean « • " " " " .".".*.'.'.'.. M t9 ^0 

1 " Rye " " «' «• " 50tol05 

1 " Dry Potato-tops " " " " 400 

1 " Dry Turnip-tops " '* " " 370 

1 " Rape Cake " " " " 120 

1 " Malt Dust " «' " " 180 

1 " Dried Seaweed " " •' «' ^ ,560 

" Johnston. 

Table showing the relative values of deco3iposed vegetables 

AS aiA^X'RES, from THE KITKOGEX THEY COXTAIX. 

100 lbs. of farm-T.ird manure is equal to 

80 lbs. Fresh Seaweed Manure. 

20 •' Dried " " 

26 " Bran of Wheat or Corn " 
13 " Malt Dust " 

8 " Rape Cako " 

250 " Pine Sawdust " 

180 " Oak " • " 

25 " Coal Soot " 

Boussingault. 
Moisture absorbed by various manures. 

1000 parts horse-manure, dried at a temperature of lOO-'Fahr.. ab- 
sorbed by exposure to the air at a temperature of 62* Fahr.: 

Moisture 145 pari s, 

1000 parts cow-man vire, under same circumstances 130 " 

" pig-dung, " " " 120 " 

'• sheep-dung, " " " 81 *' 

" pigeon-dung, " " " 50 " 

" rich all UTiaQ soil, " " 14 " 

" fresh tanners' bark, <' " 115 " 

" putrified, '• " " 145 " 

" refuse marine salt, " " 49>^ " 

« soot, " " GO " 

" burnt clav, " «' 29 " 

" coal ashes, " « 14 '« 

" lime, <' " n ' 

" sediment from salt-pans, " 10 " 

" crushed rock-salt, " " 10 " 

" gypsum, " '< 9 " 

" chalk, '< «< 4 " 

Everything on a farm should be utilized, even the outflow of the 
kitchen slops should be discharged on a bed of swamp muck. Good wood 
ashes weigli about 60 lbs. to the bushel ; of tliis 6f lbs. are soluble in 
warm water. They are worth to the farmer from 60 to 70c. per bushel 
as a fertilizer, if leached, they are worth perhaps a quarter of that sum. 
They are excellent for all crops, altogether unequalled for fruit trees, and 
in a most unfavorable season 230 bushels of potatoes have been raised 
from 1 acre dressed with them. 

The products of the water closet, both liquid and solid, should be deo- 
dorized and composted by mixture with dried peat, ashes, or dry earth 
of a loamy nature. The "privy vault or box should be easily accessible 
at all times, aud ought to be kept well supplied with a mixture of these 



714 



AGRICULTURAL TABLES. 



absorbents. No better fertilizer tlian this exists under the sun ; about 10 
bushels of the compost will be a good dressing for an acre In C-hma no 




powerful auxiliaries of the ajr-'^^'^urist. and deserve the highest com mend- 
atiou. 

^^^^-rO AMOUNT OF SEED POTATOES REQUIRED, WHEN CUT OB 
lABIiE^^^ AND WHEN SET AT DIFFERENT DISTANCES APART, IN DRILLS 
TWENTY-EIGHT INCHES FROM CROWN TO CROWN. 

AVhole, and planted 6 inches apart 77 buBhels per acre. 

<< li 9 »< «' PQ " << 

(< ii J2 " '< 38 " " 

i( a 2^ " << 26 '* " 

K "^ u 24 " " 19 " " 

Cut into two sets " 6 " " 38 " " 

ti «< 9 << a 25 '< '• 

(< << . ... 12 '' '' 19 " " 

II t( ig (I a J3 li tt 

Cut into four seta " .... 6 " " Id " " 

a n 9 « i« J3 <« u 

ft fi 12 << " 10 << «« 

Cut into five sets " '.'.'. 6 " " 15 " '< 

it «< 9 i' " 10 It It 

Cut into six sets " 6 " " 13 " " 

Table showing the quantity of land, in acres and tenths, 
ploughed by a teaini and plough moving at the rate of two 
miles per iiol'r, per day of 10 hours. 



Width of 


Acres and 


Width of 




Width of 


Acres and 


Width of 


Acres and 


furrow in 
inches. 


tenths. 


furrow in 
inches. 


tenths. 


furrow in 
feet. 


tenths. 


furrow 'in 
feet. 


tenths. 


5 


1.0 


12 


2.4 


2 


4.8 


5V2 


13.2 


6 


1.2 


14 


2.8 


2% 


6.0 


6 


14.4 


7 


1.4 


IG 


3.2 


3 


7.2 


6H 


15.6 


8 


l.G 


18 


3.6 


3^2 


8.4 


7 


16.8 


9 


1.8 


20 


4.0 


4 


9.6 


TVa 


18.0 


10 


2.0 


22 


4.4 


4y2 


10.8 


8 


19.2 


11 


2.2 






5 


12.0 







Arguments in Faa^or of Soiling Cattle. — Hy soiling is understood 
the feeding of cattle in j^ ards or in stables, with grass or other green fod- 
der cut in the fields, and hauled to them. The Hon. Josiah Qiiincy, a 
high authority, states the following as the main advantages of "the 
system : 1st. The saving of land. 2ud. The saving of fencing. 3rd. 
The economizing of food. 4th, The better condition and greater comfort 
of the cattle. 5th. The greater product of milk. Gth, The attainment of 
manure. See page 47. 

In reference to the 3rd item, the economy of food, he says : " There 
are six ways by which beasts destroy the article destined for their food — 
1. By eating ; 2. Bj^ walking ; 3. By dunging ; 4. By staling ; 5. By lying 
doAvn ; 6. By breathing on it. Of these six, the first only is useful. Ail 
the others are wasteful." He asserts that a milch cow may be kept by 
ths method during the ordinary pasturing season on the product of '^ 
acre of land, while at least 2 acres of the same land would be necessary 
on the pasturage system, and some place the proportion in favor of soil- 
ing as high as 1 to 7. By this sj^stem interior fences may be abolished 
in every case, weedy head-lands got rid of, and the plough performs its 
healthy work from one side of the farm to the other, without let or 
hindrance. 



ON SOILING CATTLE. 715 

The system recommended by Mr. Quincy is as follows : — 

"1. As early in April as, the state of the land will permit, which is 
usually between the 5th and the 10th, on jproperly prepared land, sow 
oats at the rate of 4 bushels to the acre. 

" 2. About the 20th of the same month, sow oats or barlej'-, at the same 
rate j)er acre, in like quantity and proportions. 

" 3. Early in May, sow, in like manner, either of the above grains. 

"4. Between the 10th and 15th of May, sow Indian corn (the flat 
Southern being the best) in drills, 3 bushels to the acre, in like quan- 
tity and proportions. 

" 5. About the 5th of June repeat the sowing of com, 

*' 7. After the last mentioned sowing barlej"- should be sown in the 
above-mentioned quantity and proportions, in succession, on the 15th 
and 25th of June, and on the 1st of, or early in July ; barley being the 
best qualified to resist the frosts." 

Mr. Quincy relied on the mowing of his best grass land to carry his stock 
through the mouth of June, or from the earliest pasturing season to the 1st 
of July, when he anticipated fodder from his first sowing of oats, and after 
the first severe frost he relied on the tops of 12 acres of root cro^^s for the 
supply of 15 cows. 

The plan adopted by Geo. E. Waring, Jr., another eminent agricultur- 
ist, for 12 Cows, is as follows : — 

" 1. Early in the autumn sow 3 acres of winter rye to be cut from May 
loth to June 15th. 

" 2. Early in April, 3 acres oats, to be cut from June 15th to Julj^ 1st. 

" 3. Late in April, 2 acres oats or barley, to be cut from July 1st to 
July 15th. 

" 4. Early in Maj"^, 2 acres oats or barley, to be cut from July 15th to 
August 10th. 

" 5. Middle of May, 2 acres corn, to be cut from August 10th to 
September 1st, 

" G. Middle of June, the 3 acres from which rye has been cut to be 
sown with corn, to be cut from September 1st to September 20th. 

" 7. Early in July, the first three acres sown with oats to be re-sown with 
barley, to be cut from September 20th until the harvest of roots and 
cabbages furnish a stock of green refuse, which will suffice until winter 
feeding commences. 

"8. In September, 3 acres of the 4 comprising Nos. 4 and 5, shoiild be 
sown with rye for the following spring's use, and the rotation should 
follow in regular order. The latter end of the season should be helped 
out with root crops. The reason alleged by Mr. Waring for this ap- 
portioning 12 acres for 12 cows, is the bad condition of the land, but he is 
satisfied, that if all the manure made in the soiling season were to bo 
applied to the ground year after year, that they migiit be made in time to 
support, during the Avholo of the usual pasturing season, 30 milch cows, or 
5 cows to each acre. He urges that in the Northern States the eai'liest 
abundant food will be secured by the use of winter rye, and that the best 
and most abundant food for the late summer and earlier autumn will be 
secured by the use of Indian corn. 

To CoxsTRUCT AN IcE-HousE. — This indispensable appendage to the 
farm-house and dairy may be constructed at a small cost. One writer 
remai-ks : " Last January I drew 1 large load of sawdust and spread it on 
the ground on tlie north side of my horse-barn, then drew the ice (sawed 
in square cakes) and built up a square pile some 8x10 ft. and 7 or 8 ft. 
liigh, filling up the spaces between the cakes with pounded ice. I then 
Beit up scantling and built a board house around it 2 feet larger each way 
than the ice ; then filled in sawdust around and 2 to 3 ft. on top, and 
covered with boards and slabs. We have used freely through the season, 



716 



COMPONENTS OF FARM PRODUCE. 



sold to pic-nic parties, given away to sick neighbors, and have plenty of 
ice yet." 

Another writer reports his method as follows : "I set posts in the 
ground, so as to make a house 12 it. square (three posts on each side), 
then board or plank it up 8 ft. high, on the inside. The surface earth is 
now dug out 6 ius. deep, and sawdust filled in 1 ft. deep, making it 6 ins. 
above the level of the eai-th. The ice is carefully packed, 9 ft. square and 
6 ft. high, leaving a space of 18 ins. between ice and boards, closely 
packed with sawdust, and the same thickness of sawdust placed on top. 
I have an old fashioned board roof over this ice-house. The space above 
the sawdust is left open, so that the air can circulate through and the 
sun shine in. The result is that we have used ice daily and have a plenty 
yet. As to the cost, four men with one team, cut, hauled and packed the 
ice, and filled in the sawdust in less than 2 days, notwithstanding we had 
to haul the ice over ^ mile." 

Average composition, per cent, and per ton, of various kinds of 
agricultural produce, &c. , by john b. lawes, of rothamp- 

STEAD, ENGLAND. 



Linseed cake , 

Cotton seed cake., 

Rape cake , 

Linseed 

Beans 

Peas 

Tares 

Lentils 

Malt dust 

Locust beans , 

Indian meal 

Wheat 

Barley 

Malt 

Gala 

Fine pollard* 

Coarse pollardt . . . . 

"Wheat bran , 

Clover hay 

Meadow hay , 

Bean straw 

Pea straw , 

Wheat straw , 

Barley straw 

Oat straw , 

Mansrel wurtzel 

Swedish turnips . . 
Common turnips. . . 

Potatoes 

Carrots 

Parsnips 



PER CENT. 



88.0 7.00 
89.018.00 
89.0; 7.00 
90.0 8-00 
8-1.0!4.00 
84.5 1 3.00 
84.0 ; 2.40 
?8.0 2.00 



94.0 
85.0 
88.0 
85.0 
84.0 
95.0 
86.0 
I8G.0 
86.0 
'86.0 
84.0 
84.0 
'82.5 
«2.0 
84.0 
85.0 
83.0 
12.6 
11.0 
8.0 
240 
1.3.5 
15,0 



3.00 
8.50 
1.75 
1.30 
2.20 
2.60 
2.85 
5.60 
C.20 
6.60 
7.50 
6.00 
5.55 
5.95 
5.00 
4.50 
5.50 
1.00 
0.68 
0.68 
1.00 
0.70 
1.00 



p. . 

o 
w C 

"ft C n, 
m O ^ 



4.92 
7.00 
5.75 
3.38 
2.20 
1.84 
1.63 
1.89 
5.23 

i.'l3 

1.87 
1.35 
1.60 
1.17 
6.44 
7.52 
7.95 
1.25 
0.88 
0.90 
0.85 
0.55 
0.37 
0.48 
0.09 
0.13 
0.11 
0.32 
0.13 
0.42 



1.65 
1.12 
3.76 
1.37 

1.27 
0.96 
0.66 
0.96 
2.12 

0*35 
0.50 
0.55 
0.65 
0.50 
1.46 
1.49 
1.45 
1.30 
1.50 
1.11 
0.89 
0.65 
0.63 
0.93 
0.25 
0.18 
0.29 
0.43 
0.23 
)).36 



4.75 
6.50 
5.00 
3.80 
4.00 
3.40 
4.20 
4.30 
4.20 
1.25 
1.80 
1.80 
1.65 
1.70 
2.00 
2.60 
2.58 
2.55 
2.50 
1.50 
0.90 

o.'eo 

0.50 
0.60 
0.25 
0.22 
0.18 
0.35 
0.20 
0.22 



LBS. PER (LONG) 


TON. 




S 


— o 






S 


2 


■V-^ 












.c 




1971 


3t 

156.8 




a 
1 


2 


110.2 


37.0 


106.4 


1994 


179.2 


156.8 


70.0 


145.6 


1994 


179.2 


128.8 


39.4 


112.0 


2016 


89.6 


75.7 


30.7 


85.1 


1882 


67.2 


49.3 


28.4 


89.6 


1893 


53.8 


41.2 


21.5 


76.2 


1892 


44.8 


36.5 


14.8 


94.1 


1971 


67.2 


42.3 


21.5 


96.3 


2106 


190.4 


117.1 


47.5 


941 


1904 


39.2 


. . . . 




28.0 


1971 


29.1 


£5.3 


7.8 


40.3 


1904 


38.1 


42.0 


11.2 


40.3 


1882 


49.3 


£0.2 


12.3 


37.0 


21-28 


58.2 


r5.8 


14.6 


38.1 


1926 


63.8 


i:6.2 


11.2 


44.8 


1926 


125.4 


144.2 


32.7 


58.2 


1926 


138.9 


168.4 


33.4 


57.8 


1926 


147.8 


178.1 


32.5 


57.1 


1882 


168.0 


28.0 


29.1 


56.0 


1882 134.4 


19.7 


33.6 


33.6 


1848 524.3 


20.2 


24.9 


20.2 


1837 133.3 


19.0 


19.9 


20.2 


1882 112.0 


12.3 


14.6 


13.4 


1904 100.8 


8.3 


14.1 


11.2 


1859 123.2 


10.7 


20.8 


13.4 


280 


22.4 


2.0 


5.6 


5.6 


246 


13.4 


2.9 


4.0 


4.6 


179 


15.2 


2.5 


6.5 


4.0 


537 


22.4 


7.2 


9.C 


l.ir 


302 


1.5.7 


2.9 


5.1 


4.5 


336 


22.4 


9.4 


8.1 


4.9| 



if- 

fl P o 
S . 

O O — 

111 



19.72 

27.86 

21.01 

15.65 

15.75 

13.38 

16.75 

16.51 

18.21 

4.81 

6.65 

7.08 

6.32 

6.65 

7.70 

13.53 

14.36 

14.59 

9.64 

6.43 

3.87 

3.74 

2.68 

2.25 

2.90 

1.07 

0.91 

0.86 

1.50 

0.80 

l.ll 



♦ Middlings, Canielle, 



t SbipstuK. 



EQUIVALENTS OF VARIOUS FOODS. 



717 



Tabel showing nutritive equivalents of various foods. 



Food. 



■ Irish potatoes 

Carrots I 

JParsnips 

Jerusalem artichoke 

Sugar beet 

Turnips (Swede;. 

Common ■white turniij, . . . 

Mangel wurtzel , . . 

Green pea straw 

Spurrey (green 

Green bucicwlieat stalks. . 
Common vetch (green). . . 

French vetch (green) 

Green stalks white lupin. 
Green stalks white bean. 

Green oats (fodder) 

Timothy grass (green) 

Red top " " .. . 

Superior English hay 

Red clover (green) 

WTiite clover (green)... 

Lucerne (green) 

Red clover (hay) 

W^iite clover (hay) 

Lucerne (hay) 

Wheat flour 

Indian corn 

Rye meal 

Barley meal 

Oatmeal 

Buckwheat meal. ...... 

Peas 

Kidney beans 

White field beans 

Lentils 

English linseed cake. . . 
American linseed cake. 



Amount of 
flesh-form- 
ing matter 
in 
100 lbs. 



Amount of; i Nutritive 

fat -forming Total nutn- equivalents 

matter five matter of 100 lbs, 
ill ill best 

100 lbs. 100 lbs. English hay. 



1.4 

O.G 

1.2 

1.0 

0.9 

1.0 

0.9 

1.0 

0.9 

2.7 

0.2 

1.9 

0.7 

1.8 

1.0 

1.0 

4.0 

3.3 

13.5 

2.0 

1.5 

1.9 

22.5 

18.7 

12.7 

14.7 

11.0 

14.3 

13.0 

18.0 

9.0 

23.1 

23.9 

24.0 

25.7 

22.1 

22.2 



18.9 

6.6 

7.0 

18.8 

13.G 

5.2 

3.3 

12.6 

7.9 

2.3 

4.7 

2.6 

4.7 

2.3 

2.7 

8.5 

9.7 

8.7 

36.3 

3.6 

2.7 

3.6 

18.7 

40,0 

38.0 

C6.4 

C6.7 

55.8 

52.0 

51.1 

52.1 

41.9 

39.3 

39.7 

38.9 

51.0 

48.6 



20.3 

7.2 

8.2 

19.8 

14.5 

6.2 

4.2 

13.6 

8.8 

5.0 

4.9 

4.5 

5.4 

4.1 

3.7 

9.5 

13.7 

12.0 

49.8 

5.6 

4.2 

5.5 

41.2 

58.7 

50.7 

81.1 

77.7 

70.1 

65.0 

69.1 

61.1 

65.0 

63.2 

63.7 

64.6 

73.1 

70.8 



245.3 

691.6 

607.3 

251.5 

336.5 

803.2 

1185.7 

367.6 

665.9 

960.0 

1016.6 

1106.6 

922.2 

1212.1 

1345.9 

524.2 

363.4 

415.0 

100.0 

907.1 

1185.7 

905.4 

120.8 

84.6 

98.2 

61.4 

64.2 

71.0 

76.0 

72.0 

81.5 

76.0 

78.7 

78.2 

77.0 

68.0 

70.3 



Bee Flowers. — The following select list of bee-flowers, plants, trees, 
&c., is commended to the attention of bee keepers on the high authority 
of Mr, King, Editor of the Bee Keepers' Magazine, New York, as one of 
the most accurate and reliable ever published . Those plants marked 
with an asterisk are prime favorites of the bees, and yield large quantities 
of honey, 

■ Bee keepers would almost double the product of their hives by taking 
advantage of the grand modem discover^' of artificial comb foundations. 
These foundations are made of wax, or other suitable materials, by 
means of a machnie, are sold at a very reasonable price by the pound, 
and, when placed iii liives, are the means of saving the bees a vast 
amount of time and work in the construction of comb, every pound of 
which, estimated in honest bee labor represents at least 20 lbs, of honej'. 
Another notable discovery is the use of salicylic acid for curing foul 
brood and other useful purjDoses, The mixture: is compounded as fol- 
lows : INIix together 128 grs, salicylic acid, 128 grs. of soda borax, and 
16 ozs. of distilled water. To use, imcai> the brood iu all the frames that 



718 



LIST OP BEE FLOWERS, &C. 



show any diseased cells, and thoroughly spray the bees, brood, comb, 
aud all, with an atomizer filled with the solution. 

Sjorinr/. 

Erica Carnea* Almond 

Winter aconite* Wallflower* (single) 

Rosemary* Borage* 

Laurustinus Onion 

Hazel* Gooseberry 

Snow-drop. Apricot 

Crocus* Peach 

Willow* Apple* 

Osier* Gooseberry* 

Primrose Currant* 

Hepatica Laurel* 

Violet Linden or basswood 
Summer. 



Tuniip* 

Cabbage, &c.* 

Strawberry 

Tulip* 

Hawthorn. 

Gorse or furze 

Columbine 

Laburnum 

Barberry* 

Ribes Sanguineum 

Dutch clover* 

Sycamore maple* 



Alsike clover* 

Silverleaf buckwheat* 

Syringa 

Heliantheraum 

Annual poppy* 

Sea-kale 

French willow* 

Sweet-briar 

Bean 

Yellow lupin 



White clover* 
Catnip 

Mignionette* 
Blackberry 
Chesnut 
Mallow 
Lime* 
Hyssop 
Teazle* 
Nasturtium 
AiUwnn. 



Lucerne clover* 

Spanish needle 

Yellow vetch 

Sainbois 

Broom 

Wheat 

Viper's bugloss* 

Raspberry* 

Symphora 

Raceniosa 



Michaelmas daisy 
Winter savory 
Purple houseleek 
Ivy 
Honeysuckle 



Lemon thyme* 
St. John's wort 
Melilotus leucantha* 



French buckwheat* Heath* 
sowed at midsum- Sunflower 
mer 
Spanish broom* 
Hollyhock* 

CucuMBEB Pickles. — Select nice, firm cucumbers ; pour on them, foi 
three successive mornings, boiling water enough to cover ; add a hand- 
ful of coarse salt. The night before pickling throw on cold water and 
drain ; put into jars with ground spices in a bag, sugar and salt enough 
to taste, alum size of an English walnut to each jar ; pour vinegar hot in 
each jar, and cover tight while hot. 

To FIND THE SIZE OF A BiN TO HOLD A CERTAIN NUMBER OF BUSHELS. 

Augment the number of bushels ^, and the result will exhibit the number 
of cubic feet the bin will comprise. Then, when two dimensions of the 
bin are known, divide the last result by their jjroduct, and the quotient 
will be the other size. 



Per Centage of Oil 

Oil per cent. 

Linseed 11 to 22 say 17 

Hempseed 14 " 25 " 19 

Rapeseed 40 " 70 " 15 

White Mustard 36 " 38 " 37 

Sweet Almond 40 " 54 " 47 

Bitter Almond 28 " 46 " 37 

Turnip Seed 40 " 50 " 45 

Wheat Flour 2 " 4 " 3 

Barley 2 '« 3 " 2i 



IN Seeds, Grain, &c. 

Oil per cent. 

Oats 5 to 8 say 6^ 

Indian Corn 5 "9 " 7 

Wheat Bran 3 " 5 " 4 

Potatoes, turnips and cab- 
bage 1| 

WheatStraw 2 " 3^ " 3 

Oat Straw 4 

Meadow Hay 2 "5 " 3^ 

Clover Hay .3 «« 5 «' 5 



FACTS FOR DAIRYMEN. 



719 




TABLE SHOWING THE AMOUNT OF BUTTER AND CHEESE OBTAINABLE FROM 

MILK. 

100 lbs. milk contains about 3 lbs. pure butter. 
100 " " " " 7.8 lbs. cheese, 

100 " " averages ** 3.5 lbs. common butter. 
100 " " " <' 11.7 lbs. common cheese. 

100 " skim milk yields " 13.5 lbs. skim milk cheese. 



TABLE SHOWING THE INGREDIENTS CONTAINED IN VARIOUS KINDS 
MILK. IN 100 PARTS THEUI3 ARE OF — 



OF 



Woman. 

87.9 
6.5 
3.6 
1.5 



Cow. 

87.0 

• 4.8 

3.1 

4.5 



Ass. 

91.7 
6.1 
0.1 
1.8 



Goat. 

86.7 
5.3 
3.3 
4.1 



Ewe 

85.6 
5.0 
4.2 
4.5 



Water, 
Milk Sugar, 
Butter, 
Casein, 

Tlie quantity and quality of cows' milk varies according to the food sup' 
plied, breeds, &c. 

In every 1000 parts of milk there are of — 



Chloride of potassi um , 9 parts. 
Phosphate of magnesia, 4 " 
Free soda, 3 " 

Common salt, 3 ** 



Water, 840 parts. 

Milk-Sugar, 45 " 

Butter, or oil, 40 " 

Casein, 40 " 

Phosphate of lime, 17 " 

The time required for the full amount of cream to rise to the surface 
of new milk at different temperatures may be seen from the following 
table : — 

10 to 12 hours if the temperature of the air is 77° Fahr. 
18 to 20 " " " " 68° " 

24 " " ** *' 55° " 

36 ** " " " 50° " 

1 gal, of milk weighs 10 lbs, 4 ozs ; being heavier than water iu the pro- 
portion of 103 to IGO. The best temperature at which to churn cream is 
from 55° to 60"^ Fahr, ; for milk 65° Fahr, Milk will produce scarcely 
any cream even in the space of a month if it is kept at 33° to 38° Fahr. 
Milk turns sour by the fermentation of the sugar, and its transformation 
into lactic acid, thus causing the milk to curdle ; vinegar or rennet will 
produce the same effect. Good cream will produce about ^ of its weight 
of butter ; cheese made from good milk contains nearly 33 per cent, of 
water; that from skim-milk about 60 per cent. 



720 DIRECTIONS FOR CHURNING, ETC. 

The perfection of milk keeping is attained when a stream of pure 
spring water flows througli the room where it is kept, where fresli air 
circulates freely through slatted windows or doors uncontaininated by 
the odor of decaying vegetables or animal matter, and wheh the tempera- 
ture ranges from 55° to 65° Fahr. During winter great profit Avould re- 
sult from bringing the temperature of the milk to about 120° Fahr. pre- 
vious to setting, and during all seasons the greatest amount of cream will 
be collected When the milk in the pans is not over 2 inclies in depth. 
During warm weather the milk, after being drawn from the cow, should, 
as soon as possible, be cooled down to 02°. This may be done by settiu"- 
tlie pail in cold water, or by putting a little pulverized ice in the pail pre* 
vious to straining, A small piece of crystallized soda about the size of a 
marble, dissolved in a little water and added to a pail of freshly drawn 
milk, will increase the amount of cream, improve the butter, and correct 
acidity. Milk vessels, strainers, churns, &c., should be kept scrupulously 
clean and free from taint of every kind by frequent scaldings with boil- 
ing water. During very hot weather the milk room may be cooled by 
hanging wet Imen sheets near the doors and windows, Avith the lower 
parts of the sheets immersed in cold water, and during cold weather the 
temperature may be raised by means of a fire in a stove, on which a 
vessel of water may be placed to prevent too much dryness of air. 

In skimming the milk, deposit the cream in clean stone crocks, or tin 
V)ails, and after sprinkling a handful of fine salt over the surface, set 
away in a cool place, to remain until churned. In filling the churn leave 
out whatever milk may be found at the bottom of the cream crock as its 
sour taste will be sure to promote acidity in the butter. Churning should 
occupy from ^ to I of an hour ; rapid churning should be avoided, as it 
affects the quality and lessens the quantity of tlie butter ; if it should be 
hard and granular, refusing to come together well, throw in a little warm 
Avater, churning all the while, and the butter will be gathered and ready 
to take U13. 

As the question of correct temperature is all important in the manu- 
facture of butter and cheese, frequent use should be made of a good 
thermometer. Great loss is certain to result if this useful instrument is 
dispensed with. 

In churning, use care to keep the cream wellAvashed down, so that the 
whole will granulate Avith regularity; and Avlien the butter has formed in 
small lumps, pour off the buttermilk, leaving the butter in the churn ; 
pour in a pailful of pure cold Avater and well wash the butter in it, gather- 
ing it into a solid compact mass and working it to squeeze out the butter- 
milk. Next, remove it to the butter dish and again Avell Avash, at a 
temperature not higher than 55° or 58°, until the milk is utterly removed 
from the butter and the water quite clear, then salt, Avith the bestAshton 
salt, at the rate of ^ lb. to 10 lbs. butter : Avork the salt well in and use 
every effort to rid the butter of water and milky brine, for depend ux3on it, 
the product Avillnot be first class unless this is done. 

In packing butter use neat firkins, tubs, or pails made of white oak ; 
purify each by filling Avith a strong solution of bicarbonate of soda boil- 
ing hot, alloAvingthe water to stand for 24 hours. Avoid packing butter in 
vessels containing undissolved salt at the bottom ; unless covered with a 
cloth the butter will be damaged by coming in contact Avith it. Take great 
precautions to remove all rancid or suspicious butter from firkins that 
are to be refilled. All butter made during the early part of the summer 
should be shipped and sold without loss of time, as it will only keep 
sweet for a short period. Butter made during Avarm Aveather should be 
packed in firkins and kept in a dry cool place. To preserA'e it from the 
air, cover the butter to the depth of half an inch (or deep enough to ex- 
clude tlie a::-) Avith rtrong brine containing in solution 2 tablespoonfuls of 



ON CHEESE MANUFACTURE. 721 

white sugar and a piece of saltpetre double the size of a pea. In the fall 
the butter may be repacked in pails and tubs, to market as fresh batter. 

If butter is too soft while being worked and salted, allow it to stiffen 
for 3 or 4 hours in a cool place, then begin again and finish the work. In 
packing never mix even the smallest amount of poor butter with good ; it 
is certain to taint and ruin the whole package. The rancidity of butter 
may be prevented by thoroughly washing and salting before the chec.«y 
particles and milky matter is acidified by exposure to the air, and by 
using due caution to exclude air from the package hj a covering of Avater 
\vell saturated with salt. 

The oil of butter is a substance of peculiar richness, unlike any other 
known oil, and the/at of butter, when compacted by expressing the oil, 
is identiciil with the solid fat of the human body. Chemical analysis and 
numerous experiments prove that the butter in cow's milk comes direct 
from the fat of the miimal. The fatty globules are carried into the circu- 
lation, deprived of stearine by respiratory combustion, and the oil is then 
sent to the udders, Avhere, under the influence of raaminarj' pepsin it is 
changed into tlie components of butter. It is on this principle that the 
oleomargarine, now being vended in such immense quantities iii the 
United States and Europe, is manufactured from cow's fat or beef suet. 

First class butter is free from everj^ trace of a rancid taste or smell. 
"When cut with a Icnife it should neither soil the blade, exude any dew or 
milky brine, should be neither sticky nor greasy, but should, in summer, 
possess a rich yellow color, with a granular, waxy composition ; in winter 
the color should be of whitish cast or of a pale yellow tint. A plentiful 
clover pasture surpasses all other food for producing the best quality of 
milk and butter. 

On Cheese IManufacture. — The following practical directions arc 
by an experienced manufacturer: 

■ ' When two milkings are united, strain the evening's milk and cool hj 
means of pieces of ice dropped into the pails before straining. In the 
mornmg take off all the cream, mix it with twice the quantity of new 
milk. Add warm water enough to raise it to the temperature of 98°. 
Rub aunatto through a silk cloth sufficient to make the curd the color of 
rich cream. Into this put rennet sufficient to curd in 35 minutes. Stir 
the whole into the milk previously raised to the temperature of 85°. The 
milk should be warmed by means of a pail of hot water set into it, but 
never by 'putting it over the fire, for the least burning of the milk will 
spoil the cheese. While the curd is setting, cover with a cloth to pre- 
vent the surface from coolmg. The method of cutting, scalding, and 
pressing depends upon the Aarieties of cheese to be manufactured. 
About I of a pound of the best Ashton salt is sufficient for 20 lbs. of curd. 
Care should be taken that the whey be entirely expressed." 

Calves maj'' be raised in first class order at a cost of not more than one- 
tenth of the value of the butter made from the milk saved, by the use of 
oil meal, the cheapest molasses, and skim milk. The right quantitj^ for a 
young calf, is a tablespoonful of oil meal (oil cake) and the same of 
molasses, divided into 3 parts, for 2 days' feed, added to the skim milk. 
At the end of the first Aveek each may be increased, and at 10 days a 
spoonful of molasses and the same of oil meal may be given at each feed. 
At the commencement of the third Aveek a spoonful of oat or barley 
meal may be added to each feed, but this should be cooked. The oil 
meal should be scalded and allowed to form a thick mucilage before 
being mixed with the skim milk, the molasses may be added direct, and 
the whole given milk warm. Calves raised on this food have weighed 
125 lbs. at 4 Aveeks old. Hay tea is sometimes used to bring up a calf ; 
this is the soluble constituents of the hay, obtained by cooking. 

31 



722 



FATTENING POWER OF FOODS. 



At the noted agricultural college of Ilohenheim, Germany, probably 
the best conducted institution of the kind in the world, they raise calves 
entirely by hand, and the daily allowance of food is as follows : 



MILK. 

lbs. 

1st week 12 . 

2nd " 16 . 

3rd " 20 . 

4th " 22 . 



OATMEAL. 

lbs. 
... .... 
... .... 
... .... 
... .... 



FINEHAT. 

lbs. 











5th, 6th, and 7th weeks 22 1/2 V, 

8th week 21 



9th 
10th 
11th 
12th 
13th 



20 

16 

12 

8 

4 



..y2 
.. 1 
.. 2 
.. 2 
— 2 
.. 3 



. 1 
. 3 

. 6 
.10 
.10 



In the ninth week the milk is first mixed with water, and a little fine 
oatmeal is stirred in. The meal is afterwards mixed with the dry fodder 

After three months the milk is withheld, and then the young animals 
receive daily, till two and one-half years old, from twenty to twenty-two 
pounds of hay or its equivalent. But the calves never after receive, even in 
summer, any dry food till they are nine months old. The average feed- 
ing is so divided that the younger portion receives less, the older more, 
till two and one-half years, when they begin to receive the regular rations 
of the older cattle, including the grain fodder as indicated above. The 
growth with this treatment is such that these animals (not Shorthorns) 
attain the following weights at various ages : — 

HEIFERS. BULLS. 

Average weight of calves at three months 233 lbs 353 lbs. 

" " " " sixmoiiths 351" 472 " 

" " " " twelvemonths 640" 750" 

" " " " two years 1184" 1300" 

Daily increase of calves 1.5" 1.8" 

" '< in second year 1.4" 1.5" 

Fattening Power of Foods, Production of Pork, Beef, &c. — 
Carefully conducted experiments prove that 1 bushel of corn, weighing 
56 lbs., will produce 10^ lbs. of pork. Throwing off J to come at the net 
weight, gives 8 2-5 lbs. of pork as the proceeds of 1 bush, corn, or 1 lb. 
of pork as the product of 6§ lbs. of com. 1 lb. of pork is made by 3 4-5 
lbs. of cooked corn meal. Experiments made by C. M. Clay, of Kentucky, 
showed that one bushel of dry com made 5 lbs. 10 ozs. of pork ; of boiled 
corn, 14 lbs. 7 ozs., and boiled meal, 16 to 18 lbs. The following Table 
shows the relation which the price of corn bears to that of pork on the 
assumption that it requires 6§ lbs. of corn to produce 1 lb. of pork. 

table showing the price of pork per pound at different 
prices per busheii for corn. 




FATTENING POWER OF FOODS. 723 

By reversing the preceding Table -we obtain the price of corn at different 
prices per lb. for pork. The utility of the Table is apparent. For in- 
stance, if corn is selling at 50c. per bushel and pork for only 6c. per lb., 
it would be most profitable to sell the corn ; but should corn be selling at 
40c. per bushel and pork for 6c. per lb., it would be the most profitiible to 
sell the latter. The Table must be regarded as an approximation 
merely, as the results will vary according to the sample of grain, breed, 
constitution, age, digestion, condition, habits, health, &c., of the animal. 

In fattening pigs, peas to begin with are the most valuable food to till 
up the flesh on the bones ; this well accomplished, corn is the most efficient 
in the formation of fat. A mixture of peas and com, or peas and barley, 
will give better results than either of these grains fed separately. Pea-s 
contain in 1,000 parts — 

264 parts gluten, and 496 of starch, gum and sugar. 

Com 123 " " " 716 " 

Barley 64 " " " 684 " " 

Gluten and albumen are /es?i-forming, starch, gum, and sugar, firefat- 
forraing elements. From numerous experiments, Mr. Harris, in his work 
on the pig, deduces the following : that 

A moderately fat heifer or steer will dress 59^ -per cent. meat. 
" «' mutton sheep " " 59"| " " 

" " pio- " " 82iV " " 

Tlie preponderance in favor of the pig is immense. It is remarked by 
an eminent cattle feeder, Mr. Clyde, "that an ox requires two per cent 
of his live weight per day : if he works, 2^ per cent ; a milch cow 3 per 
cent; a fattening ox, 5 per cent at first, and 4^ per cent when half fat, and 
4 per cent when fat ; grown sheep, 3^ per cent to keep them in their 
store condition." An ox, to replace the daily loss of muscular fibre, re- 
quires from 20 to 24 ozs. of dry gluten or vegetable albumen daily. This 
would be supplied by — 

120 lbs. of turnips or 17 lbs. clover hay. 
115 " wheat straw or 12 lbs. peas. 
75 " carrots or 12 lbs. barlej-. 
67 '* potatoes or 10 lbs. oats. 
20 " meadow hay or 5 lbs. beans. 

The Society of Shakers, at Lebanon, N. Y., noted for pork raising, say : 
" For fattening animals, swine particularly, we consider three of cooked, 
equal to four of raw meal." 

" Unless food be thoroughly deprived of its vegetative powers before it 
enters the stomach, the whole nourishment Avhich it is capable of afford- 
ing cannot be derived from it. The most effectual mode of destroying 
the living principle is by the application of heat, by steaming or boiling." 
— Louden' s Encyclopedia of Af/ricultin'e. 

" As to the steaming of food for cattle, there is abundant experience to 
recommend it. The process of cooking renders soluble that which would 
otherwise be imperfectly digested. It removes, in some cases, what 
would otherwise be unwholesome, and it renders savory what would 
otherwise be distasteful." — Morton's Cyclopedia of Agriciitture. 

If 30 lbs. of hay is required per day to keep 1 cow in passable order 
during a Canadian winter, numerous experiments establish the fact 
that 22 lbs. of steamed hay will answer the same purpose equally well. 
This, with 20 head of cattle, will effect a saving of 160 lbs. per day, or 
^150 during 5 winter months, with hay at SlO per ton. 

Augustus Whitman, in the Country Gentleman, writes : "While 28 
lbs. per day of good hay are required to keep dry cows (weighing from 
1,150 lbs. to 1,450 lbs.) in an even condition of flesh, upon 20 lbs. of 
steamed food a handsome gain is made. The trial that furnished tlie 



724 RESULTS OF COOKED FOOD. 

data for the statement was made a year since, when six dry cows, in con- 
dition as nearly alilce as could be found, were divided into three pairs, 
and each pair fed differently from the others for 3 Aveeks ; note was then 
made of the result, and the trial continued anotlier 3 weeks, giving to 
each pair what another pair had previously been allowed. The result 
was, that upon 28 lbs. per day of good dry hay, two cows Aveighing 1,184 
lbs. and 1,456 lbs. respectively, just about held their own ; while another 
pair weighing 1,362 lbs. and 1,120 lbs. respectively, npon 20 lbs. per day 
of steamed feed, gained 54 lbs. and 36 lbs. Reversing the feed for the 
second three weeks, the last named barely held their own, while the first 
gained 40 lbs. and 30 lbs. respectively. 

"I should say that the cattle on long hay had all they would eat at the 
three regular feeds, and the quantity consumed was found to be at the 
close of the trial equal to 28 lbs. per day, as above stated. You will very 
properly ask, what is the mixture made of ? 

" My steam box (in three divisions) holds enough to fill 200 feed boxes 
of about one bushel each, and requires to pack it well UOO lbs. of dry 
fodder. This is made up of 300 lbs. good hay and GOO lbs. of corn stover, 
dried fodder, corn or oat or barley straAv. This is cut tolerably fine and 
well mixed, and Avhen packed in laj^ers for steaming is thoroughly wet 
and seasoned with 180 quarts wheat shorts, 60 quarts cotton seed meal, 
and 60 quarts com meal. 

" Tlie rule for feeding now obserA^ed, and that has been used for the 
past Avinter, is somewhat changed from previous years, and is a boxful 
of steamed feed morning and noon, and 5 lbs, dry hay at night. The two 
boxes of feed contain 3 lbs. good hay, 6 lbs. straw (or its equiA'alent), 1 
lb. shorts, and If lbs. meal (half each cotton seed and corn), and iq^on 
this good gain is made, as the monthly record shoAvs." 

A cheap and serviceable steamer may be improvised by making a box 
of well jointed 2 in. pine, about 7 or 8 feet long by 2;j ft. wide, with a 
bottom of No. 16 sheet iron, nailed securely on to the loAveredge of the 
sides and ends, and turned up a little outside of them, say, ^ an inch. 
Place a false bottom perforated Avith numerous holes, about 3 fns. above 
the fast bottom, and arrange a tight fitting coAer for the top. Set the 
box on brick Avork over a suitable fireplace, so that the Avooden edges of 
the box will be safe from the fire, and give a proper draught by a siiitable 
chimney erected at the opposite end from fireplace. 

The space betAveen the lower and false bottom being partly filled with 
water, the cut hay or other proA'ender is packed tightly in above the false 
bottom, the cover is shut tight, the fire is lighted, and the steam enters 
the perforations in the false bottom and cooks the contents of the box. 

Hon. G. Geddes, of Syracuse, N.Y., says : — "That there is no branch 
of farming that was less understood and promised more advantages, than 
the preparation of food. He had thoroughly proved years ago that 
cookng, independent of grinding, at least doubled the a'Alue of eood." 

Geo. a. Mooke, of Erie Co., said he had fed 200 sheep on cooked food, 
and he had fully satisfied himself that the value of food was tripled by 

COOKING. 

Professor Mapes says ( Transactions American Institute, 1864, p. 373) : 
"The experiment, often tried, has proved that eighteen or nineteen pounds 
of cooked corn is equal to fifty pounds of raw corn f®r hog feed. Mr. 
Mason, of New Jersey, found that pork fed with raw grain cost 12| cents 
per pound, and that from cooked 4^ cents. Cooked com stalks are as 
soft and almost as nutritious as green stalks. Cattle can be fattened at 
about half the expense upon cooked food as upon uncooked." 

Experiments made by Mr. Owen Merchant, of WarsaAv, N.Y. , proved 
that a yoke of jDoor oxen, valued at about $40, were fatted on cooked 



RESULTS OF COOKED FOOD. 725 

potatoes and bran in five weeks and three days, and made extra beef, 
which was sold in the market for first qnality. 

James Buckingham gave in the Prairie Farmer an experiment with 
raw and cooked meal, and found that a hog fed on 1^ bnsliels raw meal 
gained 19 pounds, and another fed on one bushel cooked meal gained 22 
pounds. 

S. H. Clay, of Kentucky, found by experiment that a bushel of raw 
corn makes 5^ pounds of pork, whilst a bushel of cooked meal makes 17^ 
ipounds. 

Mr. A. Avery, of Syracuse, N.Y., says, after two years' trial : — "I 
think I have saved $10 per head on keeping (say $600 on the stock feed), 
besides having the milch cows in better condition than ever before." He 
says again, in April, 1869, " This you see gives me a clear profit of 
S537.25 on 4i months' feed. 

Messrs. Dewev and Stewart, ot Owosso, ]\Iich., says: — "We have fed 
64 head of cattle, 7 horses, and 340 sheep, fattened 22 head of cattle and 70 
sheep. We think we have saved one-third the expense in wintering this 
stock. 

By Professor Yoelorer's analysis, 1 ton of wheat straw contains: — 
35 lbs. of oil, 26 lbs. albumen, 

390 " digestible, 85 " mucilage. 

Experiments by E. W. Stewart, of Xew York, proved a bushel of 
wheat straw with two quarts middlings or meal was equal to the same 
weiglit of ci'.t hay, and was worth 25 per cent, more than uncut hay. It 
was also found that the animals would eat 25 per cent, more haj' uncut 
than cut. The same experiment was then made with corn meal, and li 
pints was found to make a bushel of straw equal to hay. 

Mr. Skinxer, of New York, says he " fed 44 head of milch cows on 
steamed straw and shippings, and 26 head on hay not steamed. The 
straw was cut and steamed with the shippings. Each cow received 10 lbs, 
of straw and 8 lbs. of shippings, and the expense, including labor and 
fuel, was 29 cents per head, daily. The 26 cows on hay cost 35 cents per 
head, daily, showing a balance of 6 cents per day each in favor of the 
straw and shipiDings. Those fed on the straw were full and jjlump, Avere 
gaining flesh, and doing better than those fed on hay." 

In Alcsath, Hungary, similar trials Avere made about the year 1839 on 
a very large scale, resulting in a decided success. The trials were made 
208 draught oxen, 108 davs — daily profit of steaming $13 00 
2,000 old M-ethers, 120 "' " " 12 50 

34 stud horses 180 " " " 142 

The profit on 180 days' winter feeding on the above animals being $4,850, 
an amount quite worth saving. Cooking largely increases the bulk of the 
grain, a great advantage in preparing it for feeding cattle. 
4 measures of com have been increased to 13 
4 " barley " " 10 

4 " bran " " 14 

Thomas J. Edge writes to the Practical Farmer: — "I found that 5 
bushels of whole corn made 471 lbs. of pork. Five bushels {less miller' a 
toll) of com ground and made into thick slop with cold icater, made 54^ 
lbs of pork. The same amount of meal well boiled and fed cold, made 
83J lbs. of pork. The com cost $1.30 per bushel; the pork made from the 
u'hole corn barely paid for the corn, while the same amount of ground 
corn cooked, paid the whole cost of the cooking and a little more than $1 
per bushel over," In this instance the pork sold at $14 per cwt. In a 
second experiment 10 bushels of corn on the cob, fed in the usual way, on 
the ground, made 29^ lbs. of ])ork, while the same amount of shelled, 
gri)uud by horse-power and well boiled, made G4 lbs. of pork. 



726 



RESULTS OF COOKED FOOD. 



J. D. IsETT reports in the Practiced Farmer, that " lie formerly fed 
his team horses 70 lbs. of chop for each horse per week, besides the hay 
they would eat, and that by cooking his chop he found that his horses 
did better, and looked better, kept in better spirits, and in every way 
were better, fed on 50 lbs. per week than on the large amount uncooked, 
making a saving, as he claims, on 8 weeks, of ^57 . 60. 

Note. — 111 steaming hay, chaff, straw, &c., the fodder should first be cut 
and then moistened by a large sprinkling pot or hose, adding water at the rate 
of at least 3 gals, to 5 bushels of feed while it is being stirred up with a fork; 
then, if bran, meal, or other more concentrated foocl is to be fed with it, it 
should be sifted on evenly, and mixed. Sift in a little salt at the same time. 
Food thus prepared and fed to horses affected with the heaves will often effect 
a thorough cure. The steaming process has also a wonderful transforming 
power in rendering mildewed, musty, smutty, and rusted straw, hay, corn, 
fodder, &c., into first-class, nourishing fodder. Every offensive odor and re- 
pulsive taint is completely dissipated by the steaming process. 

In the Praciicw? J^arme/' for Dec, 1868, "Agricola" writes, "I have 
demonstrated to my own satisfaction, with the use of the Prindle 
Steamer * and careful weighing, that while 5 bushels of boiled mush Avill 
make 84 lbs. of pork, 3 bushels of meal and 5 bushels of potatoes will make 
72 lbs. of pork." 




prindle' S AGRICULTUHAL BOILER. 

In doing business on a large scale, it is much the best way to use an 
Agricultural Boiler, like that of Prindle' s, represented in the cut, which 
illustrates the method by which the steam is transmitted to the barrel or 
box containing the fodder to be cooked. The uses of such a contrivance 
are manifold. It may be used to great advantage as a small still for dis- 

* iV^o^e— Fanners will be pleased to learn that this unequalled Agricultural 
Steamer and Farmer's Boiler, is the invention of Daniel R. Prindle, him- 
self a practical farnier, of East Bethany, N.Y. It was victorious at the 
World's Exhibition at Philadelphia in 1876, Full information, circulars, &c., 
obtained free, by addressing the inventor as above, or the manufacturers, 
Barkows, Saveky & Co,, Philadelphia, Pa. 



TIMBER MEASUREMENT. 



727 



tilling essential oils, refining coal oil, boiling clothes, warming bath tubs, 
lieatiug small rooms, scalding hogs, &c. These boilers, made by Savery 
& Co., Philadelphia, are provided Avith safety valves, flexible pipes, &c., 
and may be procured in the United States from Robert C. Reeves, dealer 
in Agricultural implements, &c., 185 and 187 Water Street, New York, 
Another Boiler, somewhat similar, is sold by William Reunie, Toronto, 
Ont. 

Number of Feet in Length of the following Dimensions of Timber 

REQUIRED to MAKE 1000 FEET OF BOARD AND CUBIC MEASURE RE- 
SPECTIVELY. 



Size. 



X 5 
X 6 
X 7 
X 8 

X 9 
X 10 
xll 
xl2 

X 



No. of ft. in 
length to 
make 1000 

ft. cubic m. 



Size. 



6 
X 7 

X 

X 9 



5 

5 

6 

6 

6 

6 

C X 10 

G xll 

6 xl2 
7x7 

7 X 
7x9 
7 xlO 
7 xll 

7 X 12 

8 X 
8x9 
8 xlO 
8 xll 

8 xl2 
9x9 

10 xlO 

9 xll 
9 X 12 

10 XlO 

10 xl2 

11 xll 

11 X 12 

12 xl2 
11 xl6 
IG X 18 
is X 20 
20 x22 
22 x24 



5,760 
4,800 
4,114.3 
3,600 
3,200 
2,880 
2,618.2 
2,400 
4,000 
3,428.7 
3,000 
2,666.8 
2,400 
2,181.8 
2,000 
2,9.38.9 
2,-571.4 
2,285.8 
2,057.3 
1,870.1 
1,714.3 
2,550 
2,000 
1,800 
1,636.4 
1,500 
1,777.9 
1,600 
1,455.5 
1,333.4 
1,440 
1,200 
1,190 
1,091 
1,000 
642.10 
500 
400 
327.3 
272.8 



X 6 

X 7 
X 8 
X 9 

XlO 
xll 
xl2 
2i X 5 
2.V X 6 
2i X 7 
2j X 
2^ X 
2J xlO 
3x5 

X 
X 

X 

X 9 
XlO 
xll 
xl2 
X 5 
X 6 
X 7 
X 8 
X 9 
xlO 
xll 
xl2 
X 6 
X 7 
z 8 
X 9 
XlO 
xll 
xl2 
X 6 
X 7 
X 8 
X 9 



No. of ft. 
in length 
to make 
1000 feet 
board m. 



Size. 



1,0J0 
857.2 
750 
6G6.8 
600 
545.6 
500 
960 
800 
685.9 
600 
533.4 
480 
800 
666.8 
571.5 
500 
444.4 
400 
363.7 
333.4 
600 
500 
428.7 
375 
333.4 
300 
272,8 
250 
400 
342,10 
300 
266.8 
540 
218,2 
200 
333.4 
285.8 
250 
222.2 



No. of ft 
in length 
to make 
1000 feet, 
board m. 



6 


X 10 


6 


xll 


6 


xl2 


7 


x 7 


7 


X 8 


7 


X 9 


7 


X 10 


7 


xll 


7 


xl2 


8 


X 8 


8 


X 9 


8 


XlO 


8 


xll 


8 


X 12 


9 


X 9 


9 


XlO 


9 


xll 


9 


xl2 


10 


XlO 


10 


xll 


10 


xl2 


ill 


xll 


11 


xl2 


12 


xl2 


12 


xll 


12 


X 16 


12 


xl8 


12 


x20 


16 


xl8 


20 


x20 


20 


x24 


22 


x24 


18 


x24 


18 


x20 


14 


xl6 


15 


xl8 


16 


x20 


13 


xll 


30 


x40 


36 


x36 



200 
181.10 
166.8 
244.11 
214.3 
190.6 
171.5 
155.10 
142.10 
187,6 
166.8 
150 
136.4 
125 
148.2 
133.4 
121.3 
111.2 
120 
109.1 
100 
99.2 
90.9 
83.4 
71.5 
62.5 
55.6 
50 
41.8 
30 
25 
22.8 
27.10 
33.4 
53.7 
44.5 
37.6 
66.11 
10 
9.3 



To MEASURE Lumber 
BY THE Board Rule.— 
Place the rule across 
the board to be meas- 
ured, with the far end 
flush with the off side of 
the board, and note the 
width in inches; then 
measure the length of 
board and turn the rule 
to same length, examin- 
ing the section or col- 
umn of that length, and 
the contents will be 
found indented on the 
rule just over the nigh 
edge of the board. 

Rule to measure 
Logs or Round Tim- 
ber.— M u 1 1 i p 1 y the 
length, taken in ft., by 
the square of one quar- 
ter of the mean girth, 
measured in inches, and 
this product divided by 
144 will give the requir- 
ed contents in cubic ft. 
In measuring tapering 
timber take the girth 
about one-third the dis- 
tance from the large to 
the small end. 

Rule for any Size. 
— Multiply the number 
of ft. in the face of the 
timber to be measured, 
by the thickness in 
inches, and the result 
will be the contents in 
ft. of board measure. 



The foregoing table will be found extremely useful to every timber 
merchant, mill ow'ner, lumberman, and farmer. For other tables relat- 
ing to Timber measurement, the reader is referred to the series com- 
nieucing with page 617. 



728 



GEOLOGICAL FACTS. 



GEOLOGICAL FACTS; AGE, ORIGIN AND ULTIMATE 
DURATION OF THE EARTH. 



■ OUuvi nrri . I'-vTi :_■ 



g-^iivsPli Ocene: 



'Miocene.-y c«. v-'? 



- ?^ E Qc en e i=;V:5- =^:-. 



•ChallQ" 







Geologj^ is a noble science of but recent origin ; 
it treats of the structure and mineral construc- 
tion of the earth's crust, the varied strata which 
compose it, the fossils they contain, and the 
tremendous forces employed in their formation. 
The diagram displays the order in which the differ- 
ent strata are super-imposed on each other ; they 
extend to an estimated depth of 82,600 feet or up- 
wards of 15 miles, from the surface down to the 
granite. The granite, styled by geologists, the 
prhnitive, crystalline, or igneous rocks, owing to 
their evident origin from the action of fire, forms 
the foundation of the stratified rocks, and at one 
period the surface of the globe was entirely com- 
posed of these rocks in an incandescent condition 
like molten iron. Gradually cooling during the 
lapse of ages, a crust was formed, Avater was con- 
densed from the atmosphere, and the formation 
of the stratified or aqueous rocks began. As an 
instrumentality in creation, water seems to have 
been endowed with absolute power, for its irre- 
sistible potency appears to be oumipresent in the 
formation of everything terrestrial. Each strati- 
fied layer bears manifest proof of having at one 
time composed the surface of the earth on which 
we dwell, and a duration of time, estimated by 
Prof. Agassiz to be not less than 15,000,000 of 
years have been required to produce the different 
strata that have been formed since first the dry 
land appeared. The substances of which the 
stratified rocks consist have all been deposited by 
the action of water ; each imbeds in its rocky 
prison enormous quantities of the fossil remains 
of organized forms of animal and vegetable life, 
which at one time, although at periods inconceiv- 
bly remote, flourished in the sunshine, on the 
blooming surface of the earth. 

The following table shows the relative position . 
in which these various strata exist with respect to 
each other, computing from the granite upwards 
together with the estimated thickness of each, but 
it must not be imagined that they can all be found 
in any one particular part of the earth. Some 
will always be found missing, the existence and 
absence of such deposits being caused by the 
alternate submersions and dessicatious which have 
existed at different times on every part of the 
earth's surface. All land and stratified rocks 
have been formed by tidal and sub-marine action, 
and whatever the strata may be in any given place, 
the order of their succession is ahcays the same. 
The Primary comprises the Azoic and Cambrian 
or bottom rocks, the Silurian, the Devonian or 
Old Red Sandstone, the Carboniferous or Coal 
System, and the Permian. The Secondary, which succeeds, comprises 




^^ S an<lstoTve;^TSs=^tEag£ 




iiHuT*^ Cambrian. -r-«!^^. ,.- 




•yj^l^woti^'. 



GEOLOGICAL FACTS. 729 

the Trias and Oolite, and the cretaceous or Chalk formation. The 
Tertiary consists of the Eocene, Miocene, Pliocene and the Pleistocene, 
or superficial deposits. 

Feet. 

f Azoic (lifeless) and Cambrian rocks 2G,0U0 

I Silurian, Lower and Upper 30,000 

Primary \ Devonian, or Old lied tjandstone 9,000 

I Carboniferous, or Coal 10,000 

[ Permian 2,000 

Ct^-^/^^ttxa^x. I Trias and Oolite 2,500 

Secondary j cretaceous, or Chalk 1,100 

( Eocene, or lower tertiary 1 

Tttkttakv I Miocene, or middle tertiary i o /^f^^ 

lERTiARi ] Pliocene, or upper tertiary f '^'""" 

[ Diluvium, or superficial deposits J 

86,600 

1st, The ])rimitive or igneous rocks (granite) contain no organic re- 
mains, they bear evidence of having existed at one time in a molten state 
by reason of intense heat. These rocks protrude through the earth in 
many places, forming mountains, &c., in numerous localities, the upheaval, 
as many suppose, being caused by volcanic forces operating from be- 
neath. 

2d. The Cambrian, Azoic, metamorphic or transition rocks are partly 
crystalline, but manifestly stratified, and composed in great part of the 
disintegrated material of the underlying granite, with slight deposits of 
sea shells. The "Azoic "rocks denote those devoid of all traces of or- 
ganic life, 

3d. The Silurian formation resting on the Cambrian, contains remains 
of Zoophytes, Mollusks, and Crustaceans, all of them submarine incerte- 
6 /'a^e animals of a very low order. The Zoophite is a sort of starfish 
fixed on the top of a slender stalk, rising from, and adhering to tlie 
bottom of the water, supplied with long tentacles or fingers, armed with 
suckers stretching forth on all sides to seize their prey and convey it to 
a stomach of a simple organism with one orifice. The mollusks are 
pulpy, boneless creatures w ith or without shells, like the modern oyster, 
muscle, snail or slug. Of the Crustaceans the most highly developed were 
the trilohites', now quite extinct, but at this time existing in great profu- 
sion and variety; the nearest existing resemblance to the "trilobites is 
to be found in the lobster, crab, shrimp, or crayfish families. Of tlie 
vegetable creation no traces are to be found in ' this formation beyond 
the casts of some specimens of Fucoids or sea-weeds. In the Silurian 
formation no vertebrated animals have been anyichere discovered. To this 
class belong all those animals furnished with a vertical spine or backbone, 
with connecting skeleton, as Fishes, Reptiles, Birds, Mammals and the 
Human race. No dry land, or land vegetation existed during this epoch. 

4tli. The Devonian or Old Red Sandstone formation, resting on the 
Silurian, contains the fossil remains of nearly 200 varieties of vertebrate 
fishes. All these fishes were cartilaginous, clad in strong integuments of 
bone composed of enamelled ])lates, instead of the scales which cover the 
existing races of the deep. Owing to the intense internal heat of the globe, 
the water composing the seas during this period were in a tepid or warm 
condition, hence the need of this defensive exterior on the finny tribes. 
As the globe cooled down and the alternations of summer heat and 
winter cold set in (as evidenced by the appearance of aiinual season rings 
in the fossil trees)these fishes disappeared and others came into existence. 
The dawn of the Old Red Sandstone epoch was heralded by tremendous 



7oO GEOLOGICAL FACTS. 

and wide spreTid volcanic explosions causing tlie upheaval of the uiuleily- 
ing granite, lifting with it the super-imposed Cambrian and Silurian strata, 
thereby forming mountains and dry land above the surface of the waters. 
Land vegetation soon followed. Vertebrate fishes were created, their 
armored condition attesting a very high temperature on the earth during 
the whole period. This formation contains 67 species of Zoophytes, 48 
of Crustacea, 88 of conchifera, 82 of mollusca, &c., but no quadrupeds. 

5th. The carboniferovs system, resting on that of the Old Red Sandstone, 
contains deposits of Shale, Sandstone and Limestone, interspersed with 
Ironstone and coal. The internal heat of the earth was still of a high tem- 
perature during this epoch, vast volumes of carbonic acid gas were 
emitted from the ground, hot, hazy, damp vapors filled the atmosphere, 
the conditions of shade, heat and humidity, extending even into the frigid 
zones, generated a growth of Ferns, Calamites, Lepidodendra, Sigillaria 
and Stigmaria of prodigious extent and the most astonishing dimensions. 
These different growths, compared with which the most luxuriant tropical 
vegetation of modern times are but as a howling wilderness or a barren 
desert, existed at widely different periods ; each underwent a • complete 
submersion under water, sand and gravel, and it is to the great masses of 
vegetable matter which comi)osed these primeval forests that the coal 
measures owe their origin. The transmutation of the vegetable into the 
mineral substance of coal has occupied incalculable ages, but on close in- 
spection the vegetable structure is plainly visible, and no doubt can exist 
of its organic origin. 

The fossil remains imbedded in the limestone sections which alternate 
with coal seams mainly resemble those of the preceduig ages. Rep- 
tiles of the Batrachian or frog species, and terrestrial animals in the 
forms of insects of a low order, chiefly of the Scorpion, Cockroach, 
Cricket and Beetle tribes, now first appear. The festering heat was unsuit- 
able to higher organisms, no sunbeam could penetrate the dense mists, 
silence held universal sway, while a profuse, flowerless and almost fruit- 
less vegetation, unparalleled in immensity by any thing ever known in the 
history of this plaiiet, tenanted the sombre and death-like solitudes. These 
forests grew with amazing rapidity until the soft and pulpy masses fell 
beneath their own weight and succeeding forests sprang from their pros- 
trate trunks. A terrible revulsion of nature takes place ; these precious 
materials are destined for the future use of man. Water, the main-spring 
of all terrestrial activity, the irresistible agent of creative power, comes 
upon the scene with overwhelming force, these forests are submerged, 
and covered with strata of sand and gravel, long since transmuted into 
sections of rock. Thus the bosom of the earth was made the store-house 
of those vast treasures of coal and iron which daily minister to the wants 
of man. 

0th. The Permian system is superimposed on the Carboniferous forma- 
tion . Violent subterranean convulsions appear to have dislocated the coal 
beds about the commencement of this epoch, and on the broken masses the 
Permian system of sedimentary rocks were deposited. The ancient order of 
fishes occur in this formation for the lasttime, the Trilobite disappears from 
existence, and undoubted traces of an air-breathhig oviparous reptile of 
the Saurian (lizard) family appear. Fossil footsteps of four-footed ani- 
mals, apparently those of "tortoises, exist, and for the first time we dis- 
cover the annual season rings m the fossil woods, thus attesting that the 
unclouded sunbeam had free access to vegetation. This formation com- 
prises, 1st. The red conglomerate. 2d. The niagnesian limestone. 3d. 
The variegated sandstone. 4th. Muschelkalk ; and 6th. Uppermost, 
Variegated marl. The petrifactions of the vegetables, zoophytes, Crus- 
tacea, fishes and fresh water-shells are numerous. With the Permian 



GEOLOGICAL FACTS. 731 

system closes the Primary or Palaeozoic class of rocks which form the 
earth's crust, and the primeval forms of organized animal life disappear. 

7th. The Secondary Period. — Tlie Trias and Oolite system rests on the 
Permian formation. The Trias is a deposit of shelly limestone and varie- 
gated sandstones. The Oolite, -wliicli rests on it is also a series of calca- 
reous or limestone beds imucipallj* composed of conglomerate, or collec- 
tions of small round grains or spheroids resembling a cluster of minute 
eggs, or the roe of a fish. This epoch has been styled " The Af/e of Hep- 
tiles," from the enormous number of fossil remahis visible in this form- 
ation. One species of frog seems to have equalled a large hog in size. 
The Icthi/osaiirus, an amphibious animal, often exceeded 30 feet in length, 
with a head and teeth resembling those of a crocodile, and eyes as large 
as a man's head, with a huge voracious stomach, and four fins like the 
paddles of a Avhale. The half digested remains of fishes and other rep- 
tiles found in its stomach attest its carnivorous habits, terrible ferocity, 
aud tremendous strength. The Plcsiosaurus "united to the head of a 
lizard the teeth of a crocodile, a neck of vast length resembling the body 
of a serpent, ii trunk and tail having the proportions of an ordinarj-^ quad- 
ruped, the ribs of a chameleon, and the paddles of a whale. " The struc- 
ture would jiermit it to plunge downwards at the fishes below it or seize 
birds on the wing above it. The Meffilosaimis was an enormous reptile, 
measuring from 40 to 50 feet in length, resembling the crocodile of the 
present daj*. The Iguauodon was still larger, attaining a length of from 
00 to 70 feet. The Saurian monsters, the Pterodacttfles, resembled a 
gigantic bat or vampire, with strange dragon-like wings, extending in 
some cases, 27 feet, by means of which it could soar aloft, but per Cuvier, 
it must be classed in the Saurian or Lizard tribe, inasmuch as the beaks 
are armed with teeth." Most of them had the nose elongated like the 
snout of a crocodile, and armed with conical teeth. From their wings 
projected fingers terminated by long hooks, forming a powerful paw, and 
their eyes were of vast size, enabling them to fly by night. In the lower 
Oolite, fossil remains of small animals of the Marsupial family have been 
found. Of this class are the Kangaroo and Opossum species, forming the 
connecting link between the reptile and mammal tribes. The footpriuts 
of birds of vast size have been found in quarries of laminated flagstones, 
the foot of the largest measured 18 inches in length, distance between the 
footsteps was from 4 to 6 feet, indicating legs about 7 feet long. Remains 
of reptiles in immense numbers are everywhere abundant ; butterflies, 
dragon-flies, ants, &c., existed in swarms, trees of Cypress, Palm and Pine 
species flourished with the ferns, conifers and calamites of the coal 
]>eriod, and flowering shrubs and fruit-bearing plants grew in profusiou. 
The extensive coal beds existing throughout the Oolite system afford 
evidence of a rank vegetation. 

8th. The Chalk or Cretaceous system, formed by deposits in deep seas, 
constitutes the last bed of the Secondary period. It is largely composed 
of organic remains, calcareous shells of animals so minute that a cubic 
inch would embrace ten millions of them. The fossils embrace Birds, 
Reptiles, Fishes, ]Mollusks, Zoophytes, Crustaceans and marine substances 
from the sponge to the alligator. ""The existing classes of fishes are found 
for the first time in this formation, and the ancient races disappear. 

9th. The Tertiary System, resting on the chalk formation, has been 
divided into three eras, viz : The Eocene or Loicer Tertian/, The Plio- 
cene, or Middle Tertiary, and the Pliocene, or Upper Tertiary. Some- 
times a fourth era is added jiamed the Pleistocene, embracing the super- 
ficial deposits. The Eocene, or lowest layer marks the origin of the 
recent or now existing races of quadruped Mammals. The Paiietherium, 
now exlinct, is described as partaking of the various character of the 
Il'iiuocerot;, the Horse, and the Tapir : the AnaplotJicrium, evidently a 



7ii2 GEOLOGICAL FACTS. 

marine animal, resembled an Ass in form, and embraced several species. 
The Adapis resembled an enormous Hedgehog, and the Cheiropotamus a 
Peccar3^ The Miocene or middle deposit contains the remains of the 
extinct Dinotherium Oiganteum, an enormous herbivorous animal, which 
must have been 18 ft. in length, furnished with a trunk like an elephant, 
and tusks like those of a walrus. In ascending to the Pliocene or upjjer 
deposit, we find the organic remains of the Mammoth, Mastodon, Megal- 
onyx, and Megathermm, all of immense dimensions and quite superior as 
regards size and strength to the Elephant, the Rhinoceros, the Hippopota- 
mus, and the Sloth, which represent them at the j)resent day. Besides 
these, bears, tigers, hyenas, and other flesh eating animals, some of them 
extinct, abounded in vast numbers, and the Whale, Seal, and Morse 
species now appear for the first time. For a distance of 10 or 12 miles 
around Charleston, S.C, there exists in the post pliocene beds of the 
tertiary formation, about 8 or 10 feet below the surface, and in tlie beds 
of rivers, such enormous quantities of the bones of animals tliat 800 to 
1,000 tons can be exca-\^ated from a single acre. Over 300,000 tons were 
shipped from that locality in 1876. 

According to Lyell, there are now 50,000 species of fossils recognized, 
but they are believed to be of very distant epochs. The fossil species 
distinct from living species, are mammalia, 120, birds, 25, amphibia, 50, 
fishes, 400, and mollusca 3,100, in all 4795, besides vegetables ; the number 
is constantly being increased by new discoveries, miners are conversant 
with an immense number of fossilized vegetables, none of them resembling 
the plants of present growth. If coals are cut into thin slices their vegetable 
structure can be detected with the microscope, and numerous cells per- 
ceived that are filled witli a yellow bituminous liquid that causes the 
flame seen in common fires, and whose gaseous products form illuminating 
gas. The trunk of a tree, measuring 60 feet, was lately found in a quarry 
in Lothian. It penetrated tlirough 10 or 12 strata of white sandstone, but 
its back had become pure coal, and forests of standing trees have been 
discovered in Yorkshire and in Ireland, in stone. 

In the English coal measures, 300 species have been detected, compris- 
ing ferns, palms, calamites, reeds, cactie, lepidodendrons, &c., at least 
50,000 years old ; the last named, which now grow no higher than 3 ft., 
were in the lowest coal measures, great trees, whose fragments are 45 
feet. In the magnesian limestone, over the coal, only 8 species of f uci, 
or marine plants, have been found. A fossil forest has been discovered 
nnder the banks of the Tiber, petrified with calcsinter, mixed -witli vol- 
canic dust. Below the coal beds a large tree has been found 3 ft. in diam., 
and 36 ft. long, and in many cases the entire trunks of fossilized trees 
form roofs over the coal strata. As submersions destroyed the primeval 
forests, so Ave have the resulting strata ; but myriads of ages have failed 
to render all of them perfect coal, hence the different varieties of that 
product. 

The coral reefs furnish evidence of an antiquity of the globe far exceed- 
ing any received estimate. The formations are of very slow groAvth, not 
exceeding 6 inches in a century, and are composed of the remains of dead 
polypes united with gluten, forming rocks of great density and cohesion. 
The great coral reef of New Holland is 350 miles, continuously, and then 
in parts 1,000 miles, and from 20 to 50 in depth. East of iSIew South 
Wales is a reef 500 miles long, and more than 200 fathoms perpendicular, 
yet these mountain masses of limestone in the ocean are formed by pol- 
ypes, insignificant in size, but infinite in numbers, composed of simple 
gelatinous bodies, or small stomachs in shells of carbonate of lime, which 
cohere together with great tenacity after death. Within half a mile of 
many coral reefs there are no soundings to the depth of several himdred 



GEOLOGICAL FACTS. 733 

fathoms. The Ammonites, a fossil shell in a spiral form, curved like a 
ram's hom, existed in various shapes during the secondary and transition 
periods, but became extinct, perhaps, 100,000 years ago. The nummulitc, 
a fossil Cephalapod, resembhug a coin, were so numerous as to form im- 
mense mountains of limestone, and yet so ancient tliat they are abundant 
in the stones of the pyramids and sphinx, yet even then as embedded fos- 
sils. 1234 species of fossil shells have been described in France and Eng- 
land,. mostly extinct species : other thousands have been foimd in other 
countries, mostly extinct. 

The Geological Society of London has a slab 2 ft. square in which is 
embedded 250 fishes. Fossil sea turtles have shells 8 ft. long. There aie 
beds of sea shells 2,000 ft. high on ]Mount Etna, and strata of grey clay, 
filled Avith shells, much higher. Shells and organic remains abound in 
Chili, from 9 to 1,400 ft. above the sea level. Workmen near Eureka, 
Nevada, Avhile blasting in the solid rock, 40 ft. below the surface, found 
imbedded in a piece of it a petrified wasp's nest, the texture of 
which, though turned to stone, was plainly visible. On breaking it open, 
some cells, larva, and two perfectly formed wasps were found, also pet- 
rified. The rock is of a granite sandstone of sedimentary formation. 
The AtlcDitosaurus, an enormous monster from Colorado, is per Prof. 
Marsh, the largest land animal as yet discovered. It was some 60 or 60 
ft. in length, and, when erect, at least 30 ft. liigh. It doubtless browsed 
upon the foliage of the mountain forests, portions of which are preserved 
with its remains. 

The islands of the Icy Sea, per Pallas, are full of elephants and rhinoc- 
eros' bones, and the islands opposite the Lena are almost composed of them 
and fossil wood. A mammoth, a carnivorous animal, much larger than 
an elephant, was found in Siberia in the ice, perfect in its eyes, flesh, hair, 
skin, &c., with long mane and tail of stout black bristles ; many others, 
together with elephants, have been found in Siberia, and Hudson's Bay, 
a positive proof that tlie temperature of the Tropics existed at one time in 
these regions. The bones of the Mastodon of North America, as arranged 
in Peale's Museum, form a skeleton 18 ft. long, 11 ft. 5 ins. high, -with 
tasks, 10 ft. 7 ins. The If/iiamadoji, an enormous herbivorous reptile, dis- 
covered by Mantell, is 70 ft. long, the body is 4 ft. 9 ins. in diam., witli a horn 
of bone, and a tail 52-^- ft. The bones of the Mammoth are quite numerous 
in the United States ; the molar tooth Aveighs 8 lbs. , and the joint of the 
bone of the leg is a foot in diam. 

The Era of Supekficial Deposits. — This may be called the modern 
age of geology, but what 1 luman being Avill presu m e to say Avh en it began ? 
The formations of gravel, sand, clay, peat, marl, coral reefs, &c., have 
been formed since this epoch commenced, and vast changes caused by 
submersions and convulsions have taken place all over the globe. These 
silent but irresistible forces, the tools of creative power, are incessantly 
at work rendering the Avorld a fit habitation for man, and as Ave approach 
this momentous period of the Av^orld's history Ave also discover for the 
first time, evidences of the existence of those plants and cereals Avhich 
furnish his daily bread. Agassiz has recorded his opinion, that the order 
of the Rosacea?, to Avhich belong the apple, i)ear, the plum, and the various 
fruits of that description, as Avell as the raspberries, straAvberries, bram- 
bleberries, and roses in all their varieties, Avere introduced, contempora- 
neously with, or only a short time before, the first appearance of the 
human race. The gradual transformation of varieties since the ferns of 
the coal period, is indeed immense. 

During the glacial ]:)eriod, in Avliich the climate of Greenland extended 
as far south as New York, the Avorld was covered Avith immense moving 
masses of ice, Avhich in their progress from north to south moved rocks 



734 GEOLOGICAL FACTS. 

Imndreds of miles and remodelled the topography of various countries. 
The effects of these glacial movements were the pulverization of the 
various rocks, thus forming sand from sandstone, calcareous soil from 
limestone, and clay from granite and gneiss, transforming barren rock 
into fertile soil. 

The alluvial deposits contain remains which indicate a vast antiquity. 
The skeleton of a whale was dug up in the vicinity of Niagara a few 
years ago, a sure indication that that region formed at one time the bed 
of an ocean. All the land about the Clyde rests upon beds of shells, 
bones of stags, elephants, &c., and at Yealm Bridge, and Ketley, near 
Plymouth, there are caves containing bones of rhinoceroses, elephants, 
hyenas, bears, foxes, wolves, dogs, horses, oxen, sheep, &c. Agassiz 
describes 300 new species of fossil fish found in England, of which 50 
exists in London clay. A bed of oyster shells 9 miles long and 18 feet thick 
exists in the interior of Norfolk; a pair of stags' horns have been found on 
the shores of the Mersey, near Liverpool, at 30 feet, and pieces of timber 
at 40 feet. Palms and cocoa nuts have been found imbedded in the 
London clay, clearly indicating the exit;tence at one time of a tropical 
climate in what is now the temperate zone. An old Roman port off 
Romney marsh is now several miles out at sea, and proofs are abundant 
that Great Britain was at oue time united to the continent. 

No doubt exists that tlie Falls of Niagara were at one time precipitated 
into an ocean over Queenston Heights, and Sir Charles Lyell computes 
that a period of at least 30,000 to 33,000 years have elapsed Avhile the 
falls have been cutting their way through seven miles of rock to their pre- 
sent position ; the retrograde movement is still going on, slowly but surely, 
every day. 

A volcano now extinct, near Mount D'Orr in the interior of France, 
emitted a flow of lava at a comparatively recent period,, which filled 
up the channel of a river in its course. The water rose, passing over 
the impediment in its course, and has up to this time cut a channel 
50 feet deep through the lava bed. From the remains of an old 
Roman bridge known to have been constructed about 2000 years ago, it 
appears that the erosion of the water into the lava has been con- 
siderably less than six inches during that period, which would indicate 
that it has required over 200,000 years to cut the channel to its present 
depth of 50 feet. 

Myriads of ages have elapsed while the rushing waters have been 
cutting out those tremendous ravines in the hard rock, known as 
the Canyons of Mexico, Texas, Colorado, and the Rocky Mountains. 
The great Canyon of the Colorado river is 298 miles long and 
the sides rise j)erpendicularly above the water to a height of 5000 or 
6000 feet. 

On Oak Orchard creek and the Genesee river, between Rochester and 
Lake Ontario, are enormous chasms, worn by the water, 7 miles long. 
On the Genesee, south of Rochester, a cut exists from Mount Morris to 
Portage, sometimes 400 feet deep. In the Rocky Mountains, near the 
source of the Missouri river, there is a gorge 6 miles long and 1200 feet 
deep. In the Mississippi, at St. Anthony's Falls, the river has eroded a 
passage through limestone rock 7 miles long, to which distance the 
cataract has receded. In the passage of the Connecticut river at Brattle- 
boro and Bellows Falls, it can be proved that the river was once at least 
700 feet above its present level. 

From these and thousands of other proofs which might be cited, the in- 
ference is ima voidable that vast periods have elapsed since the beginning 
cf the present geographical distribution of sea and land, but step by step, 
during the slow but majestic march of Time, we can always see that ever i^ 



ORIGIN, ETC., OF THE EAKTII. i bO 

instrumentality employed by creative power has been in the continual 
effort to bring order out of chaos and fit the earth as a habitation lor man. 



FIAT LUX. 

GREAT LIGHT ON A DARK SUBJECT. 

Age, Origin, and Ultimate Duration of the Earth.— More than 
140 years have elapsed since Emanuel Swedenborg penned the startling 
announcement, the first of the kind ever made, that our earth, together 
with her sisterhood of planets, derived their origin from matters and sub- 
stances evolved from the atmospheres and solar energy of the sun of our 
system. In his Principia, written in 1734, and again in hisWorshijo and 
Love of God, in 1745, he remarks that the sun is the centre of a vortex; 
that it rotates upon its axis ; that the solar matter concentrated itself into a 
belt, zone, or ring, at the equator, or rather ecliptic; that by the attenua- 
tion of the ring it became disrupted ; that upon the disruption, part of the 
matter collected into globes, and part of the matter subsided into tlie sun 
forming solar spots ; that the globes of solar matter were projected into 
space ; that consequently they described a spiral orbit; that in proportion 
as the igneous matter thus projected receded from the sun it gradually 
experienced refrigeration and consequent condensation ; that hence fol- 
lowed the formation of the elements of ether, air, aqueous vapor, &c. , 
until the planets finally reached their present orbit ; that during this 
period the earth experienced a succession of geological changes which 
originated all the varieties in the mineral kingdom, and laid as it were 
the basis of the vegetable, and afterwards of the animal, kingdom. 

These were alarming propositions to i)ropound at a time when it was 
almost universally accepted as a literal truth that the world was created 
out of nothinf/ in the space of six natural days about 6000 years ago, yet 
since Swedenborg's time scientists have abundantly demonstrated the 
truth of what he taught, and this so clearly that at this day no enlighten- 
ed mind will dispute the facts. 

Swedenborg asserted that the whole starry heavens was one vast sphere, 
and its suns or stars, including their systems, to be parts of a sphere con- 
nected with each other. He writes, " Possibly there may be innumer- 
able other spheres, and innumerable other heavens, similar to those we 
behold, so many indeed and so mighty, that our own may be respect- 
ivelj'- onlv a point. " Tlie Essay in his immortal Principia, expressly 
called " The Theory of the Siderial Heavens," giving full details of the 
system, was published in 1733, long before the advent of monster tele- 
scopes, twenty-two j-ears before Kant, twenty -four j^ears before Lambert, 
twenty-six years before Boscovitch, thirty-four years before Mitchell, 
and forty-four years before Herschel gave the result of their confirmatory 
discoveries to the world. 

The grandest and latest discovery of modern astronomy is the motion 
of the so-called fixed stars, yet long before this discovery was announced 



7oG ORIGIN, ETC., OF THE EARTH. 

Swedeuborg asserted that the whole universe was iu motion, and that the 
paths which the countless suns with their systems were traversing was the 
Milky- Way. and that the point at which they entered was at the south, 
and that at which they emerged was at the north. The truth of this 
theory has been demonstrated and accepted within the last thirty years 
by Humboldt, Herschel, and other eminent observers. The knowledge of 
these movements enable astronomers to predict, with absolute certainty, 
the different changes the various constellations will undergo during the 
lapse of ages to come, and define the reasons and causes of such 
changes. 

The fact is well attested that our Sim is only one of a million which trav- 
erse the Milky Way. In the crowded part of the Milky Way, Sir W. Her- 
schel, the prince of astronomers, had fields of view in Avhich, during a 
quarter of an hour, he saw 116,000 stars pass through the field of view of a 
telescope of only 15' aperture; and at another time, in 41 minutes, he saw 
258,000 stars pass through the field. It consists mostly of stars of the 
10th or 12th magnitude, but too numerous to be seen by the naked eye, 
which can only discriminate stars of the 6th or 7tli magnitude ; power- 
ful telescopes reach even to a 16th magnitude. He calculated the length 
of the visual ray of the telescope he used. It reached stars 497 times 
the distance of Sirius ; now Sirius cannot be nearer than 100,000 X 190,- 
000,000 miles, therefore Dr. Herchel's telescope, at least, reached to 100,- 
000 + 190,000,000 + 497 miles = 9941 billions miles. He saw stars 42,000 
times more distant that Sirius ; and a cluster 11 trillions of miles distant. 
He says there are nebulae from which light is 48,000 years travelling ! 
Light travels 192,000 miles in a second, or 6^ trillions of miles per annum, 
then in 48,000 years this would be 304,000,000,000 of millions of millions 
of miles distant ; if the cluster ceased to exist we should not know it for 
48,000 years ! Such distances can indeed be written, but can never be 
conceived by the mind of man. 

It is a trifling matter to reduce these figures to writing, but quite an- 
other thing to realize their full significance. 

To assist our conception of what constitutes a "billion," we will take 
as a unit a second of time, of which 60 flit away in a minute, or 86,000 in 
a day. Not the one-sixteenth part of that number have come and gone 
since the commencement of the Christian era to the beginning of 1878, for 
it takes exactly 31,687 years, 17 days, 22 hours, 45 minutes, and 5 seconds 
to constitute a billion of seconds of time. 

The immensity and grandeur of the Heavens penetrates every enlight- 
ened mind with indescribable emotions of awe and reverence for the 
Almighty energies of that Adorable Intelligence who created and sus- 
tains the whole. 

Touching the stability of the solar system, it was feared by many, 
eminent for their attainments and acquirements in every branch of 
human learning, that owing to the mighty changes and apparent derange- 
ments which were occurring in the planetarj^ orbits, that impending ruin 
and destruction would ultimately render the earth uniivliabitable for man. 
At a time when the belief was prevalent that certain destruction aAvaited 
the whole universe, Swedeuborg announced to the world his theory that: 
" As the solar system is carried along through the Milky- Way, and after- 
wards compelled to diverge therefrom, the planetary orbits will change 
their form and eccentricity to a certain amount, and then return to 
their original condition, when they will again change and again return, 
and so on to eternity." This beautiful and harmonious theory, so well 
calculated to terminate every groundless fear, has since been proved and 
demonstrated by La Grange, and this doctrine of a cyclar return of the 
solar system is now known among the learned as t^ Grange's theory 



ORIGIN, ETC., OF THE EAUTH. 737 

of the stability of the solar system; nevertheless this doctrine was ex- 
pounded in S\vedenborg's Fn'ncipia forty-fonr yeai"s before La Grange 
put his forth, seventy-oue years before Mayer, and ninety-one years 
before Bessel. 

, Irregularities in planetary motions correct themselves, because every 
motion, included in the motion of the Sun, is itself subordinate, and 
therefore must ultimately conform. The planets being acted upon by the 
common force of the sun, they often interfere on the same side with the 

I sun's force on that side, and this begets irregularity or disturbance. 

; oddly called their own attractions. 

La Grange proved that the mass of each planet into the square-root of 
the line of apsides, and into the square of the eccentricity, give sums that 
are invariable. It will be seen from the preceding article that the worlc 
of creation has been ]irogressing during incalculable myriads of ages, and 
we may rest satisfied that it forms no part of the Divine economy to 
destroy what it has been millions of years in building up. The agencies 
emploj-ed in the creation of the universe are identical with tho.se which 
now exisit for its preservation. Harmonj^ and perfection are everywhere 
real entities; derangement and disorder are apparent only. That the 
Sim's apparent path through the ecliptic is really caused by the motion of 
the earth in its orbit around the sun, may be seen from the globes in the 
figure, representing the earth iu twelve different positions, corresponding 




to the twelve months. In the various globes, IST is the north ])ole, DCL 
the equator, S the place of the Sun, and C S and all lines from C parallel 
to this the direction of the plane of the ecliptic. The inclination of the 
earth's axis to the plane of its orbit is 23° 28', and this, with its annual 
revolution around the Sun, causes the change of seasons knoAvn as 
Spring, Summer, Autumn and Winter. Besides the diurnal and annual 
movements of the earth, there is also an onward movement of the Avhole 
solar system through space, in an orbit of its own, at the rate of 154,000,- 
000 miles per annum. 

Swedenborg asserts that there is an internal or spiritual sense concealed 
within the letter, or natural sense of the Word, comparable to the 
soul or spirit of man, which fills the human body just as the hand fills a 
glove. This sense he unfolds by means of the science of correspondences, 
the knowledge of which he claims was revealed to him. For instance, 
wherever the end of the World is foretold or predicted in the Word, he 
says that by this we are not to understand the end of the natural world, 
but the church or dis]iensation existing in the world, the latter being: 



738 ORIGIN, ETC., OF THE EARTH. 

used in a symbolic sense to represent the former. If after this statement 
any one persists in adhering to a literal interpretation, let him take a 
good concordance and examine under the Avords " ever" and " forever " ; 
he -will find to liis amazement that there are just as many proofs to sustain 
the theory of the everlasting duration of th6 earth as there are to prove 
its destruction ! In tliis case what can a man gain by refusing his assent 
to the truth as unfolded by Swedenborg ? 

In his work descriptive of the Last Judgment, which Swedenborg avers 
has already taken place, not in this, but in the spiritual Avorld, during the 
year 1757, the following passage occurs : 

"Tliat the procreations of the human race will continue to eternity, 
is plahi from many considerations, and of which the following are the 
principal : — I. Tliatthe human race is the basis on which heaven is founded. 
II. That the liuman race is the seminary of heaven. III. That the ex- 
tension of heaven, which is for angels, is so immense that it cannot be 
filled to Eternity. IV. That they are but few respectivel}^, of Avhom 
heaven at present is formed. V. That the perfection of heaven increases 
according to plurality. VI. And that every Divine work has respect to 
Infinity and Eternity. The angelic heaven is the end for which all things 
in the universe were created, for it is the end on account of which man- 
kmd exists, and mankind is the end regarded in the creation of the visible 
heaven, and the earths included in it; wherefore that Divine work, 
namely, the angelic heaven, j)rimarily has respect to Infinity and 
Eternity, and therefore to its multiplication, without end, for the Divine 
Himself dwells within it. Hence also it is clear, that the human race will 
never cease, for were it to cease, the Divine work would be limited to a 
certain number, and thus its respectiveness to Infinity would perish. 
The Lord did not create the universe for His own sake, but for the sake 
of those with whom He will be in Heaven ; for spiritual love is such, that 
it wishes to give its own to another; and as far as it can do this it is in its 
being, in its peace, and in its blessedness: spiritual love derives this from 
the Divine Love of the Lord, which is infinitely such ; from hence it fol- 
lows that the Divine Love, and hence the Divine Providence, has for its 
end a heaven, which may consist of men made angels, to wliom He can 
give all the blessed and happy thhigs which are of love and wisdom, and 
give them from Himself in them." L. J. G, 

It will console and comfort many honest but simple-minded thinkers 
who believe otherwise, to be told that although these staitling facts 
seem to jar with terrific force against their cherished articles of faith, 
and even to oppose revealed truth, it is nevertheless most true, tliat 
tliey do not, even in the slightest degree, enter into conflict with revela- 
tion. There is a science of spiritual truth and there is a science of natural 
truth ; there is the Book of Revelation and there is the Book of Nature ; 
the same Omnipotent Hand has written both, each must be understood 
in a sense peculiar to itself, and when so understood, there can be no con- 
tradiction between them. Wherever contrariety or discordance appears, 
tlie error, if any exists, is in man himself and in his natural proneness 
to receive appearances as truths. During a depth of time not to be 
penetrated, mankind inferred, from the apparent motion of the sun, 
planets, and stars, that they revolved around the earth once m 24 
hours, but now every school-boy knows that this idea is a fallacy, and an 
outrage on natural truth, the real truth being that in every passnig 
hour we are moved by the earth's rotation on its axis 1,037 miles, 
and in its orbit 66,092 miles, the diurnal motion causing the apparent 
motion of the heavenly bodies around the earth. Many readers 
infer, from a perusal of the first chapter of Genesis, that it is 
simply a narrative of the creation of tlie world on which we dwell, yet 



ORIGIN, etc:, of the EARTH. 739 

still it must be said, that althonsh this belief is all but universal among 
the great masses of society-, it is nevertheless as gross an outrage on 
spiritual truth as the first noted fallacy is on natural truth. The sublime 
narration recorded in Genesis does not treat of natural creation, for being 
Divmely composed it is to be understood in a sense entirely different 
from merely human writings. This style is such that it describes spirit- 
ual things by means of pure correspondences, similitudes, types, and 
symbolic imagery drawn from earthly things. The subject treated of is 
indeed concerning a new creation, but one more momentous by far tlian 
even the creation of a world. Many modern theologians are afraid to - 
enter on an interpretation of this chapter on account of its alleged conflict 
with the known facts of science, but the theology that could be endanger- 
ed by such an investigation is worthy of no man's acceptance. Under- 
stood naturallj', what reflecting mind could conceive of the existence of 
light, evening and morning, day and night, and grass, before the creation 
of the Sun ; in such case what coidcl exist but universal darkness and 
Arctic desolation ! In the first chapter, v. 21, " every living thing that 
mo veth " is described as being created and "brought forth abundantly 
after their kind," bj' the waters; in chap. ii. v. 19, " every beast of the 
field and fowl of the air " is described as being " made out of the ground." 
Understood literally, or in the sense of the letter, these statements are 
contradictory to everj^ rational idea, but when interpreted according to 
the law of correspondences they are divinely true even as to their minutest 
details. 

At this da}', amidst the crash of creeds framed by self-derived intelli- 
gence, when many are announcing from the pulpit the impending ruin 
of our planet, when brazen infidelity proclaims from the platform to ap- 
plauding audiences that there is no hereafter, and scoffs at sacred things, 
it must gratify every lover of truth to- learn that there exists in Sweden- 
borg's theological writings a sj'stem ot doctrine and scriptural interjireta- 
tion absolutely impregnable agamst every assault of the enemy. From 
the wonderful story of Genesis to the sublime visions of the Apocalypse, 
the searcher after truth Avill find the veil of mystery lifted from a thou- 
sand questions which have for ages puzzled the wisest commentators. The 
sj'stem of interpretation is unerring in its logic, inflexible in its allegiance 
to truth, a]id astonishing in its minuteness of detail. In an article in a 
recent number of the Galaxy, in relation to the contest between science 
and religion, the writer says : " The modern school of Free Thought has 
found its one serious opponent, and its only one, in Emanuel Swedenborg, 
whose writings, first issued more than a century since, have had an ef- 
fect on the whole tone of thought and metaiDhysics, such as few i)eople 
suspect, and hardly any realize. 

"It must be remembered that Swedenborg published his first (theolog- 
ical) book in 1749, and that his theological activity covered the \evy 
period wherein the French and English school of scientific inquiry, skep- 
ticism, and free thought, was beginning to be most active. 

"In the midst of this period of intellectual bustle and activity, the 
Seer of the North, secluded in his lonely study among tlie Suedish 
forests, with nothing before him but a Hebrew Bible and Greek Testa- 
ment, was calmly writing those wonderful books which he asserts to be 
the result of direct revelations from the Deity. 

" The only system that remains able to-day freely to admit the most un- 
compromising results of scientific inquiry without fear or question, and 
at the same time to hold to the absolute truth of Holy Writ in every jot 
and tittle, appears to be that proclaimed by Swedenborg. 

" The system of theology it propounds is purelyand uncompromisingly 
monotheistic. An Arab could not quarrel with it on that score. It is. 



740 ORIGIN, ETC., OF TIIK EARTH. 

at the same time, so purely Christian that the most zealous evangelical 
of the extreniest tj-pe can find no fault with it, making as it does the 
Saviour and Kedecmcr its grand central figure. 

" Finallj', it is able to concede to the boldest of materialists, the most 
acute of historical critics, the most ardent evolutionist, the most dogmatic 
of palieontologists. the most abstruse of metaphysicians, every thiug 
whicli they can possibly claim to have proved, every truth, however con- 
trary to current theological opinion, Avliich they can establish, Avliile at 
the same time it holds to the absolute truth of every word of Holy Scrip- 
ture. 

" Nothing seems to shake its faith in the slightest ; it shuns no in- 
quiry and needs no explanation of any fact, everything being plain, the 
Bible its only sfcindard." 

In the Cyclopiedia of Biography, by Parke Godwin, we read : *' Swe- 
denborg was no impostor, but a learned and pious man, and his books 
richly repay the most careful study," 

The iVbncon/b/'m/.si (English) assures us that: "He (Swedenborg) is 
received by all thinkers courteously, and by very many cordially. The 
storm of violent denunciation or angry ridicule which was launched against 
him by theologians a generation ago, is scarcely remembered now, and is 
not likely to be revived. All are agreed that he was a genuine and sin- 
cere man, who believed his own words, and did not wilfully deceive or 
invent." 

Hon. Theophilus Parsons, late Professor in the Cambridge Law School, 
says : " I regard him (Swedenborg) as a man of remarkable ability, and 
great and varied culture ; taught, as no other man ever was taught, 
truths whicli no other man ever learned ; and thus instructed that he 
might introduce among men a new system of truth or doctrine, excelling 
in character and exceeding in value any system of truth before known." 

Speaking of Swedenborg and his writings, Henry James, the author of 
" Substance and Shadow," says : " Such sincere books, it seems to me, 
were never before written." 

Bishop Hurd (author of Lectures on Prophecies) says : " It has been 
said by some, and received implicitly witliout further examination by 
others, that Swedenborg, after receiving his extraordinary commission, 
was mad, and became totally deprived of his natural senses ; but this in- 
sinuation is such a palpable contradiction of truth, and such an insult to 
common sense — being overruled by every page of his writings as well as 
by every act of his life after that period — tliat Ave should have thought it 
altogether unworthy of notice \vere we not aware that it operates power- 
fully with many, even at this day, to prejudice them against a character 
which otherwise they would revere, and against Avritings from which they 
would otherwise receive the most welcome instruction." 

The venerable Thomas Carlyle, having looked upon the great seer all 
his life as a visionary lunatic, iiow says that he stands rebuked. He looks 
upon Swedenborg as one of the loftiest minds in the realm of mind, one 
of the spiritual suns that will shine brighter as the years goon ; and that 
more truths are compassed in his writings than that of any other man. 
His great prescience with regard to modern scientific discoveries, since 
made known, is astonishing. 

George Dawson, M. A. writes : "Emanuel Swedenborg had the privi- 
lege which belongs to all men who devote their lives to thought, that as 
the world grows older, they get more reverenced, better known, and 
better loved. If I were going to be shut up in prison three years, Swe- 
deuborg's books would be my choice, and at the end of three years it 
would be six more before I should find them uninteresting, strange, or 
drv." 



ORIGIN, ETC., OF THE EARTH. 711 

Dr Porteoua writes* '"The incomparable depth, splendor, and vapt- 
ness of S\vedenborj;'H genius are shown in this, that ho alone has ever 
dared to tread the threefold realm of natural, mentjil, and spiritual i)lii- 
losophy. Few men have approached the hem of his garment in respctt to 
moral purity, his teaching and example are calculated to make men 
meek, gentle, and charitable, and his followers catholic, intelligent and 
pious. 15xamine all tlie philosophical systems extjint and take all the re- 
ligious literature of the last century, and place them in one scale, and 
take the voluminous works of Swedenborg, and place tliem in tlie other 
scale, and the philosophy and libraries of the world will kick the beam." 
R. M. Patterson, late Professor in tlie university of Pennsylvania, says 
respecting Swedenborg's Principia : " It is an extraordinary production of 
one of the most extraordinary inen that has ever lived, many of the exper- 
iments and observations presented in this work are believed to be ofmnch 
more modern date, and are xuijastly aaeribed to mark more recant anthors.'' 

" There is in Swedenborg's writings a marvellotis insiglit, a vision of 
the higher truths of philosophy and religion, U) which few men have at- 
tained." — N. Y. Independent. 

" The majority think and speak of Emanuel Swedenborg as a mystic 
and dreamer, when in fact, he was a practical man, an inventor, and i)ub- 
lic benefactor. The metrical system, now under discussioji, Avas first 
suggested by him, and the Dutch are indebted to him for important im- 
provements in their docks and dykes." — Literari/ World. 

" Swedenborg's writings teeni with the grandest and profoundest 
truths." — North American. 

Count Von Ilopken, for forty years an intimate friend of Swedenborg's, 
and for many years Prime Minister of Sweden, advised the king "that 
no religion coiild be better, as the prevailing and established one, than 
that deduced by Swedenborg from the Sacred Scriptures, and this on tlie 
two following accounts : 1st. This religion in preference to, and in a high- 
er degree than any other, must produce the inost honest and industrious 
subjects ; for this religion ])laces jiroperly tlie ioor.<<hiff of God in uses. 
2d. It ciiu.ses the least fear of death, as this religion regards death 
merely as a transition from one state into another, from a worse to a 
better situation ; nay, upon his principles, I look npon deatli as being of 
hardly any greater moment than drinking a glass of water." 

T. S. Arthur, tlie world renowned author, writes : " Only in the reve- 
lations made for the New Church, in whicli the plenary insi)iration and 
inner and Divine Sense of the Word, and the true doctrine of the Lord and 
his Providence, are f idly explained and made knowji for the salvation of 
mankind, can be seen in rational light, the truths on which Christian 
unity and harmony can be established, and by which the growth of natu- 
ralism, skepticism, and irreverent infidelity cau be arrested and de- 
stroyed." 

The Rev. Prof. Von Goerres (Roman Catholic) writes : — "Swedenborg 
was not a man to be cai'ried away by an unbridled imagination, still less 
did he ever manifest, during his Avliole life, the slightest symptoms of 
mental aberration. Throughout the entire course of his learned re- 
searches and activity, we everywhere discover the pious and religious 
man, who, in all his sayings and doings, was intent upon good." 

P'dwin Paxton Hood, in the preface to his Life of Swcdenborf/, writes: 
" That he conceives he has derived in uch benefit from the study of the 
works of Swedenborg, and has inuch reason to be grateful to that illus- 
trious, venerable and much misunderstood, and comparatively unknown 
man." 

Desif/n and Work (English) sa5\s of the Apocalypse Revealed: "A 
careful perusal of many of its 900 and odd pages has led us to cease won- 



7-12 ORIGIN, ETC., OF THE EARTH, 

doring at the favct* with which this modern edition has been received, 
and to recommend others to follow our examjple. Many a sermon have 
we listened to on the Revelations. Several works, dealing with the gor- 
geous panorama unfolded before the internal vision of the Seer of Pat- 
mos, how we travelled through, wondering at the inventive faculty as 
displayed by commentator and preacher, but too often feeling that a 
stone had been given ns instead of bread. Whoever takes earnestly to 
the consideration of the pages of the ' Swedish Seer,' will find that there 
is more in his text-book than he has given it credit for ; that it contains 
truths illimitable ; that in their expounding no meretricious aids are re- 
quired ; that it appeals, not to the eye or the ear, but to the deepest 
depths of the human heart and mind. Whosoever will read it patiently 
and carefully must rise uj) from its perusal a "wiser, a more charitable, al- 
together a better man." 

The Chicago Advance writes : "We confess to having read for years 
some portion of his works with intellectual and spiritual profit, and we 
imaghie at least that Ave can trace his influence in the conceptions and 
reasoning of many modern authors of distinction, who do not always give 
Swedenborg the credit he deserves." 

The writer of this book has no pecuniarj'^ interest whatever in the 
sale of Swedenborg's writings, but conceives it to be his duty to present 
these testimonials in vindication of a most deserving and worthy man, 
whose writings have been greatly misrepresented and misunderstood. 
A hundred years hence such a vindication Avill be nnnecessary. It is a 
veritable truth that Swedenborg has rendered greater services to man- 
kind than anj'^ other mfln ever did or ever can render, and this fact is 
becoming better known every day. When he began to Avrite and pro- 
mulgate his system of doctrines, a noted Lutheran bishop and doctor got 
up a complaint against him. The doctor, Avhose name was Ekebom, had 
the honesty to say of himself, that he Avas Aery careful not to examine 
Swedenborg's Avorks. Swedenborg, however, Avas a man of good character 
and connections, and led such a blameless, quiet, calm, and peaceful life, 
that it was found impossible to arouse popular sentiment against him. 

Since Swedenborg's day, two men, Avho have all the animosity', but 
lack the honesty, of Dr. Ekebom, viz : Dr. Pike, of Derby, Eng., and 
Enoch Pond, of Bangor, Me., Theological Seminary, have rendered them- 
selves notorious by the publication of pamphlets containing the most 
horrible libels on Swedenborg and his writings. These detestable publi- 
cations, Avhich have been answered and refuted time and again, present 
a combination of reckless assertion, doAvnright lies, malignity, and igno- 
rance, which is perfectly amazing. Each publication may be described 
in the expressiA'e language of EdAvin Paxton Hood, as "a fountain of 
mud," and both combined are highly flavored with the peculiar sanctity 
which pervades the devotional exercises of Holy Willie. 

We haA'e still another notable detractor in'^Mr. Wflliam White, Avho 
many years ago Avrote a Life of SAvedenborg, in AAhich he rendered full 
justice to the subject of the memoir. Of late years he resumed his task 
by dipping his pen in ink (or rather in venom), and dashing off a A-ast 
amount of trash in the shape of baseless absurdities regarding Swedenborg 
and his followers, which he styled a " Life of Swedenborg." In order to 
understand the animus which perA-ades this AA'ork, it is necessary to knoAV 
that Mr. White was at one time agent forthe London Swedenborg Society, 
and while thus occupied he engaged in the sale of the so-called spiritist pub- 
lications. The sale of these books is held by the SAvedenborg Society to 
be utterly incomi)atible Avith the objects Avliich it has in vieAV, but Mr. 
White resisted the efforts of the Society's Committee to remove him 



OlllGlN, ETC., OF THE EAKTII. 7^3 

from office, and compelled theiu to bring a suit in Chancery to effect 
their purpose. The fiiKil judgment -svas decisive against him, and it was 
while smarting imder this reverse that his two-volume Life of Sweden- 
borg was written. The work in question is composed throughout in a 
vindictive spirit, and the malevolent production owes its origin to a 
malicious feeling of the worst kind, nevertheless it is most true that 
slander has greater swiftness than truth, and the groundless assertions of 
a defamer are frequently accorded greater credence than the veritable 
assertions of a truthful man. 

In an elaborate article which apjieared some time ago in the columns of 
the Enr/lish Mechanic, the editor of that journal presented a list of 
Swedenborg's inventions, which, including a notice of his mechanical and 
philosophiciil works, occupied nearly two quailo pages. The following is a 
partial list of the latter : — 1. An Introduction to Algebra. 2. Attempts to 
tind the Longitudes of places by Lunar Observations. 3. A proposal for 
a Decimal System of Money and Measures. 4. A Treatise on the Motion 
of the Earth and the Planets. 5. Proofs, derived from Appearances 
in Sweden, of the Depths of the Se<i, and the Greater force of the Tides 
in the Ancient World. 6. On Docks, Sluices, and Salt Works. 7. Some 
Specimens of Work on tlie Principles of Natural Philosophy, comprisijig 
New Attempts to explain the Phenomena of Chemistry and Pln'sics by 
Geometry. 8. New Observations and Discoveries respecting Iron and 
Fire, and particularly respecting the Elemental Nature of Fire ; together 
with a New Construction of Stoves. 9. A New Method of Finding the 
Longitude of Places on Land or Sea by Lujiar Observations. 10. A New 
Mechanical Plan of Constructing Docks and Dykes. 11. A Mode of Dis- 
covering the Powers of Vessels by the Application of Mechanical Prin- 
ciples. 12. Miscellaneous Observations connected with the Physical 
Sciences — Parts 1-3. 13. Part 4. Principally on Minerals, Iron, and 
Stalactites in Baman's Cavern. 14. On the ' Depreciation and Rise of 
the Swedish Currencv. These were some of his works published be- 
tween 1722—1733. 

These were succeeded by, 1. The Principia: or, the First Principles of 
Natural Things, in 3 folio Vols, with Plates. 2. The Economy of the 
Animal Kingdom considered Anatomically, Physically, and Phiiosophi-' 
cally, 2 Vols., with Plates. 3. The Animal Kingdom, Parts i., ii., iii., 2 
Vols. 4. The Animal Kingdom, Parts v., vi. 5. Outlines of a Philosophy 
io^l Argument on the Infinite and the Final Cause of Creation. 6. Some 
Specimens of a Work on the Principles of Chemistry, with other Trea- 
tises, 8vo, 21 Plates, comprising 159 figures. 7. Miscellaneous Observa- 
tions Connected with the Physical Sciences. Svo, 9 Plates, comprising 
86 Figures. 8. Posthumous tracts on various subjects. 

In 1785, the Commissioners appointed by the King of France, for the 
examination of the subject of animal magnetism, affirmed that there did 
not exist any theory of the magnet ; and the Count de Buffon, in his 
work on Natural Historj-, affirmed that nothing had been written on the 
formation of the planets. Both these errors were refuted in a most 
scholarly and elegant letter addressed to the Commissioners by the Mar- 
quis de Thome, in which he directed public notice to Swedenborg's elab- 
orate and profound works on these subjects, concluding his letter as fol- 
lows, " This, gentlemen, is what I thought it my duty to make public for 
the benefit of society, from a regard for truth, and in gratitude to him, 
to whom I am indebted for the major part of the little I know ; though 
before I met with his writings, I had sought for knowledge amongst 
almost all the writers, ancient and modern, who enjoyed any reputation 
for possessing it I have the honor to be, &c. , 

"Paris, Ang. 4, 1785. Makquis de Thome." 



744 ORIGIN, ETC., OF THE EARTH. 

Ralph Waldo Emersou writes: — " Swedenborg's writings would be a 
sufficient library for a lonely and athletic student. Not every man can 
read them, but they will richly reward him who can. The grandeur of the 
topics makes the grandeur of the stylo. One of the missourians and 
mastodons of literature, he is not to be measured by whole colleges of 
ordinary scholars. He anticipated in astronomy the discovery of the 
seventh planet ; anticipated tiie views of modern astronomy in regard to 
the generation of earths by the sun ; in magnetism some important ex- 
periments and conclusions of later students; in chemistry, the atomic 
theory, in anatomy the discoveries of Schlienting, Monro, and Wilson, 
and first demonstrated the office of the lungs." 

The celebrated Berzilius writes: — "I have looked through the Animal 
Kim/dom, and am surprised at the great knowledge displayed by Sweden- 
borg in a subject that a professed metallurgist would not have been sup- 
posed to make an object of study, and in which, as in all he undertook, 
he was in advance of his age." 

To sum up, it may be stated that his mechanical and philosophical works 
would be equivalent to about 25 volumes of 500 pages each. This genera- 
tion is most deeply indebted to the incomparable genius of this extraor- 
dinary man for very iniportant improvements in the construction of 
docks, blast furnaces, stoves, the smelting of metals, and a host of inven- 
tions which are usually credited to others. 

The reader may infer, from a perusal of the foregoing list of books, 
that the labor involved in their j^roduction might well entitle the writer to 
rank as a first class literary giant in any age or nation, but wonderful to 
say, the most extraordinary performances of this most remarkable man 
are still to be recounted. 

In the year 1743, Svvedenborg was 54 years of age, and here we find 
him relinquishing his philosophical pursuits, and devoting himself ex- 
clusively to theology and to the unfolding of the new doctrines which he 
now declares were first revealed to him. His Worship and Love of God, 
published in 1745, seems to mark the commencement of this new era in 
his Life. The following is a list of his theological works arranged ac- 
cording to the order in which the original books were written and pub- 
lished by the Author. 

1. 1749-56. Arcana Co^lestia, The Heavenly Arcana which are contained 
in the Holy Scriptures, or Word of the Lord ; vnfolded : befjimiinff u'ith 
the Book of Genesis; toe/ether loith the Wonderfid things seen in the 
World of Spirits and in the Heaven of Angels. English Ed. 12 vols. 8 
vo. £2 8s., any vol. separate, 45. American Ed. 10 vols. Sl-50pervol. 
2. 1758. Concerning Heaven and its Wonders ; and concerning Hell, 
being a Relation of things heard and seen. English Ed. 3s . American 
do. $1.25. 3. 1758. An account of the Last Judgment and the Destruction 
of Babylon ; shoioing that all the Predictions in the Apocalypse are at this 
day fulfilled, being a relation of things heard and seen, 8 vo. Eng. Ed. 
8d. American do. 75c. 4. 1758. On the White Horse mentioned i7i tJte 
Apocalypse, chap, xix., loith References to the Arcana Cutlestia on the sub- 
ject of the Word, and its Spiritual or Internal Sense. With an Appendix. 
English Ed. 4d. American do. 10c. 5. 1758. On the Earths in our Solar 
System, and on the Earths in the Starry Heavens ; with an account of 
their inhabitants, and also of the Spii'its and Angels there, from ichat has 
been seen and heard. Eng. Ed, 8vo., 8cZ. American Ed. 60c. 6. 1758. 
On the NewJerusalem and its Heavenly Doctrine, as revealed from Heaven, 
to which are prefixed some Observations concerning the New Heaven and 
the Neio EartJi. Eng. Ed. 8 vo. Is. American do. paper, 10c. 7. 1763, 
Anc/elic Wisdom concerning the Divine Love and the Divine Wisdom 
Eng. Ed. Demy 8 vo., 2s. ' American do. Si- 8. 1763. Tlie Four lead- 



ORIGISr, ETC., OF THE EARTitJ. 745 

inr/ Doctrines of the New Church, signified in Rev. xxi. hy the Nexo Jeru- 
salem ; being these respecting the Lord. His Divine and Human Natures, 
and the Divine Trinity; the Sacred Scripture; Faith; and Life. Eiig. 
Ed. 8 vo. 2s. American do. $1. 9. 1764. Angelic Wisdom concerning 
the Diiine Providence. Eng. Ed. 8 vo. 3s. American do. $1.50. 10. 
1765. The Apocalypse Revealed; in ivhich are disclosed the Arcana there- 
in foretold; and ichich have hitherto remained concealed. 2 vols. Eng. 
Ed. 8s. American do. $3. 11. 1768. Conjugal Love and its Chaste De- 
lights ; also Adulterous Love and its Lisane Pleasures Eng. Ed. 4s. 
American do. Sl.25. 12. 1769. A Brief Exposition of the Doctrines of 
the Neio Church meant by tin Nexo Jerusalem, in the Apocalypse. Eng. 
Ed. lOd. American do. 40c. 13. The Inter coursebetxceen the Soxd and 
the Body, lohich is supposed to take place either by Physical Influx, or by 
Spiritual Influx, or hy Pre-established Harmony. Eng. Ed. 4d. Ameri- 
can do. 10c. 14. 1771. The True Christian Religion ; or, the Universal 
Tlieology of the New Church, foretold by the Lord in Dan. vii, 13, 14, and 
in the Apocalypse xxi, 1, 2. Eng. Ed. 7s. American do. $2.50. 

Tliese prices include postage to destination. The "bool^s may lie ob- 
tained by addressing the Publishing Society's Mauager, E. H. SaVinney, 
No. 20 Cooper Union, New York, or the London Society's Agent, James 
Spiers, 36 Bloomsbury St., London, W. C, Eng. 

Swedenborg's ^^ True Christian Religion" and the '' Apocalypse Re- 
vealed," may be obtained absolutely free by any Protestant clergyman 
or student who may enclose the i:)ostage for same to the celebrated pub- 
lishing house of J. B. Lippincott & Co., of Philadelphia. The requisite 
funds for this purpose are supplied by a retired Philadelphia merchant 
of princely means and large-hearted liberality, who takes an ardent in- 
terest in the work, and has made ample provision for its permanent con- 
tinuance even after his hands have laid it down. No clergyman or 
student need hesitate to enclose the postage and send for these books, for 
they will be sent without fail. The New Church Tract and Publication 
Society, T. S. Arthur (the well-known author). President, George Burn- 
ham (of the Baldwin Locomotive works). Treasurer, offer SAvedenborg's 
"Heaven and Hell," through J. B. Lippincott & Co., to clergymen on 
the same terms. In ordering these books in this way, enclose SOc. for 
postage on the first named, 18c, for the secoud, and 13c. for the last 
noted work, and forward all orders to J. B. Lippincott & Co., 715 and 
717 Market St., Philadelphia. 

Up to Jan. 1, 1878, this well-knovni firm liave received and filled 
requests from clergymen for 14,000 copies of the " True Christian 
Religion," 8,000 copies of the " Apocalypse Revealed," and 12,000 copies 
of ^'■^Heaven and Hell." Requests are still coming in, books are still going 
out, and hundreds of iettcra have been received attesting the lively grati- 
tude of the recipients to the donors of these books for their inestimable 
gifts. In addition to this unusual traffic of supplying costly books free of 
charge, J. B. Lippincott & Co. publish elegant editions of many of Swe- 
denborg's theological writings, which they supply to purchasers in the 
usual way of business. Lists and prices furnished by addressing or 
applying as above. ^ 

32 



74G 



TABJ.KS, ETC., FOR PRINTERS. 




IMPORTANT RULES, TABLES, &c., FOR PRINTERS. 
A Thousand Ems, Measuring Type OB Matter.— This is done by 
multiplying the number of solid ems contained in the lenc/th of any 
quantity of type, by the number contained in the width of the measure. 
The gauge for measurement is an em of the type in which tlie matter 
calculated is set. A thousand ems is the space that so many letter m's 
Avould occupy. It takes over 2,000 average letters to occupy the space of 
1,000 ems. In Britain the matter is measured by ens. To determine the 
number of ens in a line, lay as many of the letter m flat wise in the stick 
as will make the measure. The following Table shoAvs the number of 
terns contained in a pound of eaich of the following sizes of tj^pe. 
1 lb. of 



Pica contains 


130 


ems. 


1 lb. 


Million contains 


356 


ems. 


S. Pica 


170 


« 


<< 


Nonpareil " 


520 


<< 


L. Primer *' 


200 


« 


.( 


Agate " 


690 


(( 


Bourgeois" 


270 


(< 


« 


Pearl " * 


800 


(( 


Brevier " 


290 


<< 











Table showing number of ems in 100 square inches of the sizes of type 
from Pica to Agate inclusive. 

Pica 3,600fNonpareil 14,400 1 Minion 10,404 

Long Primer 5,625 Small Pica 4,900l Agate 19,600 

Brevier 8,836 Bourgeois 6,889| 

The above list is based on the supposition that luies of the length of 6 
ems pica, 7 ems small pica, 7.5 ems long primer, 8.3 ems bourgeois, 9.4' 
ems brevier, 10.2 ems minion, 12 ems nonpareil, and 14 agate, are equal 
to an inch. This is not strictly true, but the variation is so little that it 
will not make a difference of 1,000 eras in 100 ordinary sized pages. 

In one square inch there are — 



72y4 ems Bourgeois. 

87 " Brevier. 

1133^ " Minion. 



144 ems^ Nonpareil. 

200]^" Agate. 
225 " Pearl. 

different type founders 



36 ems Pica, 

.lO " Small Pica. 

5674 " Long Primer 

The above is an approximation merely, as 
slightly vary the size of their type. 

Metal for Backing Electrotype Plates. — Lead 91 parts, tin 4, 
antimony 1, 

To MAKE Writing Ink Ineraseable even by Acids. — To good 
gall ink add a strong solution of Prussian blue in distilled water. The 
ink writes greenish blue but afterwards turns black, and cannot be 
erased without destroying the papp 



TABLES, ETC., FOll PllINTEKS. 



747 



ARRANGEMENT OF 


TYPE IN AMERICAN 


UPPER 


CASE 

/ 




# 


t 


t 


§ 


II 


ir 


-©0 


B) 


^ 


@ 




« 





v* 


¥2 


% 


Vs 


% 


% 


Ys 


sS 


£ 


-^ 


S 


^ 


^<w 


-■ 


Va 


% 


% 


M 


CE 


re 


oe 


— 


6 


& 


M 


(E 


A 


B 


C 


D 


E 


F 


G 


A 


B 


C 


D 


E 


F 


G 


H 


I ,K 


L 


M 


N 





11 


1 


K 


L 


51 


N 





P 


Q 


R 


S 1 T 


V 


W 


I^ 


Q 


It 


S 


T 


V 


W 


X 


Y 


Z 


J U 


] 


) 


X 


Y 


z 1 J 1 u| 


ffi 


m 





ARRANGEMENT 


OF 


TYPE IN AMERICAN LOWER CASE. 




& 


fl 


5em 4em 
sp. 1 sp. 


> 


k 


e 


1 2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


' 


" 


9 


b . 


C 


d 


i 


s 


f 


g 


ft 


() 





z 


1 


ra 11 


h 





y 


P 


w 


> 


en 
qds. 


em 

qds. 


X 


V 


u 


t 


3 em 

spaces. 


a 


r 


5 


- 


2 & 3 em 1 
quadrats . 1 



Weiglit of leads required for -Any Avork. These calculations apply to 
any measure, and are based on the use of six-to-pica leads. The first 
Table is for solid matter which requires to be leaded. 



1,000 ems Bourgeois, ISVo ozs. leads. 

1,000 " L. Primer, 151/2 " " 

1,000 •' S, Pica, IGVo " <' 

1,000 " Pica, 19 " « 



1,000 ems Pearl require 71/2 ozs. leads. 
1,000 " Agate " 8V2 ' 
1,000 " Nonpareil 91/2 
1,000 " Minion •' IIV2 
1,000 " Brevier " 13 

Example.— it is estimated that the matter to be set will make 20,000 
ems Small Pica solid. Required, the Aveisht oi leads necessary to lead 
this matter. 1,000 ems of solid Small Pica require IG^ ounces of leads 
IG}^ X 20 = 330 ozs. = 20 lbs, 10 ozs. 

The second Table gives the weight of the leads contained in 1,000 ems 
of leaded matter. 



1,000 emsBourgeois contains 11 ozs. Ida 
1,000 " L. Primer ♦' l2Vo " 
1,000 " S. Pica " 14 " 

1,000 " Pica « iGi/a " 



1,000 ems Pearl contains 51/2 ozs. leads 
1,000 " Agate " 6 " " 
1,000 " Nonpareil " TVo " " 
1,000 " Minion " 9 ' " " 
1,000 " Brevier " lOi/g " <« 

Example.— A page of leaded Long Primer contains 2,000 ems. Re- 
quired, the weight of leads necessary to lead thirty-two pages. 1,000 ems 
of leaded Long Primer contain 12^? ounces of leads , 12i X 2 = 25 ozs 
per page. 25 X 32 = 800 ozs. = 50 lbs. 

Or, a column of Nonpareil contains 8,000 ems. Required the weight of 
leads necessary to lead six columns. 1,000 ems of leaded Nonpareil con- 
tain 1\ ounces of leads. 7i x 8 = 60 ozs. per column. 00 X 6 = 360 ozs, 
= 221bs. 80ZS. 

An allowance must of course be made for additional leads used for 
blaukiug out and in standing matter. 



748 



TABLES, ETC., FOR PllINTEllS. 



The following table gives the weight of leads in 1000 ems of leaded 
matter : — 

LEADED MATTER— 

1000 ems Pearl contains 51/2 ozs. leads. 



1000 " Agate " 

1000 " Nonpareil " 

1000 " Minion " 

1000 " Brevier " 

1000 " Bourgeois " 

1000 " Long Primer " 

1000 " Small Pica " 

1000 " Pica " 



6 

9 

.101/2 
.11 

.121/2 

.14 

.IGI/2 



Table showing the Quantity of Paper Required for any 
Job from 50 to 10,000 Copies. — No allowance for waste or suriilus 
copies. For any number not noted in Table, say 36 to the sheet, use 
double the quantity given in column headed 18. 



m"^ 


9, 


3 1 4 


6 


8 


9 1 12 


15 


16 1 18 1 20 


24 1 


32 


0S2 


to silt 


to sht to aht 


to sht 


to sht 


to sht 


to sht j to sht 


to sht to sht, to sht 1 to sht 


to sht. 








00 £ 




£ 


. £ 


a. £ 


X -Sm £'■ ai .Siai 2 


<» " 


% -s 


5. -s 5. -s 


0* ta 




0* w 


& -s 


& -s 


C<'S3-'SiC<'S|C'3 


& -s 


50 


1— 1 


0-17 0—13 


0- 9 


0- 7 


0- 6 


0— 5 


0- 4 


0-4 0-3 


0— 3l (>— 3 


0— 2 


100 


2— 2 


1-10 


1- 1 


0-17 


0-13 


0—12 


0-9 


0- 7 


0- 7 


0- C 


C— 5l 0— 5 


0-- 4 


200 


4— 4 


2-19 


2- 2 


1-10 


1— 1 


0-23 


0-17 


0-14 


0-13 


0—12 


0—10 0— 9 


0- 7 


250 


5- 5 


3-12 


2-15 


1—18 


1— 8 


1— 4 


0—21 


0-17 


0— 16 


C— 14 


0-13 0-11 


0- 8 


300 


G— C 


4—4 


3- 3 


2- 2 


1—14 


1—10 1— 1 


0-20 


0-19 


0-17 


C-15 0—13 


0-10 


400 


8- 8 


5-14 


4— 4 


2-19 


2- 2 


1—21 


1-10 


1— 3 


1- 1 


0—23 


0-20 (V-17 


tV-13 


500 


10-10 


6-23 


5- 5 


3—12 


2-15 


2- 8 


1—18 


1-10 


1- 8 


1- 4 


1- 1 0-21 


0-lG 


GOO 


12— 12 


8- 8 


6— 6 


4— 4 


3 — 3 


2-19 


2- 2 


1-16 


1-14 


1-10 


1- 61 1— 1 


0—19 


700 


14—14 


9-18 


7 — 7 


4-21 


3-16 


8 — 6 


2—11 


1-23 


1-20 


1—15 


1_U i_6 


0—22 


750 


15—15 10—10 


7-20 


5— 5 


3—22 


3-12 


2—15 


2— 3 


1—23 


1-18 


1-14) 1- 8 


1-0 


800 


16-16 11- .S 


8- 8 


5-14 


4— 4 


3-17 


2-19 


2— 


2- 2 


1-21 


1-151 1-10 


1- 1 


900 


18-18 12—12 


9— 9 


6— 6 


4-17 


4-4 


3— 3 


2-12 


2- 9 


2- 2 


1—21 1—14 


1- 5 


1000 


20— 20! 1.^-22 


10-10 


6-23 


5— 5 


4—16 


3—12 


2-19 


2-15 


2-8 


2— 2 1-18 


1- 8 


1250 


26- Ijl-— 9 


13- 1 


8-17 


0-13 


5—19 


4— 9 


3—12 


8 — 7 


2—22 


2—15 2— 5 


1-16 








10—16 
12— 4 


7—20 
9— 3 


G— 23 

8- 3 






P— 22 
4—14 


4^ 2 


3— 81 2—15 
3-l«i 3- 1 




17.50 


.36-11 24- 8118- 


6- 2 


4-22 


2-8 


2000 


41— 16^27— 19^20-20 


i;^22 


10-10 


9- 7 


G-23 


5—14 


5 ,>; 


4—16 


4-".' 3-1? 


2-15 


2500 


.52— 2 at— 18126- 1 


17—10 


13— 1 


11—151 8-17 


7- t 


6-13 


.5-20 


5- ri 4— 9 


3-7 


3000 


62—12 41-16 


31— 6 20—20 


1.5-15 


1:^22 10— 10 


S- 8 


7-20 


6-23 


ft- 6; 5— 5 


8-22 


•iOOO 


83— 8 55-14 


41—16 27-19 


20-20 


18— 13! 1.3-22 


11— ^' 


10-10 


0— - 


8— 8, 0—23 


5-5 


5000 


104- 4169—11 


.52— 2:34- l.S 


26- 1 


23— 4117— 9 


1.3-22 


1.3— 1 i 10-14! JO— lOl 8—17 


C-13 


10000 


208- 8 


1138-22 


104- 4 


69-11 


.52- 2 


MV- 8 


34—18 


27—19 


26— 1 


23- 4 


20—10.17— 9 


13- 1 



Contain. 
. 4 pages. 



Names and Sizes of Books as Classifed by Publishers.— The 

number of folds and pages in a single sheet when manufactured. 

•VT„«,« ^t y.^^V' Wiien a sheet is 

Name of book. ^^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^,^^^ 

Folio 2 leaves 

Quarto or 4 to 4 " 

Octavo or 8vo 8 " ." 16 " 

Duodecimo or 12 mo 12 " 24 <* 

16mo* 16 " c2 " 

18" 18 " 36 " 

24" 24 <' 48 ♦* 

32" 32 " 64 " 

Best Printers' Ink. — Boil 3 gallons best clear old linseed oil down to 
a thick \'arnisli ; add while hot 12 lbs. of powdered rosin, 3^ lbs. dry 
brown soap shavings, 5 ozs. indigo ; 5 ozs. Prussian bine, and 10 lbs. best 
lampblack ; stir all well together, let it stand a week and grind. 

For other inks, roller compositions, &c., see pages 546-6 and 579. For 
paper tables see page 577. 

* N'ote, — This book is a 16 mo., there being 32 pages to the sheet. The 
tevms folio, quarto, octavo, etc., denote the number of leaves in which a sheet 
of paper is folded. 

The marks A, B, C ; 1, 2, 3 ; lA, 2A ; 1*, 2*, etc., occasionally found at 
the bottom of pages, are Avhat printers term sU/natui^e marks, thus, 3*, being 
printed for the direction of binders in folding the sheets. 



TABLES, ETC., FOR PRINTERS. 



749 



One pound of leads or slugs covers four square inches. Hence, when 
the space to be filled by leads or slu^ifs is known, it is only necessary to 
div'ide the number of square inches hy four, and the result will i^ive the 
required weight in pounds. — Proof Sheet. 

How TO Estimate. — To a^scertain the quantity of plain type required 
for a newspaper or magazine, or any other work, find tlie number of 
square inches and divide the same by four, the quotient will be the ap- 
proximate weight of matter ; but as it is impossible to set the cases clear, 
it is necessary to add 25 per cent, to large fonts, to allow for dead letter. 

ScHKME roE ExoLisn; Bill OF TvPE.—EngliBli type founders call 3 000 
Wood TrPE.— The following & j *- 

table will be useful iu ordering lower case m's a bill, and proportion all other Borta 

dwayFb'e^rSdb^-^Ve^-t-l^yt^em; SO that a bill of pica, including accents 

Fo^^/.J'J"®.-^'^**"^^".^'^- ':^ and italic, weighs 800 lbs. For every lb. of italic 

' 3 A," font IS generally sut-, ° •' 

ficient, while for smaller'letters! there are 10 Ibs, of Roman. From the annexed 

it is always advisable to order at' ,, ., , ■..• i«.% v, «ii 

least a '• .5 A " font. Of con-;table an idea can be obtained of the number of let- 



densed letters especially there. ^g contained in 800 Ibs. pica, 
should alwavs be a large font, p^ " " i' 





^ 


1 


i „• 








V 


^ 


u 




u 


_: 


«» 


..I 




< 


d 


< 


"i 




m 


w. 


•*• 


-«<l 


. - 






•^ 


— 


A 


f^ 


3i 


4 


4 


n 


'2 


2 1 


3 


3 


c. 


2 


2 1 


3 


3 


n 


2 


2 


3 


3 


K 


4 


4 


5 


5 


F 


2 


2 


3 


3 


n 


2 


2 


3 


3 


If 


2 


2 


3 


3 


T 


4 


3 


4 


4 


.T 


2 


1 


3 


2 


K 


1 


1 


a 


2 


T, 


4 


4 


5 


5 


M 


2 


2 


3 


U 


N 


3 


3 


4 


4 


O 3 


3 


4 


4 


P 


2 


2 


3 


3 


8 


1 


1 


2 


2 


3 


3 


4 


4 


S 


4 


4 


5 


5 


T 


3 


4 


4 


4 


TT 


2 


2 


3 


3 


V 


2 


2 


3 


3 


w 


2 


2 


3 


3 


X 


1 


I 


2 


2 


Y 


2 


2 


3 


3 


Z 


1 


1 


2 


2 




I 
3 
1 
I 
3 




2 
4 
2 
2 
4 




1 


1 

2 
2 




I 
2 
3 




li 










ff 










11 










fli 










m 











5 5 
i3 2 
:2 2 
fC G 
|4|4 
1515 

1 5 1 5 CO <N 
I 3 13 



OlO 



OSIM 



3 13 

2 2 

2 

4 

2 

2 

4 

1 

2 

3 
1 
I 
I 
1 
1 



! ^( 



Figures arc usually 
put up with Fonts of 
4 A and upwards, 
and always with 
Lower Case, so that 
when a Font of 4 A 
is ordered the Lower 
Case, and Figures 
will always be sent 
unless otherwise or- 
jclered. 






(a 8.500' 

lb 1,600 

jc 3,000 

■d 4,400 

e 12,000' 

f 2,5001 

g 1,T00| 

h 6,400 



4,500 
800 
600 
2,000 
1,000 
200 
150 
700 



i 8,0001 ) 300 

j .... 4001 ] 150 

k 800| * 100 

1 4,000 t 100 

m 3,000' % 100 

n 8,000' § 100 

o 8,000: II 100 

p 1,700; IF 60 

q 500 



6,200 

s 8,000 

t 9,000 

u 3,400 

1,200 

2,000 

400 

2,000 

200 

200 

400 

500 

150 

100 

100 

60 

15f 

9' 

6 



V 

w 

X 

y 

z 

& 
iff 
fi 

fa 

ae 
oe 



1 1,300 

2 1,200 

3 1,100 

4 1,000 

6 1.000 

6 ....1,000 

7 1,000 

8 1.000 

9 1.000 

1,300 



Accents 

average 150 

each. 




3 em spaces 18,000 

4 " " ...12,000 

5 '• " 8,000 

Hair " 3,000 

cm Quads 2,.500 

en Quads 5,000 

Large Quadrats 80 lbs. 



750 NAMES AND SIZES OF TYPE. 

NAMES AND SIZES OF TYPE. 

Gee AT Primer. — In conversa- 
tion, study purity of language : 
avoid vulgar dialects like the fol- 
lowing samples : 

English. — English Rustic. Measter 
Goddin used to zay as how children costed 
a sight o' money to breng um oop, and 
'twas all very well whilst um was leetle, 
and zucked the mother, but when um 
begind to zuck the vather, 'twas nation 
akkerd ! 

1 Pica. — Rector. " These pigs of yours are in 
excellent condition." Jarvis. " E'as, sur, they 
be. Ah ! sur, if we was all on us only as fit to 
die as them are sur, it would be good for we." 

Small Pica. — Scotch Elder. " O ! Sandy, if ye 
wad only tak' soond advice, an' drink wartter instead 
o' whiskey, it wad be better for your puir wife an' 
bonnie bairns ; d'ye no ken whaur a* the drunkards 
gang tae ? " Confirmed Sot. " Yes, Maister Tamson, 
richt weel I ken that, they aye gang whaur they get 
the best whiskey." 

Long Primer. — Cockney Hair-Dresser. " They say, sir, 
that the cholera is in the Hair, sir ! " Gent, (very uneasy) 
" Indeed ! ahem ! then I hope you are very careful about 
the brushes you use." Hair-Dresser : " Oh, I see you don't 
^understand me, sir ; I don't mean the 'air of the 'ed, but 
the hoXv hoi the ^atmosphere ! " — Punch. 

Cochiey Servant Girl. " Well mam — Heverythink con- 
sidered, I'm afraid you won't suit me. I've always been 
brought up genteel ; and I couldn't go nowheres where there 
aint no footman kep'. " Servant Man, Thompson (who 
is very refined), " Ho yes, mum, I don't find no fault with 



NAMES AND SIZES OF TYPE. 751 

you, mum, nor yet with master — but the truth his mum, the 
hother servants is so orrid vulgar and hignorant, and speaks 

so himgrammatical, that I reely cannot live in the same 

'ouse with 'em, and I should like to go this day month, if so 
be has it won't illconwenience you ! " — Punch. 

Bourgeois. — Mrs. Brown (an Aberdeen widow on the north 
side of forty). " Hoo's a' wi' ye this mornin', Master Miller ; come 
in an' sit doon, I was just thinkin' o' ye ; some lang-tongued 
hizzies were sayin' that it was a perfec' shame that a man like 
you, wi' grey hair, an' a long fite beard should mak' a feel o' 
yersel' getting married fan ye should be thinkin' o' deein'. Its 
a peer world to live in if a man canna tak' a wife fan ever he 
likes. Na, na, I ken plenty, some o' them no far aff, that wad 
be prood to get ye. Eh, sirs, the life o' a peer, lone woman, or a 
lone man is a weary, sair dree o' dool an' sorrow ; dinna ye 
think sae, Mester Miller ? " Miller ; (a widower on the look out 
for another wife.) '' In my long pilgrimage through this vale o' 
tears, my experience has been, that a man is muckle the better 
o' a woman, and a woman is muckle the better o' a man I " 

Brevier. — Wilkins. " Well Tunimas, did you 'ear as liow Measter 
Smith liurted hisself on the leg just above tlie hancle." Tummas, 
*' O did um, that be very bad for he, and I be very zarry to 'ear it. 
Las' week my son Jan war a drivin' a nail, an' the 'ammer, he flew 
out'n 'is 'and an' struck I very 'ard on the nose, the blood comed, 
an' if it 'ad struck much 'arder it would 'ave killed I on the spot sure." 
Blarney. Yankee {jnst arrived). " Guess your legal fare is just 
Sixpence." Dublin Carman : " Shure, me Lord, we take some chape- 
Jacks at that — but its meself wouldn't dishgrace a gintleman a' your 
Lordship's quality by dhrivin' 'm at a mane pace through the public 
shtreets, so I tuk it upon myself to give your lordship a shillin's worth 
both of shtyle and whip cord." 

Minion. — Vermont Tombstone Agent to Smith, in the backicoods : — 

" Good morning', Mister; I was told over tew that you had lost 

your wife, and I have jest cum ten miles over meowntains, woods, an' 
swamps to get an order for a tewmstun' for her. Was awful sorry to 
hear of your great loss, but I can sell you the cheapest an' best tewmstun' 
in the hull creation." Smith. " Waal, stranger, I reckon I can stand my 
loss if she can stand her'n; but you see as how the critter isn't ready for 
a tombstone yet, she's only scooted with another man." 

Nonpareil. — English Rustics. Sam: I zay. Jack, be you a politicianer? 
Jack.—" E'as I be." Sam.—" Wall I zay. Jack, what be a politicianer ? 
Jack.—" Zounds, Sam ! doant'ee knaw nothink about un ? " Sam.—l^a.'w I 
doan't." JacA;.— Wall. I doan't knaw as I can teU'ee, Sam, fur I doan't 
exackerly knaw mysel' ! " 

Vf. Ann..— English Showman. W^alk in to the Bhow mv hearties, vralk in and see the great 
flnfrican lions, rhinoceros and helephants as was caiifrht in the desert about 15 miles from 
cither sea or land, and the great 'ippopotamus and eatterwallapus as lives in the hocean. Them 
as don't go in can't win. and them as stavs out there harn't in here, and can't see the great 
Hindian tiger, leopard, the hanacondas from Brazil, the grizzly bear, the buffalo that swings 
his vast preposterous over the Rocky Mountings and Western prarers, and the great dens of 
performing hanimals from hall hover the world ! 

Do yees rally think. Squire, that there is anny chancce of war wid this country an' Roosh«? 
Sq^iire. Well things did look a little queer lately ; but why do vou ask ? Well, me raison for 
axin' is, d'ye moind now, wan o' these days I'll have to be afther sellin' me pig. and if there's 
goia' to be anny war, bacoQ 'ill roise to a foine price as tbrue'a me name's Tim OTarrell I 



and. 



752 TYPOGRAPHICAL MARKS 

"^ I JThdvgh a' >€(riety of opinions exist as to 

.iHe Individuallby wx(om'ilie.art:of printing was ^ 
firsl discovered ; yet all authorities concur in 
^dmitUng peter Schoeffer .to be tlie person 3 
^ WliO invented ca&t ineial fyjoe^,. having learned 
^ iHe art-el^ of cutiiing Xh.^ letters from the Gut- 
^; / fembergsV he is also supposed to have Ibeeri 
^J^ the first 'whoen graved on copper •■plates. TheY-/ 

following testimony is preseved in the family, 8 / 
BNwr by 'JOi. Fred. Faustusj of Ascheffenburg : 
*" (~[ >-* peter^ Schoeffer, of Gernsheim, perceiving ^^ -^ 
"W'V/ his master Fausts design^ and being bimself ^' ^^p^> 
^^^ (^desirous\ ard entlv ) to imptov^ the art, found 
out (by 'the good providence of God) the 
method of cutting [md4mM) the characters ^^^ 
jin .ft' mdyioS'i fhat the letters' might easily be 
^// singly ca&i'j instead of bieng cut' He pi'i-^^^"^/ 
**[ Vately /cut ',mainces\ jfor the whole alphabet iy\i5 
IFaust' >vas BO pleased with the contrivano^ 
/tb^a-t .h^ promised Feter to give him hi^^nly ^^^ 
ig /(J^ghter, ' Christina: in jnarfiage ^^K^romise^ -^ x 
/^}iich he sooniafter pefformed^A/''^ jg 

^^^^/(^ufc. there wer^. many di;6BLCulties at first ^^ || 

"With the^e teU^^ss tliere had been before ^.0^o7n. 
20 1 Tt itli ' wooden on es, th:e metal being too soft^^^J^^ 
io support the'fo^ of the iiiTpression : buBs-^ / 
this defect, x^jassoorl remedied, by mixing 

3 jT ^ i ^ • * 12 

a Bu^bstanc^witli the metal which sufficiently^^ 
« hardepfed ly 

le^^^d. eaa^ <fm7n mede ^n^tSz^ne^a 



EXEMPLIFIED 753 




The designated errors being corrected, the foregoing matter will read 
as follows : 

Though a variety of opinions exist as to the individual by whom 
printing was first discovered ; yet all authorities concur in admitting 
PETER SCHOEFFER to be the person who invented cast metal types, 
having learned the art of cutting the letters from the Guttembergs; he is 
also sui^posed to have been the first who engraved on copi^er-plates. The 
following testimony is preserved in the family, by Jo. Fred. Faustus, of 
Ascheffenburg : 

* Peter Schoeffer, of Gemsheim, perceiving his master Faust's de- 
sign, and being himself ardently desirous to improve the art, found out 
(by the good providence of God) the method of cutting (incidendi) the 
characters in a matrix, that the letters might easily be singly cast, in- 
stead of being c?<^. He -pvixatelj cut matrices for the whole alphabet : 
and when he showed his master the letters cast from these matrices, 
Faust was so pleased with the contrivance, that he promised Peter to give 
him his only daughter Christina in marriage, a i)romise Avhich he soon 
after performed. But there were as many difficulties at first with these 
letters, as there had been before with wooden ones, the metal being too 
soft to support the force of the impression ; but this defect was soon 
remedied, by mixing the metal with a substance which sufficiently har- 
dened it.' 

EXPLAlfATIONS OF THE CORRECTIONS. 

The following rules, from Mackellar's American Printer (a most re- 
liable work), will be found of inestimable value to typographical men and 
all who write for the press: 

A wrong letter in a word is noted by drawing a short perpendicular 
line through it, and making another short line in the margin, before 
which the right letter is placed. (See No. 1.) In this manner whole 
words are corrected, by drawing a line across the wrong word and mak- 
ing the right one in the margin opposite. 

A turned letter is noted by drawing a line through it, and writing the 
mark No. 2 in the margui. 

If letters or words require to be altered from one character to another, 
a parallel line or lines must be made underneath the word or letter, — 
viz. for capitals, three hues; small capitals, two fines ; and Italic, one 

31* 



75 4 ON CORRECTING PROOFS. 

line; and, in the margin opposite the line where the alteration occurs, 
Cajys, Small Caps, or Ital. must be written. (See No. 3.) 

When letters or words are set double, or are required to be taken out, 
a line is drawn through the superfluous word or letter, and the mark No. 
4 placed opposite in the margin. 

Where the punctuation requires to be altered, the correct i)oint, mark- 
ed in the margin, should be encircled. (See No. 5.) 

AVhen a space is omitted between two words or letters which should be 
separated, a caret must be made where the separation ought to be, and 
the sign No. G placed opposite in the margin. 

No. 7 describes the manner iu which the hyphen and ellipsis line are 
marked. 

When a letter has been omitted, a caret is put at the i)lace of omis- 
sion, and the letter marked as No. 8. 

Where letters that should be joined are separated, or where a line is 
too widely spaced, the mark No . 9 must be placed under them, and the 
correction denoted by the marks in the margin. 

Where a new paragraph is required, a quadrangle is drawn in the 
margin, and a caret placed at the beginning of the sentence. (See No. 10.) 

No. 11 shows the way iu which the apostrophe, inverted commas, the 
star and other references, and superior letters and figures, are marked. 

Where two words are transposed, a line is drawn over one word and 
below the other, and the mark No. 12 placed in the margin; but Avhere 
several words require to be transposed, their right order is signified by a 
figure placed over each word, and the mark No. 12 in the margin. 

Where words have been struck out that have afterward been approved 
of, dots should be marked under them, and Stet written in the margin. 
(See No. 13.) 

Where a space sticks up between two words, a horizontal line is drawn 
under it, and the mark No. 14 placed opi)osite, iu the marghi. 

Where several words have been left out, they are transcribed at the 
bottom of the page, and a line drawn from the place of omission to the 
written words (see No. 15) ; but if the omitted matter be too extensive to 
be copied at the foot of the page. Out, see copy, is written m the margin, 
and the missing lines are enclosed between brackets, and the Avord Out 
is inserted in the margin of tlie copy. 

Where letters stand crooked, they are noted by a line (see No. 16); 
but, where a page hangs, lines are drawn across the entire part affected. 

When a smaller or larger letter, of a different fount, is improperly in- 
troduced into the page, it is noted by the mark No. 17, which signifies 
wrong fount. 

' If a paragraph be improperly made, a line is drawn from the broken- 
off matter to the next paragraph, and No *|[ written iu the margin. (See 
No. 18.) 

Where a word has been left out or is to be added, a caret must be 
made in the place where it should come in, and the word written iu the 
margin. (See No. 19.) 

Where a faulty letter appears, it is marked by making a cross 
under it, and placing a similar one in the margin (see No. 20); though 
some prefer to draw a j)erpendicular line through it, as iu the case of a 
wrong letter. 

Paper Varnish. — All varnished gums composing the same, and dis- 
solved iu turpentine, have a greasy nature. Paper must be first sized, or 
if dissolved by any other spirit, 8 oz. of gum sandarach, 2 oz. of Venice 
turi^entine, 32 oz. of alcohol. Dissolve by gentle heat. Or a harder var- 
nish, reddish cast, 5 oz. of shellac, and 1 oa. of turpentine, 32 oz, of alco- 
hol, or Canada, balsam dissolved in turps. 



PERFORMANCE OF PRESSES, ETC. 



loo 



Average Daily Performance of Presses. — The estimates of 
the following Tables are for miscellaneous work, done in the usual man- 
ner, with little making ready and under the favorable conditions of a 
busy season. It is supposed that the presses are at work full 10 hours ; that 
feeders and pressmen are expert and diligent : that paper, rollers, steam 
power, ink, etc., are in j)erfect order, and that there are no detentions or 
accidents- 



Make 
Ready 
Time- 



Hours. 



Style of Press. — No. of Forms. 



Time of 
Press 
Work. 



Rate per 
Hour. 



Daily 
Perform- 
ance. 



Card Press- 

1 form of 7,500 impressions. 

4 '• 1,000 " 
8 '< 250 " 

Small Machine Press- 

1 form of 6,000 impressiong. 

5 •• 500 '• 
8 " 100 " 

Hand Press. 

1 form of 1,500 impressions. 
'' 250 " 

Medmm Cylinder. 

1 form of 7,500 impressions. 
5 " 750 " 

8 " 250 " 

Double Medium Cylinder. 

1 form of 5,000 impressions. 

3 •' 1,000 " 
G « 250 '< 

Mammoth Cylinder. 

1 form of 4,000 impressions. 

2 *• 1,250 

4 " 250 '< 



Hours. 



833 

C66 

500 



6GG 
500 
400 



15G 
IGG 



833 
750 
C6G 



COG 

GOO 
500 



570 
GOO 
333 



Impr. 



7.500 
4^000 
2,000 



C,000 

2,500 

800 



1,500 
1,000 



7,500 
3,750 
2,000 



5,000 
3,000 
1,500 



4,000 
2,500 
1,000 



— De Vinne's Price List. 




THE BULLOCK SELF -FEEDING PERFECTING PRESS. 

The press represented by the cut is one of the most wonderful inven- 
tions of modern times in the department of printing machinery. Tlie 
space occupied by the Bullock Perfecting Press is about 12 feet long 5^ 
ft. high. As indicated by the name, it is a self-feeder, drawing its sup- 




then, secoudly, passing immediately to a second set of type and impres- 



75G 



JOBBING TRESSES. 



sioii cj'linders, Avliere it is printed on the other side. Passing onwards 
the i>aper is severed by a knife into sheets of the desired size, and deliv- 
ered in perfect condition (with the most astonishing rapidity) by means 
of a fly, upon the receiving board, with no other aid than that furnished 
by the machine itself. 




>■<**' 



GOBDbN's IMPROVED FRANKLIN PRESS. 
COXCENTRATED InK PASTES TO WRITE WITH WATER. — 1. BlcicTc 

InJc. Take 4 parts of bichromate of potash, pulverized, and mixed with 25 
parts of acetic acid, 50 parts of liquid e:^tract of logwood, ^ part of picric 



EST3IATZ3, :STC., FOR PRINTERS. 757 

acid, 10 parts of pulverized sal sorrel, 10 parts of miicilage, and^ part of 
citrate of iron, and mix well. The liquid extract of logwood is prepared 
by mixing 3 parts of an extract of common commercial qzality with two 
parts of water. 2. Red Ink. Take 1 pait of red aniline mixed Avith 10 
parts of acetic acid, 5 parts of citric add, and 25 parts of mucilage, all 
well mixed. For use, mix 1 part of the paste with KJ parts of water. 3. 
Bl^(e Ink. Take 2 i^arts of aniline blue mixed with 10 parts of acetic 
acid, 5 parts of citric acid, and 40 parts of mucilage, all well mixed. For 
use, mix 1 part of the paste with 8 parts of water. 4. Violet Ink. Use 
the same mgredients in the same proportions, as blue, witli tlie differ- 
ence, that violet aniline is used instead of blue aniline. 5. Green Ink. 
Take 1 part of aniline blue, 3 parts of picric acid mixed with 10 parts of 
acetic acid, 3 parts of citric acid, and 80 parts of mucilage. For use, 1 
jmrt of this paste is mixed Avith 8 parts of water. 6. Copyinf/ Ink. Take 
6 parts of pulverized bichromate of potash, mixed with 10 parts of acetic 
acid, and 240 parts of liquid extract of logwood, and add a pulverized 
mixture of 35 jDarts of alum, 20 parts, of sal sorrel, and 20 parts of muci- 
lage. Mix Avell. For use, 1 part of this paste is mixed Avith 4 parts of 
hot water. 

These inks are described as leaA'ing no sediment, as drying quicker on 
paper than the ordinary inks, and as being non-corrosive. 

Colored Inks for Rubber and other Stamps. — Red. Dissolve 
^ oz. of carmine in 2 ozs. strong Avater of ammonia, and add 1 dr. of 
glycerine and £ oz. dextrin. Blue. Rub 1 oz. Prussian blue Avith 
enough water to make a perfectly smooth paste ; then add 1 oz. dextrin, 
incorporate it well and finally add sufficient Avater to bring it to the 
proper consistence. Violet. Alcohol 15 ozs., glycerine 15 ozs., aniline 
A'iolet 2 to 4 drs. ; mix, dissolve, pour the solution on the cushion and dab 
on with a brush. 

The foUoAving estimates relating to the consumption of ink, &c., are se- 
lected from De Vinne's Price List, a Avork of incomparable utility to 
printers, published by Francis Hart & Co., New York. 

Black Inks. — On common news and rough book Avork, the A'alue of 
black ink at 40 cents, used and Avasted in printing a wet-down sheet of 
size 24 X 38 inches, or thereabouts, is a little less than 17 cents per 1000 
impressions, or about 4 cents * a token of 250 impressions. If the sheet 
is over-colored, it Avill cost 6 cents ; if it is under-colored, or if printed on 
damp calendered paper (an unusual quality of this class of work), it will 
not cost 3 cents per token. 

For ordinary book work, using ink at 60 cents, on smooth paper of 
size 24 X 38 inches, the average cost of ink used and Avasted Avill be 
about 6 cents per token ; on dry and rough paper, it will reach 10 or 13 
cents. 

Fine book or pamphlet Pressworkon damp sheets of calendered pa]ier, 
of size 24 X 38, usuig ink at $1.00, should have its average value rated at 
10 cents per token for an ordinary edition. Upon a short edition, for 
Avhich ink is specially put in the fountain, and of which much is wasted, 
the cost will be from 15 to 25 cents per token. If the paper is a soft and 
spongy Book, cost for either quantity Avill be still higher. 

Illustrated Catalogues, printed on medium sheets, 19 x 24 inches, 
on dry calendered paper, Avith cuts of large size and blackness, will use 

* It is a popular belief that the ink \ised for this class of work, on this size 
does not exceed 3 cents per token. This is the ordinary reckoning. Avhich is 
for use onlv. But the waste of this quality of ink is rarely ever less than 
one-fifth, and it often approximates more closely to one-third of the amount 
purchased. 



758 ESTIMATES, ETC., FOR PRINTERS. 

of wood-cut ink at S2.5u per pound, ou au edition of 1000, at tlie rata of 
()0 cents to $1.00 per token. If the edition is of 5000 impressions, tlie 
value of ink used will range from 40 cents to 70 cents per token. If cuts 
are very large or black, they may consume ink. on an edition of 1000 
copies, at the rate of $1.50 per token. If ink at .>3.00 or .$5.00 is used, in 
place of ink at §2.50, the price will increase, but not in true proportion — 
the more expensive color is finer, and has more extending caijacity. 
These are prices for cats of machinery. The amount of color ou this 
work is largeh^ under the control of the pressman. He can use it freely 
or sparingly, at will, but with a corresponding effect of strength or weak- 
ness in the work. 

Book Illusi'r.\tion"s. — The ordinary illustrations of books and news- 
papers, when not too frequent, or too black, .do not sensibly increase the 
consumption of ink. It is not usual to make account of the value of 
ordinary ink ou this class of work. But when the cuts are numerous 
and are black, and fine inks are used, the value of color used cannot be 
overlooked. On a large edition of work of this class, the average value 
of ink at S2.00, on a sheet 24 x 38 inches, will be 50 cents per token. 
Upon an edition of 1000, tlie cost of the same ink would be more than 
Si. 00 per token. A Double Royal sheet 29 X 43 inches, on an edition of 
20,000, with ink at $3. 00, with many cuts, has been worked at a cost of 
53 cents per token for ink ; but this is a rare result, the economy being 
due as much to the skill of the pressman as to the length of the edition. 
If the edition had been 1000, the value of the black ink used and wasted 
Avould have been at the rate of $1.50 per token. 

Posters. — An ordinary poster, 12 x 19 inches, will consume of black 
ink at 25 cents per pound, at the rate of 30 and 40 cents per 1000 iuipres- 
sioiis, the quantity used depending upon the size of the type and the 
qualitjr of tlie paper. Under the same conditions, a jioster 19 x 24 inches, 
will consume black ink of same quality at the rate of 75 cents and $1.00 
per 1000 impressions ; a poster 24 X 38 inches, from Sl.25 to $2,00 per 1000 
impressions. The value of the color used increases with the size of the 
sheet, and for this work, in greater proportion. The larger form has 
larger type, and the larger iiress wastes more color. 

Tint Blocks. — A solid tint Block cut on pine, for a sheet 24 x 38 
inches, with a few white lines, will use of 25 cent ink, at the rate of $3.00 
per 1000 impressions. If finer inks are used, the advance in price will be 
nearly in strict iiroportion. For a sheet 24 x 38, of smooth, thick paper, 
dry, jirinted on a metal tint-plate, with ink at $1.00 per pound, the cost of 
ink will be $10.00 per 1000 impressions. For this class of work, a pound 
of fine ink will do more work than a pound of cheap ink. On common 
flat work, a good black ink will jiermit a liberal reduction of body with 
varnish. 

Blue Inks.— Many qualities of this color are used. The leading 
varieties are best known to printers as light, dark, ultramarine and 
bronze blues. The light has a limited use for flat surfaces and tints ; the 
ultramarine, for flat surfaces, tints, posters, and to some extent, in its 
finer qualities, on fine type; the dark and bronze blues are most used for 
fine and light work, for which thej^ are well adapted, having strong bod}', 
and in extenduig property'' being nearly equal to fine black ink. 

Ultramarine is the favoring color for bright showy work. It is very 
bulky for its weight, and works well upon all flat surfaces. It is not a 
finelj'-ground color. The best colors only are used for type, but they do 
not work with the freedom and smoothness of dark or bronze blues. 
The prices range from 50 to $3.00 per pound. 

Flat Surfaces,--A flat-faced label, 9 x 14 inches, will consume of 
pure ultramariue blue at $1.00 per pound at the rate of $3.00 per 1000 



ESXniATES. ETC.. FOR PRINTERS. 759 

impressions. A flat tint block, 18 X 22 iucnes, on fair paper, Avill use of 
this color, when somewhat reduced with varnish, at the rate of $9.00 per 
1000 impressions. A flat tint block of pine wood, made for paper 24 x 38 
inches, will use of ultramarine at 75 cents, largely reduced with varnish, 
at the rate of $15.00 per 1000 impressions. 

Posters. — For a poster, 12 x 10 inches, on ordinary News, the value 
used of ultramarine ink at $1.00 will be at the rate of $2.00 per 1000 im- 
pressions ; for a poster, 19 X 24 inches, on ultramarine blue at 75 cents, $3.05 
per 1000 impressions ; for a poster, 24 x 38 inches, on ultramarine blue 
at 75 cents, at the rate of $6.00 to $8.00 per 1000 impressions. Ink at 50 
cents per pound would diminish the value of the color used, but not in 
ratio Avith the reduced price. The cheaper color is thinner, not so well 
ground, and is consumed more freely. If it is used on any but the largest 
t3''pe, it will not prove of marked economy. 

Dark blue and bronze blue are little used for posters or flat tints. If 
used in bullc, Avithout reducing, they will be much more expensive than 
ultramarine. When used on this kind of work, they are usually thinned 
with white ink, varnish, turpentine, benzine, etc., and sometimes Avith 
magnesia. Wlien used on light, open and fine Avork, the value of dark 
or bronze blues, may be rated as about double that of the same quality 
as black ink. 

Ked Inks. — Under this heading may be classified many qualities of 
scarlet and crimson color. The leading qualities are A'ermilion, lake 
and carmine. 

Vermilion red, a pure scarlet, is the basis of the better qualities of 
the cheap reds in greatest use. Commoner qualities, such as are sold, at 
75 cents and $1.00 per pound, are largely mixed Avith cheaper colors. In 
its pure state, vermilion is the densest, and, in extending propert}-, the 
Aveakest of all colors. A pound of vermilion red at $3.00 per pound is 
about half the bulk of fine black at $1.00 per pound. Where the black, 
Avill yield color for 1000 impressions, the vermilion red Avill be used up. 
Avlth about 350 impressions. The value of the red color, extending 
capacity considered, is about ten times as great as that of fine black. 

Lake red, a deep crimson, is inferior to black in extension, but will 
give treble the service of ordinary vermilion. It is too expensive for 
most bold Avork, or for flat surfaces, nor does it ]n-oduce as good an 
effect as pure vermillion. It is largely used for fine Avork, for wliich it is 
Avell fitted. 

Carmine, an intense and glowing crimson, is but little inferior to the 
finest black in extending properties. It is one of tlie most expensiA'e 
colors, and can be used to profit and with effect only on light and open 
work. For flat and solid Avork, the effect produced is nut little superior 
to that of the finer lakes, and is seldom worth the extra cost. 

Posters. — The A^alue of red ink at $1.00 per pound, that will be used 
and Avasted in printing 1000 posters, 12 X 19 inches, may be rated at 
$3.00 ; on 1000 posters, 19 X 24 inches, the value of color may be esti- 
mated at $5.00 and $G.00 per 1000 ; on a poster. 24 X 38 inches, at $9.00 
aiid $12.00 per 1000. The color is Aveak, and the use of light or bold- 
faced type Avill maice serious differences in the consumption of color. On 
doable-medium posters, the A'alue of the color may be averaged at $1.00 
per 100 impressions. 

Flat Surfaces. — A flat label 9 x 14 inches, AvIth ordinary amount 
and size of lettering cut for Avhite, such as is used for soap boxes, etc., 
Avill consume of pure red ink at $1.00 per pound, at the rate of $4.50 and 
$5.00 per 10?0 impressions. If the plate is flat, without lettering, at the 
rate of $6. 00 per 1000 impressions. A flat tint poster for paper 19 x 24 
inches, with letters cut in Avhit? as above, Avill use of red ink at $1.00 per 



7 GO PATENT OFFICE RULES, ETC. 

pound, that has been somewhat thmued with varnish, at the rate of $9.00 
and $10.00 per 1000 impressions. If pure color is used, it will consume 
color to the amount of $14.00 or $15.00. A fiat tint poster for paper 24 X 
38 inches, cut on pine, with lettering as above, will consume of red ink at 
$1.00 per pound, thinned wdth varnish, at the rate of $18,00 and $25.00 
per 1000 im])ressions. If dry paper is used, as is necessary for registered 
work it could not be rated at less than $20.00 ; for damp paper, carefully 
managed, it may be less than $18.00, but this is unusual. 

Coloring of Paper, — Gray is usually obtained by mixing mineral 
or vegetable black with the bleached pulp, but the tones produced by 
these primitive means are generally dull. Vegetable black made from 
the chestnut tree gives the best result. Chestnut black can be made 
from the bark of the young sprouts of this tree, generally cultivated to 
make hoops for casks ; after taking off the bark it is dried, ground, and 
made into a decoction for coloring paper, and which can be made either 
gray or black. Logwood also may be used. Iron Gray is made with 
chestnut or logwood. For two cwt. of paper, 4 lbs. of ext. of chestnut, 
4 lbs. sulphate of iron, dissolved in 9 gals, of boiling water, then stirred 
and mixed with the pulp, addhig a small quantity of red lake and ultra- 
marine. The size is mixed with 8 per cent, of sulphate of aluminum, 
this may be much varied. AVith small quanities of ext. of logwood and 
sulphate of iron a light c/ray is obtained; by adding yellow and Prussian 
blue, a greenish slate color ; by adding white, suppressing the blue, and 
keeping the lake, a chamois tone ; by adding to this last formula a little 
umber, bistre. Logwood is used with all colors when it is wished to 
darken the shades. With fine pulp il is best to replace the ext. of log- 
wood by the product obtained from the tree noted at the beginning of 
this notice. 

Solvents for Rubber. — These are bisulphide of carbon, coal nap- 
tha, rectified oil of turpentine, chloroform, and ether, Avhich must be 
free from alcohol. 

INFORMATION CONCERNING PATENTS. 

United States Patents and Fees. — No patent will be granted if 
the whole or any part of what is claimed has been patented or described 
in any printed publication in this or a foreign country, or been invented 
or discovered in this country. 

Prior Invention abroad will not prevent issue of a patent, unless the in- 
vention has been there patented or described in some printed publication. 

To prevent a subsequent inventor from obtainijig a patent, an inven- 
tion must have been reduced to a practical form, either by construction of 
a model or machine, or drawing, by which a mechanic could make the 
same. 

Merely conceiving an idea of an invention is not a discovery, and patent- 
able. 

Foreign Patents. — The taking out of a patent in a foreign country does 
not prejudice a patent previously granted here; nor does it prevent obtain- 
ing a patent here subsequently. "When a patent is granted here it will 
extend only seventeen years from date of foreign patent. 

Every foreign inventor must liave in use, or for sale in the United 
States, a copy of their patentable article, within eighteen months from 
date of patent. 

Duration of Patent is seventeen years. Extensions are prohibited on 
all patents granted since 1801. Applications for extension must be filed, 
and requisite fee paid, ninety days before expiration of the patent. 

Granting of Patents. — Patents, on iiayment of same official fee, are 
granted to all persons, including Avomen and minors, unless inhabitants 



PATENT OFFICE RULES, ETC. 7GI 

of countries which discriminate against the inhabitants of the United 
States 

Application for a patent must be made in the name of the inventor, who 
can alom sign the papers ; an attorney for inventor can not do so. 

Heirs of an Inventor can obtain a patent, papers to be signed by execu- 
tor or administrator of inventor. 

Joint Inventors are entitled to a joint patent. 

An Inventor can assign liis entire right, before a patent is obtained, so as 
to enable the assignee to take out a patent iu his own name ; but the assign- 
ment must be first recorded, and specification sworn to by the inventor. 

Oaths may be taken, in this country, before any one authorized by law 
to administer oaths ; in a foreign country before any minister plenipoten- 
tiary, charge d' affairs, consul, commercial agent or notary public of tlie 
country in which oath is taken, being in all cases properly attested by of- 
ficial seal of such notary. 

Stamps. — A stamp of value of fifty cents is required for each power of 
attorney, each slieet of an assignment to be stamped five cents, each cer- 
tificate of magistrate five cents. 

Drawings to be in duplicate, one on stiff paper, one on tracing cloth, to 
be 20 inches top to bottom, 15 inches wide ; tracing t j have 1 inch mai-giu 
on right hand side, for binding. 

Models to be of hard wood, or metal, not more than 12 inches in any 
dimension ; name of the inventor to be engraved or i^ainted conspicu- 
ously on it. 

For an Improvement, only model of part to be patented is required, to 
show nature and operation of invention. 

Designs, no models required ; either drawings or photographs, both in 
duplicate, with negative of photograph. 

New. Articles of manufacture, sample of article ; medicines, or medical 
compounds, sample of same, and minute statement of exact j)roportions 
and ingredients. 

Caveats. — The filing of a caveat prevents, during its existence, the 
issue of a patent, without the knowledge of the caveator, to any person 
for a similar device. The caveator is entitled to receive official notice 
during one year, foranj' petition for similar or interfering invention filed 
during that time. The caveator, when so notified, must complete his 
own application within three months from date of notice. 

A caveat runs one year : can be extended by paying $10 a year. 

Caveats can only be filed bj* citizens of the United Sfcites, or aliens who 
have resided here one year and declared their intention of becoming 
citizens. 

UNITED STATES PATENT FEES. 

On filing each caveat .?10 00 

On filing each ori^nal application for a patent, except foi a design. 15 00 

On issuing each original patent 20 00 

On every appeal from Examiners-in-Chief 20 00 

On application for a reissue 30 00 

On application for extension 50 00 

Granting an extension 50 00 

Filing each disclaimer 10 00 

Certified copies of patents and otlier papers, 10 cents per JOO words. 

Kecording every assignment, agreement, power of attorney, and 
other papers, of 300 words or inider 1 00 

If over 300 and under 1,000 words 2 00 

If over 1,000 words 3 00 

Drawings, cost of making same 

Patents for designs— for three and one-half years 10 00 

" " for seven years 15 00 

" '• for fourteen vears 30 00 



762 FACTS ABOUT 1IU3IAN LIFE. 

lu addition to the above, Messrs, Munn & Co., Patent Solicitors, N.Y., 
charge for written report of special examination at Patent office, if inven- 
tion has been patented in this conntry, ^5 ; for general information of 
infringements, reissues, claims, assignments, joint ownership, contracts, 
licences, name in which patent is recorded, abstracts of deeds of transfer, 
sketch of a drawing of patent, license made out, transfer of do., recording 
do., $5 for eacli case ; for procuring a patent, $25 to $35, or more ; for 
procuring a caveat, $10 to $15 ; for copies of patents or assignments, or 
drawings of any existing patents, $5 to $10 ; copy of any claim, $1. 

Foreign Patents. — Great Britain. — Duration, fourteen years, to first 
inventor or importer, cost, $350, of which $100 due at time of makiug 
application, balance in four months ; three years from date of patent, a 
f utther sum of £50 must be paid ; end of seven years, £100 additional. 
For designs to protect shape of article, three years, $100. 

France. — Term of patent, fifteen years, annual fee, $20. 

Belgium. — Term of patent, twenty years ; small annual fees. 

EXPENSE OF FOREIGN PATENTS, INCLUSIVE OF ALL FEES. 

Austria §250 i Netherlands §1.50 

Bavaria 150 I Portugal 250 

Belgium 150 | Prussia. 200 



Cuba 450 

France 150 

Great Britain 350 

India 400 

Italy 253 



Kussia .5.50 

Saxony 250 

Spain » 4»t0 

Sweden and Norway COO 



-O- 



FACTS RELATING TO HUMAN LIFE. 
The following table exhibits the recent mortality statistics, showing the 
average duration of life among joersons of various classes in the State of 
Massachusetts : 

Years. Years, l Years. 



Men unemployed 68 

Judges 65 

Farmers. ,..64 

BankOfficei-s 64 

Coopers 58 

Public Officers 57 

Clergymen 56 

Sliipwriglits 55 

Hatters 54 

Lawyers 54 

Kope Makers 54 



Blacksmiths Sl^Bakers 43 

Merchants SljPainters 43 

Calico Printers 51 Shoemakers 43 

Physicians 51 Mechanics 43 

Butchers 50| Editors 40 

Carpenters 49iMusici{ins 39 

Masons 48iPrinters 38 

Traders 46 Machinists ...36 

Tailors 44iTeachers 34 

Jewellers 44 Clerks 34 

Manufacturers 43, Operatives 32 

The average death rate in Europe is 1 out of every 42 inhabitants, or 
2.38 per cent. The ijrincipal European countries exhibit the following 
annual bills of mortality : — 

England 1 death to every 461 Austria 1 death to every 40 

Denmark 1 " <' 45 Prussia 1 " " o3 

Belgium 1 <' « 43lFrance 1 " " a2 

Norway and Sweden 1 '* '•' 41 1 

The death rate in the United States varies much from the above, from 
the highest, Arkansas, where the annual mortality is one death to every 
49 inhabitants, a trifle over 2 per cent of the population, to the lowest, 
Oregon, where the death rate is less than half of one per cent., or one 



FACTS ABOUT HUMAN LIFE. 



763 



to everj 203 inhabitants. The average yearly mortality in i^roportion to 
population is exhibited in the following table : — '■ 

New England States 1 in G8 Pacific States 1 in 115 

Middle States 1 '< 88 Atlantic States 1 " 80 

Southern States 1 " 70 Gulf States 1 " 63 

Western States 1 '• 81 Mississippi Valley States 1 " 80 

Noith-Western States 1 "120 

According to the Carlisle table of mortality, largely used as Jin author- 
ity in life insurance calculations in America ' and Europe, of 10,000 chil- 
dren born — 



3,540 


die in 10 


years. 


5,603 


die in 50 


years. 


9,818 


die 


in 90 years. 


3,910 


" 20 




6,357 


60 


'( 


9,991 


(( 


100 


4,358 


•' 30 


(< 


7,509 


70 


(< 


9,999 


« 


104 


4,915 


" 40 


(( 


9.047 


•' 80 


(( 









Leaving only one living at the age of 104 years. 

The tables of the British Government annuities are constructed on the 
principle that women live longer than men. Thus, a male of 15 can pur- 
chase an annuity of £15 per annum for £411 5s. lOd., but a female of 
tlic same age must ])ay £438 lis. 4d. And, at 60, a man would pay £272 
17s. Id. ; but a Avoman £312 14s. lOd. 

Long life, as a general rule, awaits the man who is gifted with pru- 
dence, a good constitution, and tlie mental potency to banish corroding 
anxiety. These are inestimable gifts. Dr. Heberden, an illustrious 
London physician of the last century, whose practise lay chiefly among 
the wealthy classes, asserted that nine out of ten of his patients died of 
a broken heart. Cornaro, the noted dietist, who by prudent care of him- 
self, lived to 104, wrote, " lam likewise greatly indebted for the excel- 
lent health I enjoy to that calm and temperate state in which I have been 
careful to keep my passions. The influence of the passions on tlic 
nerves and health of our bodies is so great that none can be ignorant 
of it. "lie, therefore, who seriously wishes to en joy good health, must 
learn to keep his passions in subjection to reason. Otherwise, all tem- 
perance will go for little." The man endowed by nature Avith the best 
prospect for long life is thus described bj' the famous Hufeland, in his 
work on longevity, published during the last century : " He has a Avell- 
proportioned stature, without, lioAvever, being too tall. He is rather of 
tlie middle size, and somewhat thickset. His complexion is not too florid ; 
at any rate, too much ruddiness in youth is seldom a sign of longevit^^ 
Hair approaches rather to the fair than to the black. His skin is 
strong, but not rough. His head is not too big. He has large veins at the 
extremities, and his shoulders are rather round than flat. His neck is 
not too long. His belly does not project, and his hands are large, but 
not too deeply cleft. His foot is rather thick than long, and his legs arc 
firm and round. He has also a broad chest and strong voice, and the 
faculty of retaining his breath a long time Avithout difficulty. Li general 
there is complete harmonj' in all his parts. His senses are good, but not 
too delicate. His pulse is sIoav and regular. His appetite is good, and 
his digestion easy. He has not too much thirst, which is ahvays a sign 
of rapid self-consumption. His passions never become too violent or 
destructive. If he gives way to anger he experiences a glow of Avarmth, 
Avithout an overflowing of the gall. He likes employment, particularly 
calm meditation and agreeable speculations ; is an optimist, a friend to 
nature and domestic felicity — has no thirst after either honors or riches, 
and banishes all thought of to-morrow." 

Mr. John Q. Adams Avas in excellent health, Avhen, in his ninetieth 
year, he was visited by Charles Mackay, who thus explains the cause : 



7G4: FACTS ABOUT HUMAN LIFE. 

" Men uud women," he says, *' scarcely ever allow the fresh air of hea- 
ven to touch any part of their bodies, except their hands and face, and 
even to these the ladies arc systematically unjust by wearing gloves and 
veils. The surface of tlic beautiful human form requires to be for a 
certain period of every day exposed to the action of the atmosphere. I 
take my air bath regularly every morning, and walk in ray bed-room in 
jmris naturalihus, with all tlic windows open, for half an hour. I also 
take a water bath daily. I read and write for eight hours a day. I sleep 
eight hours, and devote another eight to exercise, conversation, and 
meals. I feel within myself a reserve of bodily strength, which, I think, 
will carry me to a hundred years, unless I die by accident, or am shot or 
hanged." 

Between 1840 and 1871 the annual mortality on the Cheviot Hills, in 
Scotland, was at an average of 15 per 1,000. In the hamlet of Harbottle, 
with 120 inhabitants there has been no death of a child for 20 years. A 
farmer and his three shepherds, who have occupied their present situa- 
tion nearly 30 years, have among them 47 children, and not a single 
death has occurred in these families. In Alwinton, a parish on the south- 
ern slopes of the hills, the birth-rate in 1871, when it contained a popu- 
lation of 1,205, Avas 32.4 per cent. , and the death-rate only 7.5. An abun- 
dance of good food, good water, good houses, and regular but not seA'ere 
work, have brought about this orderly state of existence. 

Of a man Avho died near London at the advanced age of 110 years, it is 
reported that he had never been ill, and that he had mahitained through 
life a cheerful happy temperament. He was uniformly kind and obliging 
to everybody ; he quarrelled with no one ; he ate and drank merely that 
he might not suffer from hunger and thirst, and never beyond what ne- 
cessity required. From his earliest youth he never allowed himself to be 
unemployed. These were the onlj"- means he ever used. 

Of a woman who died near Stockholm at the advanced age of 115 
years, it is on record that she passed her long life free from illness, always 
contented and happy, a devoted lover of cleanliness, had a daily habit 
of Avashing her face, hands, and feet in cold water, and as often as op- 
portunity afforded, bathed in the same ; she never ate or drank any deli- 
cacies or sweet-meats ; seldom tea or coffee, and never wine. 

Another noted instance of long life Avas that of a man who died near 
St Petersburg, and had enjoyed good health until he was 120 years old. 
He was an early riser, and never slept more than seven hours at a time ; 
he Avas neA'^er idle ; he Avorked and employed himself chiefly in the open 
air, and particularly in his garden. Whether he Avalked or sat in his 
chair he always maintained an erect position, never tolerating a stooping, 
leaning, or distorted attitude. 

Unquestionably, a properly selected vegetable diet is the best fitted for 
the maintenance of health. A great percentage of the diseases Avhich 
afflict humanity are generated by the use of pork, A-eal, and other meats 
in immoderate quantities, and prepared in preposterous forms Avith lard, 
rich sauces, seasoning, &c. Of all animal food in common use pork is de- 
cidedly the Avorst. Its use as food frequently engenders an extremely 
painful disease, by many pronounced incurable, caused by a filthy para- 
site Avhich exists naturally in the muscles of swine. See Trichina, page 
149. A farmer Avriting from Freeport to the Chicago Inter-Ocean de- 
nounces pork in the most trenchant style. He says "Pork grease aa-IU 
ruin a wagon axle, much more the human stomach, and the farmer who 
uses pork alone as a meat diet and pork grease as shortening, ruins not 
only his own constitution but that of his family as Avell. This is the 
experience of a farmer Avho has tried the use of pork for over fifteen 
years, with as many years of sickness in his family, and two years on 



FA.CTS CONCERNING FOOD. 



765 



beef diet and perfect health." " Vegetable aliment, as neither aistending 
the vessels, nor loading the system, never interrni)ts the stronger action of 
the mind ; while the heat, fulness and weight of animal food is adverse 
to its efforts," — Cidlen, 

The following table shows the number of grains of warmth and- 
strength evolved per lb,, from various articles of food. The carbon and 
nitrogen taken into the system form fat and flesh, the fat bemg con- 
sumed makes the bodj^ stout, while the flesh represents strength or the 
muscles which yield it. 



Grains of Strength yielded by one 
pound of TOOOgraiiis. 

ORAirfS. 

Beer or Porter 1 

Parsnips 12 

Tuniips 12 

Whey 13 

Greens ll 

Potatoes 21 

Skimmed Milk VA 

New Milk . . , 35 

Buttermilk 35 

Barley 70 

nice 70 

Bacon 78 

Kj'c Bread 89 

Baker's Bread 90 

Pearl Barley 91 

Fresh Pork 108 

Seconds Flour 120 

Com Meal 125 

Fresh Fish 1 29 

Cocoa 130 

Oatmeal 140 

Mutton 140 

Fresh Beef 172 

Beef Liver 200 

Split Peas 250 

Cheddar Cheese 310 

Skim. Milk Cheese 360 



Grains of Warmth yielded by one 
pound of 7000 grains. 

GRAINS. 

Whey 150 

Turnips 238 

Beer and Porter 315 

Buttermilk 335 

Skimmed Milk 351 

New Milk 378 

Carrots 390 

Parsnips 425 

Potatoes 770 

Fresh Fish 980 

Beef Liver . . 1,220 

Red Herrings 1,455 

Baker's Bread 1,990 

Fresh Beef 2,300 

Molaeses 2,300 

Skim. Milk Cheese 2,350 

Cheddar Cheese 2,550 

Seconds Flour 2,700 

Rye Bread 2,700 

Rice , . 2,750 

Barley Meal 2,780 

Indian Meal 2,800 

Sugar 2,900 

Fresh Pork. 3,100 

Bacon 4,200 

Butter 4,700 

Lard 4,800 



Drippings 5,500 

In cookery 4 lbs. of beef lose 1 lb. by boiling, 1 lb. 5 ozs. by roasting, 
and 1 lb. 3 ozs, by baking ; 4 lbs. of mutton lose 14 ozs, by boiling, 1 lb. 
6 ozs, by roasting, and 1 lb, 4 ozs, by baking. As to the "^drinking cus- 
toms of society, statistics prove that every year in the United Kingdom, 
70,000, and in the United States, about 75,000 deaths result directly and 
indirectly from the nse of spirituous liquors,' The benefits derived from 
their use are in a great measure merely imaginary, and their persistent 
use can only have one result, viz., premature death. An intemperate 
person of twenty years has a probability of life extending 15.(3 ; one of 
30 to 11 "6 years, while temperate i:)ersons would have a like probability 
of living 42 and 35 respectivel3\ Comment is useless, if you wish health 
and long life, abstain. Liebig, the celebrated chemist, recommends the 
persistent use of a ])urely vegetable diet as a cure for this abominable 
vice, especially in its earlier stages, and Charles Napier, the noted Eng- 
lish scientist, has reported, as the result of experiments, 27 cases, in 
which the exclusive use of vegetables as food, had created repugnance 
for alcoholic stimulants. Another remedy highly commended is to steep 
equal parts of the herbs valerian and wormwood together, and drink the 
liquid three times a day when the desire is felt. Still another remedy is 
tincture of cinchona (Peruvian bark) taken in 1 drachm (teaspoouful") 



7GG 



POPULATION OF THE GLOBE. 



doses every two hours. The dose may be increased to six teaspoonfuls 
and taken in that proportion 4 to 10 times per day. It will not destroy 
appetite for food, but in a few days the anti-periodic properties of the cin- 
chona begin to tell, and the patient not only loses all taste for the tinc- 
ture, but also all desire for everything in the shaj^e of alcohol. 

THE LATEST CENSUS OF ALL THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 

Behm and Wagner estimate tlie total number of all men 1,423,919,000. They 
are distributed over the five parts of the world as follows , 

Number of inliabitants per square mile. 

Africa 199,921,600 13 ] 

America 85,519,800 6 | 

Asia 824,548,300 49 ^ Average all over the 

Australia 4,748,600 ly, 1 earth, 28. 

Europe .309,178,500 82 J 

Reliable figures are exhibited for Europe, save Turkey. They show : 

Andorra ; 12,000 Montenegro 190,000 

Austria, 1870 37,700,000 Netherlands, 1875 3,f'09,527 



Belgium, 1874 5,336,634 

Denmark, 1876 1,903,000 

France, 1873 36,102,921 

Germany, 1875 42,723,242 

Great Britain, 1876 33,450,000 

Greece, 1870 1,457,349 

Italy, 1875 27.432,174 

Luxemburgh, 1875 205,158 

Monaco,1873 5,741 



Norway, 1875 1,802,882 

Portugal , 1874 4,298,831 

lloumania, 1873 5,073,000 

Russia, (Europe) 1870 71,730,980 

Servia, 1875 • . • • 1,377,068 

Spain, 1870 16,551,647 

Sweden ,1875 4,383,291 

Switzerland, 1870 2,069,147 

Turkey (Europe) 3,500,000 



Another estimate of the population and area of the Globe is as follows :- 



Divisions. 


Area. Population. 1 Pop. to Sq. M. 


Europe 


3,800,000 
15,000,000 
10,800,000 
14,700,000 

4,500,000 


296,713,500 

699.863,000 

67,414,000 

88,061,148 

25,924,000 


80 


Asia 


46 


Africa 


5 


America 


6 


Oceanica 


5 






Total 


48,800.000 


1,177,975,688 


24 



It is estimated that this aggregate of humanity speak 3,064 languages, 
and profess to believe in 1,000 various forms of religion. 

Of this vast multitude, 33,333,333 are estimated to pass into eternity 
every year, 91,954 every day, 3,730 every hour, 60 every minute, and 1 
every second. The number of births is larger than the number of deaths. 

Still another estimate of the earth's population, classified according to 
race and religion, is as follows : 



Races. 



Religions. 



Pagans 676,000,000 

Christians 320,000,000 

Mohammedans 140,000,000 

Jews 14,000,000 



Whites 550,000,000 

Mongolians 550,000,000 

Blacks 173,000,000 

Copper-Colored 12,000,000 

. The Christians are classified as follows : 

Church of Rome. Protestants. Greek and East Church 

170,000,000. 90,000,000. 60,000,000. 

AREA OF OCEANS AND SEAS — APPROXIMATE ESTIMATES. 



Oceans. Sq. miles. 

Pacific about 78,000,000 

Atlantic " 25,000,000 

Indian <•' ...14,000,000 

Southern Ocean to 30? about. 25,000,000 
Northern about 5,000,000 



Seas Sq. miles. 

Mediterranean 1,000,000 

Black Sea. 170,000 

Baltic 175,000 

North Sea......r... 160,000 



AREA OF SEAS, LAKES, ETC. 767 

In the British expedition under Capt, Nares, with the two steamers 
Alert and Discovery, to the Polar Sea, it was determined that the depth 
of that sea, at one poijit, was about 70 fathoms, that the ice was from 80 
to 120, and in many places 200, feet thick, and probably a century old ; 
that a powerful tide sets in from the Pacific under this ice and extends 
down the long channel as far as the northern part of Smith's Sound. A 
sledge party advanced over the ice to lat. 83° 20^ 2&i N., the most north- 
erly point as yet ever trod by man. No traces of human life exists north 
of lat. 81° 52', where the Esquimaux appear to have crossed the water, 
here only 15 miles wide, into Greenland, from the large islands which 
fringe the North American continent on the north. On the Alert, mer- 
c^iry was frozen 47 daj^s in all, and, in still weather, the minimum temp, 
was more than 70° below zero and the auroras w^ere neither brilliant nor 
of frequent occurrence during the long Arctic winter, with its unparalleled 
intensity and duration of darkness produced by the absence of sunlight 
for 142 days. Birds do not migrate beyond Cape Joseph Henry, on the 
American coast of the Polar Sea, in lat. 82° 52^ north, and the northern 
limits of the haunts of wild animals is about 82°. Dwarf oaks, sorrel, 
poppies, saxifrage, and between 20 and 30 species of flowering plants 
were found growing in the vicinity of lat. 82° north, together with fossil 
corals, a workable seam of good coal, and evidences of the former ejc- 
istence of an evergreen forest in lat. 82* 44', 

Between the Tropics the temperature of the Ocean is from 77° to 84*^, 
it diminishes to 45 5° at 1,000 fathoms depth. In the Arctic Sea the tem- 
perature rises from 8" to 10* at 700 fathoms, and G"* at 200 fathoms. 
Divers report an entire absence of motion in the Ocean at a depth of 30 
It., and the Solar rays penetrate 200 or SOO ft. Sea water is salt and bit- 
ter at the surface, but salt only at profound depths. The component 
parts, with slight variations, are water, muriatic acid, sulphuric acid, 
mineral alkali, lime, and magnesia. The deepest soundings on record is 
9 miles. Young estimates the Atlantic at 3 miles, and the Pacific at 4 
deep. Copper globes are compressed at 800 fathoms. Parry sounded in 
lat. 57" N. long. 24" W. but found no bottom at 1,020 fathoms. 

ESTIMATED LENGTH OF SEAS, &C. 



Seas. Miles ' Seas. Miles. Seas. Miles 



Mediterranean 2,000 

Carribean 1,800 

China 1,700 

Red 1,400 



Black 930 

Caspian C40 

Baltic 600 

Othotsk 600 



Aral 250 

Hudson's Bay 1,200 

Baffin's Bay 600 

Chesapeake Bay ... . 250 



Japan l,000| White 450 

ESTIMATED SIZE OF NOTED LAKES. 

Lakes Length Width t oVas Length Width 

^^^^- Miles. Miles. -^akes. ^jj^|g^ ^j.^^^^ 



Superior 380 120 I Maracaybo .... l.oO 60 

Baikal 360 35 I Ladoga 125 75 

Michigan 330 60 Great Bear 150 40 

Great Slave 300 45 i Nicaragua 120 40 

Huron 250 90 j Champlain . . . . 123 12 

Winnipeg 240 40 I L.ofthe Woods 70 25 

Erie 270 50 j Geneva 50 10 

Ontario 180 40 | Constance 45 10 

Arthabaska 200 20 i Cayuga 36 4 

Many of the above lakes are very deep, and it is owing to this cause 
that they never freeze. 



7Gf5 



NOTJiD IIIVKUS AND MOUNTAINS. 



LEKGTH OF NOTED RlVEllS ON THE GLOBE. 
Rivers. | Locality. | Miles. Rivers. | Locality. | Miles. 



Amazon Brazil 3200 

La Plata S. America 2215 

Aronoco " 1500 

Mississippi N. America 3200 



Missouri 

Arkansas 

Red River 

Columbia 

Ohio 

Colorado 

Susquehanna. 

James 

Potomac 

Hudson 



4500 

2500 

2500 

1090 

1000 

1000 

400 

500 

400 

325 



St. LawrenceCanada 

St- John N- Brunswick.. 

Murray .Australia 

Mackenzie . . .Brit. Ter 

Obi Siberia 



1960 
450 
3000 
2500 
2800 

Danube Austria & Turkey 1790 

Don Russia 1000 

Dneiper " lOOO 

ETiphrates. . . . from Ararat 2020 

Rhine Germany 800 

Wolga from the Waldais 2100 

Lena Siberia 2500 

Maykiajig Siam 1700 

Hoang-Ho . . China 3000 

Yang-tse-kia " 2500 

Ganges Indid 1650 

Brahmapootra " 1600 

Indus " 1770 



Nile Egypt and Nubia 2690 

Niger Africa 2300 

Jumna . . Hindostan 680 

Gogra " 500 

The Ganges, in India, derives its origin from a Himalayan glacier, it 
has a fall of 4 inches to the mile, and rises from April till August 32 ft. 
creating a flood 100 miles wide. The Delta of tl^e Ganges is 200 miles long, 
consisting of -woods called Sunderbunds. It pours down from 80 to 400- 
000 cubic ft. in a second. The force of the tides, which rise from 13 to 10 
ft. high, with the floods, frequently form and destroy islands 25 miles in 
diam. The Nile has advanced 16 ft. per auniim since the time of 
Herodotus, and raises the soil of Egypt 4 ins. in a century. The prodi- 
gious quantities of mud brought down by large rivers enlarges continents 
at their estuaries, and form deltas of alluvial laud Avhich eventually form 
plains of immense fertility. The Mississippi, the Amazon, the Nile, the 
Danube, the Po, the Ganges, and the Niger are striking examples of the 
truth of this statement. The Yellow River, in China, is said to carry 
down 2,000,000 cubic ft. of alluvium every day. The Euphrates covers the 
Babylonian plains to a depth of 12 ft. between March and June. 

THE HIGHEST MOUN^TAINS ON THE GLOKE. 



Kunchainyunga, Himalayas • - 
Sorata, Andes, highest in America 
Ilhmani, Bolivia • ..--.. 
Chimborazo, Ecuador - - - . . 
Hindoo-Koosh, Afghanistan - - 
Cotopaxi, Ecuador ---.-. 
Antisaaa, " - . . . ^ ,. 

St. Elias, British America - . - 
Popocatapetl. volcano, Mexico 
Mt, Koa, Hawaii - . . - 
Alt. Brown, highest Roclcy Mt pk. 
Mont Blanc, highest in Europe - 
Mowna Roas, Owhyhee - - - - 
Mount Rosa, Alps, Sardinia • - 
Pinchinca, Ecuador - - - - = - 
Mount Whitney, Cal . - - . 
Mount Fairweather. Russ.Poss. - 
Mount Shasta, California- - - - 

Pikes Peak, California 

Mount Ophir, Summatra ... - 
J remont's Peak, R. M. Wyoming 
Long's Peak, R. M. California • - 
Mount Ranier, Washington Ter. • 
Mount Ararat, Armenia - - . . 
Peak of Teneriffe, Canaries - • - 



The mountains sitbtract 
than the roughness on the 



Feet. Miles.] 


28.178 


5X 


25,380 


5 


21,780 


4^ 


21,4« 


4^ 


20,G00 


s% 


19,408 


3J< 


19,1.50 


aw, 


18,000 


3^ 


17,735 


3« 


16,000 


s 


15,900 


3 


15,770 


3 


15 700 


3 


1 5,550 


3 


15,200 


2s^ 


15,000 


2^ 


14,796 


'■^4 


14,450 


'i% 


14 320 


'PA 


13,800 


'i% 


13,570 


'2% 


13,400 


'ZM 


13,000 


2i< 


12,700 


2% 


12,236 


'^H 



Feet. Miles. 
Miltsin, Morocco - - . - . . ]2,0(X) 2^/^ 

Mount Hood. Oregon 11,570 

Simplon, Alps --..... 11, .542 



IS 
¥ 

IM 
i>i 
\W 

1 
1 



no more 
coat of an 



Mount Lebanon, Syria .... 11.000 
Mount Perdu. France . . - - 10,9.50 
Mount St. Helen's, Oregon - - - 10,158 

Mount Etna, Sicily 10.050 

Olympus, Greece ..... 9,754 

St Gothard, Alps 9,080 

Pilate, Alps 9,0,50 

Mount Sinai, Arabia , . . - • 8.000 
Pindus Greece - ....... 7,677 

Black Mountain, New Caledonia 6,476 
MountWashington, N.Hampshire G,2'}4 
Mount Marey, New York - • - 5.4'!7 

Mount Hecla, Iceland 5,000 

Ben Nevis, Scotland 4,400 % 

Mansfield, Vt. 4,280 % 

Peaks of Otter, Va. 4,260 % 

Ben Lawers, Scotland - - - - 4,030 5i 

Parnassus, Greece - 3,9.50 54 

Vesuvius, Naples ..---. 3,932 M 
Snowdon, England- ----- 3,500 ?4 

Stromboh 3,850 % 

Ben Lomond 3,280 M 

Mount Carmel .-.---- 2,000 
Gibraltar 1,470 

from the globular form of the earth 
orange. The highest elevations are 



NOTED MOUNTAINS, TOWERS, ETC. 7G1) 

•within the tropics, the next in the temperate zones, the next in the frigid, 
and the limit of perpetual snow varies with the heat of the surface; sec 
page 119. Tlie Andes chain extends 4600 miles from the Gulf of Darien 
to the Straits of Magellan. The same chain is continued northward, 
through Mexico, the'United States, and the British Possessions by the 
Rocky Mountains and other immense elevations which form the back- 
bone of the continent. These enormous mountain masses exert a 
genial action on the climjite, form the sonrce of rivers, and determine the 
water shed of streams. The mountains of America afford incontestable 
proof that the New World, geologically considered, is really the oldest 
formation of the present distribution of land on the globe. Irresistible 
subterranean forces are still active on the Andes ; from Cotopaxi south- 
ward, over 40 volcanoes are continually at work, causing havoc, and 
belching out lava, sulphur, &c. In many cases volcanic action impels 
mountainous waves from the sea, carrying vessels several leagues inland 
over cities, towns, &c. In 1746 an official account reported all the in- 
habitants of Callao, 4000, destroyed, 19 vessels sunk, and 4, including a 
frigate, were carried far inland over the city. AVafer saAv 3 vessels 
which had been carried 5 or C leagues overland. A similar irruption 
took place on this coast only a few months ago, attended by fearful 
suffering and awful loss of life and property. The Andes contain no 
granite at a higher elevation than 8 to 10,000 ft, the tops being crowned 
with whinstone, and the crevices and fissures, many of them descending 
below the sea level, are even more astonishing than their heights. 

In Asia, the Himalayian ranges extend about 1400 miles, the mountain 
ridges being from 50 to 60 miles wide, extending from N. W. to S. E. 
They form the source of all the rivers of the JEastern seas, and have 
furnished the materials which compose the soil. There are 5 passes over 
them, some as high as 15,000 ft; at 15,500 ft., beds of fossil shells exist. 
The European and Asiatic mountains are topped with granite. Regard- 
ing the Alps, and the various snow levels over the globe, see pp. 118-19. 

In Scotland, the Grampian range includes Cairngorm, 4095 ft. ; Macdui, 
4,327 ; Shehallion, 3,550; Benmore, 3,870 ; Beii Lawers, 4,030; Cairntoul, 
4,225; Ben Avon, 3,967; Ben Nevis, the highest, 4,400 ft, has a precipice 
of 1,500 ft., and is always capped with ice and snow; north of the Cale- 
donian ca)ial is another range of great altitude, all vast masses of barren 
granite. In all there are about 45 elevations north of the Tweed, exceed- 
ing 2,000 ft. 

HEIGHT OF NOTED MONUMENTS, TOWERS, &C. 



Feet. 

Pyramid of Clieops, Egypt 543 

Antwerp Cathedral, Belgium 476 

Strasburg Cathedral, France. 474 

Tower of Utrecht, Holland ....... 464 

Steeple of St. Stephen's, A^ienna. .. 460 

Pyramid of Cephenes, Egypt 456 

St. Martin's Church, Bavaria 456 

St. Peter's, Rome 448 

Salisbury Spire, England 410 

St. Paul's, London, England 404 

St. Peter's, at Hambro' 395 

Cathedral at Florence, Italy 384 

Cremona Cathedral, Italy 372 



Feet- 
Notre Dame Cathedral, Munich — 34^ 

Dome of the Invalides, Paris 347 

Magdeburg Cathedral 337 

St. Mark's Church, Venice 328 

Assinelli Tower, Bologna 314 

Trinity Church, New York 2*3 

Column at Delhi, India 202 

Porcelain Tower, China 242 

Canterbury Tower, England 2.^5 

Notre Dame Cathedral, Paris 232 

Bunker Hill, Monument 220 

Leaning Tower, Pisa, Italy 202 

Monument, London. 202 



Seville Cathedral, Spain 360!Monument, PI. Vendome, Paris.. 15.'{ 

Pyramid of Sakkarah, Egypt 356iTrajan's Pillar, Rome 151 

Nearly 70 round towers, with cromlechs, exist in different parts of 
Ireland, from 30 to 135 ft. high. 
For other interesting items on this subject, see page 125. 

33 



770 



AREA, &C., OF THE UNITED STATES. 



Population, growth, &c., of the united states and territories. 



c2 



1819 
1836 
1850 
Sett 
Sett 
1845 
Sett 
1818 
181G 
1846 
1859 
1792 
1812 
1820 
Sett 
Sett 
1837 
1859 
1817 
1821 
1866 
1864 
Sett 
Sett 
Sett 
Sett 
1802 
1859 
Sett 
Sett 
Sett 
1796 
1848 
1791 
Sett 
1862 
1848 






144,317 

52,240 

107,000 

led 1636 

led 1627 

54,477 

led 1682 

34,620 

63,867 

81,929 

107,206 

73,077 

76,556 

208,335 

led 1635 

led 1620 

200,000 

150,042 

75,512 

60,586 

60,000 

40,000 

led 1623 

led 1624 

led 1614 

led 1650 

41,915 

52.465 

led 1685 

led 1637 

led 1670 

77,262 

250,000 

85,539 

led 1607 

376,688 

210,596 



STATES. 



<^ 



Alabama, 

Arkansas, 

California, 

Connecticut, 

Delaware, 

Florida, 

Georgia, 

Illinois, 

Indiana, 

Iowa, 

Kansas, 

Kentucky, 

Louisiana, 

Mnine, 

Maryland, 

Masaclius's 

Michigan, 

Minnesota, 

Mississippi, 

Missouri, 

Nebraska, 

Nevada, 

N. Humps'e, 

New Jersey, 

New York, 

N. Carolina, 

Ohio, 

Oregon, 

Pennsylv'na, 

R . Island, 

S. Carolina, 

Tennessee, 

Texas, 

Vermont, 

Virginia, 

W. Virginia, 

Wisconsin, 

Total States, 



TERRITORIES. 



Arizona, 

Colorado; 

Dakota, 

District of Columbia, 

Idaho, 

Montana, 

New Mexico, 

Utah, 

Washington, 

Wyoming, 

Total Territories, 

Total U.S. and Ter., 



.50,722 

52,198 

188,981 

4,750 

2,120 

59,248 

58,000 

55,410 

33,809 

55,041 

81,318 

37,630 

41,346 

35,000 

11,124 

7,800 

56,451 

83,531 

47,156 

65,350 

75,995 

81,539 

9,280 

8,320 

47,000 

50,704 

39,964 

95-274 

46,000 

1,.306 

34,000 

45,660 

274,356 

10,212 

38,352 

23,000 

53,924 

1,950,171 



113,916 

104,500 

147,490 

60. 

90,930 

143,776 

121,201 

80,056 

69,944 

93,107 

965,032 

2,915,203 






996,992 

484,471 

560,247 

537,454 

125,015 

187,748 

1,184,109 

2,539,891 

1,680.637 

1,194,020 

364,399 

1,321,011 

726,915 

626,915 

780,894 

1,457,351 

1,184,059 

439,706 

827,922 

1,721,295 

122,993 

42,491 

318,300 

906,006 

4,382,759 

1,071,361 

2,665,260 

90,923 

3,521,951 

217,353 

705,606 

11,250,520 

818,.579 

330,551 

1,225,103 

442,011 

1,054,670 



.38,115,641 



9,658 
39,864 
14,181 
131.700 
14,999 
20,595 
91,874 
86,786 
23,955 

9,118 



442,730 



38,558,641 



8 
4 
4 
4 
1 
2 
9 

19 

13 
9 
3 

10 
6 
5 
6 

11 
9 
3 
6 

13 
1 
] 
3 
7 

33 
8 

20 
1 

27 
2 
5 

10 
6 
3 
9 
3 
8 

292 



as 

Ph 



1,550,544 
528,349 



857,039 



1,651,912 
1.331,031 

598,429 



246,280 
52,540 



1,026,502 
4,705,208 



258,239 
925,1]5 



1,236,729 



Miles R.R. 



13G2. 



805 

38 

23 

630 

127 

402 

1,020 

2,998 

2,175 

731 



567 
351 
505 
408 
1,285 



823 
862 
838 



661 
633 

2,728 
937 

3,100 
4 

3,006 
108 
973 

1,2.53 
4511 
.562 

1,379 
361 
961 

32,120 



]8r2. 



32,120 



POPULATIOX, &C,, OF VARIOUS COUNTRIES. 771 

POPULATION, AREA, &c.. OF THE PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES OF 

THE WORLD. 



Countries. 



China 

British Empire 

Russia 

United States and Alaslca. 

France 

Austria and Hungary 

Japan 

Great Britain and Ireland. 

German Empire 

Italy 

Spain 

Brazil 

Afghanistan 

Turkey 

Arabia 

Mexico 

Turkestan 

Sweden and Norway 

Aram 

Persia 

Belgium 

Birmah 

Bavaria 

Siam 

Portugal 

Holland 

New Grenada 

Chili 

Laos 

Switzerland 

Peru 

Bolivia 

Argentine Republic 

Wurtemburg 

Demnarlc 

"Venezuela 

Baden 

Greece 

Guatemala 

Ecuador 

Paraguay 

Hesso 

Liberia 

San Salvador 

Hayti 

Beloochistan 

Nicaragua 

Malaya, etc 

Uraguay 

Honduras 

San Domingo 

Cosla Rico 

Hawaii 



Populati'n, 



446,500,000 

220,817.108 

81,925,100 

38,925,600 

36.469,800 

35;904,400 

34,785,300 

31,817,100 

20,906,092 

27,439,921 

16,642,000 

10,000,000 

6,000,000 

16,463,000 

8,500,000 

9,173,000 

4,800,000 

5,921,300 

6,000,000 

5,000,000 

5,021,300 

7,000,000 

4,861,400 

5,500,000 

3,995,200 

3,688,300 

3,000,000 

2,000,000 

2,000,000 

2,629,100 

2,500,000 

2,000,000 

1,812,000 

1,818,000 

1,784,000 

1.500,000 

1,461,300 

1,457,900 

1,180,300 

1,300,000 

1,000,000 

823,133 

718,000 

600,000 

572,000 

500,000 

350,000 

500,000 

300,000 

350,000 

136,000 

165,000 

62,950 



Area in 

sq. miles. 



Capitals. 



3,741,&16 

4,677,432 

8,003,788 

2.603,884 

'204,091 

240,348 

149,390 

121, .315 

160,207 

118,847 

195,755 

3,253,029 

226,000 

672,624 

1.200,000 

'761,526 

414.000 

292,871 

150,000 

635,964 

11,373 

205,000 

29,292 

189,000 

34,434 

12,680 

357.157 

132,616 

130,000 

15,992 i 

471,838 I 

497,321 I 

871,848 

7,533 i 

14,753 

308,238 

5,912 

19,353 

40,879 

218,928 

63,787 

2,969 

9,576 

7,335 

10,205 

102,000 

58,171 

60,000 

66,722 

47,092 

17,827 

21,505 

7,633 



Pekin 

London 

St. Petersburg. 
Washington. . . 

Paris 

Vienna 

Yeddo 

London 

Berlin 

Rome 

Madrid 

Rio Janeiro. .. 

Cabool 

Constantinople 

Mecca 

Mexico 

Bokhar.i 

Stockholni 

Hue 

Teheran 

Brussels 

Monchovo 

jMunich 

Bankok 

Lisbon 

Hague 

Bogota 

Santiago 

Changmai 

Benie 

Lima 

Chuquisaca 

Buenos Ayres. 

Stuttgart 

Copenhagen.. . 

Caraccas 

Carlsruhe 

Athens 

Guatemala — 

Quito 

Asuncion 

Darmstadt 

Monrovia 

San Salvador.. 
Portau Prince. 

Kelat 

Managua 

Singapore 

Monte Video . . 

Camayagua 

San Domingo. . 

San Jose 

Honolulu 



Popula- 
tion. 



1,618,800 

3,251,800 

667,000 

109,199 

1,825,300 

833.900 

1,554,900 

3,251,800 

825,400 

244,484 

332,000 

420,000 

60,000 

1,075.000 

60,000 

210,300 

160,000 

136,900 

60,000 

120,000 

314,100 

5,000 

169,500 

150,000 

224,063 

90,100 

45,100 

115,400 

25,000 

36,000 

160,100 

25,000 

177,800 

91.600 

162,042 

47,000 

36,600 

43,000 

40,000 

70,000 

48.000 

30,000 

3.000 

15.000 

20.000 

15,000 

10,000 

57,000 

44.500 

12:000 

20,000 

2,000 

7,633 



In the foregoing table the figures relating to population, give, in the 
majority of cases, the census of 1870-71. 

Jn Europe the five Great Powers are the Empire and ^louarchy of Gr 



772 



AREA, &C., OF BRITISH AMERICA. 



Britain and Ireland, the Empire of Germany, tlie Empire of Russia, the Em. 
pire of Austria, and the Republic of France. 

The second-rate Powers are the Kingdoms of Italy, Spain, Norway and Swe- 
den, and the Empire of Turkey in Europe. Regarding the latter it may be said 
that great changes are impending, owing to the adverse issue of the war with 
Russia, and the present threatening attitude of the Russian armies and the 
British tleet near Constantinople. 

The third-rate Powers are the Kingdoms of Belgium, Portugal, Bavaria, 
Denmark, Saxony, Greece, Holland, or Netherlands, the Republic of Switzer- 
land and the Duchies or lesser States. 

AREA, POPULATION, &C., OF BRITISH AMERICA. 



Name. 



Area in Eng. 
eq. miles. 



I Popula- 
tion. 



Hudson Bay Ter. ) 
Red River, | 

Brit. Columbia, &c, 
Vancouver Island, 
Newfoundland, 
Prince Edw. Island, 
Nova Scotia & Cape B. 
New Brunswick, 
Quebec, 
Ontario, 



1,800,000 

344,500 

13,250 

57,000 

2,173 

19,650 

27,710 

210,000 

125,000 



2,599,283 



; 175,000 

10,000 

50,000 

18,000 

124,288 

80,857 

330,857 

252,047 

1,111,566 



Capital. 



jPopula- 
I lion. 



York Factory, 
Fort Garry, | 

NewWestminst'rj 4,000 

Victoria, 3,000 

St. Johns, I 25,000 

Charlottetown, j G,706 

Halifax \ I 26,000 

Fred'n | j 7.000 

Quebec ) Ottawa 52,140 
44,821 



1,396,0911 Toronto J 15,000, 



CAPACITY OF NOTED CHURCHES. 



Will Contain 
No. persons. 

St. Peter's, Rome 54,000 

Milan Cathedral 37,000 

St. Paul's, Rome 32,000 

St. Paul's, London 25,600 

St. Petronio, Bologna 24,400 

Florence Cathedral 24,300 

Antwerp Cathedral 24,000 

St. Sopliia's, Constantinople. . . . 23,000 



Will Contain 
No. Persons. 

St. John's, Lateran 22,900 

Notre Dame. Paris 21.000 

Cathedral, Pisa 13,000 

St. Stephen's, Vienna 12.400 

St. Dominic's, Bologna 12,000 

St. Peter's, Bologna 11,400 

Cathedral, Vienna 11,000 

St. Mark's, Venice 7,500 



CAPACITY OF THEATRES, OPERA HOUSES, HALLS, &C. 



Will Contain 

No. Persons, 

Gilmore'fj Garden, New York — 8,443 

Stadt Theatre, " 3,000 

Academy of Music, " 2.526 

Academy of Music, Philadelphia. 2.865 

Carlo Felice, Genoa 2,560 

Opera House, Munich 2,307 

Alexander, St. Petersburg 2,332 

San Carlos, Naples 2,240 

Adelphi Theatre, Chicago 2.238 

Music Hall, Boston 2,585 

Academy of Paris 2,092 

Imperial, St. Petersburg 2,160 

La Scala, Milan 2,113 

Covent Garden, London 2,684 

Boston Theatre, Boston 2,972 



Will Contain 
No. Persons. 

St. Charles, Th., N. Orleans 2,178 

Grand Opera House, New York 1,883 
Booth's Theatre, " 1,807 

Opera House, Detroit 1,790 

McVicar Theatre, Chicago 1,786 

Grand Opera House, " 1,786 

Ford's Opera House, Baltimore.. 1,720 

Nat. Theatre, Washington 1,709 

De Bar's Opera House, St. Louis 1,696 

Cal. Theatre, San Fran 1 .651 

Euclid Av., Op. H.. Cleveland. . . . 1,650 

Opera House, Berlin 1 ,636 

Opera House, Albany 1,404 

Hooley's Theatre, Chicago 1,373 

Coulter Op. H., Aurora, 111 1,004 



Grand Opera Hall, New Orleans, 2,052 Opera House, Montreal 928 



MEASUREMENT OF TIME. 77^ 




Measurement of tisie, table. 

60 seconds 1 minute. 

60 minutes 1 hour. 

24 hours 1 day. 

7 days 1 week. 

28 days 1 lunar month. 

28, 29, 30, or 31 days 1 calendar month. 

12 calendar months 1 year. 

365 days 1 com. year. 

366 days 1 leap year. 

365V4 days 1 Julian year. 

365 d., 5h., 48m., 49s 1 solar or tropical year. 

365 d., 6 h., 9 m., 12 s 1 siderial year. 

365 d., 6.13 m., 49.3 s 1 anomalistic year. 

10 years 1 decade. 

IQ decades, or 100 years 1 century. 

equivalents. 
Yr. Da. Hr. Min. Sec. 

1 = 365V4 = 8766 = 1/25960 = 3155T60C 

1 = 24 = 1440 = 86400 

1 = 60 = 3C09 

1 = CO 

Scale of units :— 60, CO, 24, 365V4' 

The tropical (or solar year) and the sidereal years are the same, and 
the tropic is only an anticipated solar mark before the sidereal year is 
completed. The anomalistic year is an advance of tlie orbit as part of 
he solar system in space, and its excess over the sidereal year is the 
stellar measure of the annual advance of the Avhole system ; the mean 
velocities are uniform, and the times as the spaces. 
The diunial revolution of the earth causes the difference in time, etc., 
illustrated in the following 

longitude and time table. 

For every hour of time there is a difference of 15° in longitude. 
" minute " " " 15/ " 

" second " " " 15'/ '• 

" degree of longitude " " 4m. in time. 

" minute "" " " 4 sec. " 

" second " " " i\ sec. '* 

360° = 1 revolution of the earth, or 1 day. 
1440''^ =1 " " " " 

1440 -f- 360 = 4 minutes, or 1 degree. 

Add difference of time for places east, and svhtract it for places 
WEST of any given locality. The greatest circumference of the earth's 
surface is 24,930 miles. 1° of that circumference is l-360th of that num- 
ber, or 69^ miles. Hence a geographical or nautical mile is equal to 1' 
of the earth's greatest circumference, or a trifle more, the 1st mile and 



774 



DIVISIONS OF THE CIRCLE, &C. 



49 rods. The following table exhibits the divisions of the circle, 
!js used by geographers, astronomers, surveyors, navigators, &c, : — 



60 seconds ('0 make 


1 minute, 




marked 


' 


60 minutes " 


1 degree, 




<( 


o 


30 degrees ** 


1 sign. 




<( 


Big. 


90 degrees *' 


( 1 quadrant, 
\ 1 riglit angle. 




41 


quad, 
r. a. 


4 quadrants or 


■ ) - ( circumference 
] \ or circle 








12 signs " 




(f 


cir. 




EQUIVALENTS. 








C. S. 


o / 




n 




1. = 12 


= 360 = 21600 


r= 


1296000 




1 


= 60 = 1800 


= 


108000 






1 = 60 


= 


3600 






1 


= 


60 





Note. — A full circle is 360°, \ circle is 180°, \ circle is 90, \ circle is 
60°. The distance around a circle is called its circumference. The dis- 
tance across its diameter, and any section of its circumference is called 
au arc. 




^FH poce:- 



'' The above figure displays the various imaginary lines, consisting of 
the great and less circles, axis, and poles of the earth. The next figure 
exhibits the geographical division into zones, tropics, and circles. 

Leap year, called Bissextile, comes every 4th year and contains 36G 
days, by the addition of one day to February. Three leap years are 
omitted in 400 years, but 109 leap years in 450 years would be exact. In 
common business affairs, 30 days compose a month, and 52 weeks a year. 
The Lunar Cycle, or Golden Number, is a terra of 19 years, after which 
the changes of the moon return on the same days of the month. The 
Solar Cycle is a period of 28 j-ears, when the days of the week again 
return to the same days of the month. Owing to an error in the Julian 
calendar it was decree'd by the British Government that tlie day follow- 
ing the 2nd of September, 1752, should be called the 14th day of Septem- 
ber, or that 11 days should be stricken from the calendar; hence, time, 
previous to this decree, is called Old Style (O. S.), and since, Neio Style 
(N. S). In Russia, time is still reckoned by the Old Style, hence their 
dates are 12 days behind ours. The legal or civil day begins and ends at 



VARIOUS EPOCHS. 



770 



12 p.m. The astronomical day begins and ends at 12 m. As to Epochs, 
the Christian Era was first invented and introduced at Rome by Dionysius, 
a monk, in 527, adopted in France, in 750; in Spain, in 1340; and in Portu- 
gal, in 1110. It was first used in books in 718. The birth of Christ, was, 
liowever, four years earlier, that is in 1878, really 1882 since his birth ; the 
chronology was not inquired into until the reign of J ustiuian. The 46 
years of the Julian calendar was the first of our era. The Hegira, or 
Flif^ht, took place July 16,622, and is the Mohammedan era. Their year is 
12 funar months, or 3o4 days, 8 hours, 48 minutes; and eleven days being 
lost a year must be allowed every 33, to reconcile their dates with ours. 
Greek'Olympiads of 4 years began 776 B. C, and were continued until 
the 5th century. The era of the Selucidae 311 B. C, of Alexander 323 

B. C, of the siege of Troy 12^) B. C, of the founding of Rome 754 B. C, 
of the battle of Actium 31 B. C, of the Caesars 38 B. C, of Tyre 125 B. 

C, of Abraham 2016, of Moses 1582, of Antioch 49, were also used by 
various early Avriters. The early Christians dated from the accession ot 
Diocletian in A. D. 284. 




The Vulgate fixes the Epoch of Adam at 4004 B. C, which is adopted 
by the Romish Church. The Samaritan Pentateuch makes it 4700; the 
Talmud, 5344: Hales, 5411; the Greek Church, 5508; the Septuagint, 
5872; Pezron, 5872; Alphonso, King of Castile, 6934; the earlv Fathers, 
5502 and 5592; 200 other authorities estimate it from 6984 to 3268 B. C, 
The controversy is a hopeless one, owing to the prevalent ignorance regard- 
ing the true meaning of the first 12 chapters of Genesis, which are grossly 
misunderstood, owing to the prevalent opinion that they form a mere 
literal historical narrative concerning natural events, when the truth is 
really far otherwise. Rollin, the historian, traces up the history of 
several ancient peoples to within 100 years of the alleged time of the 
flood, and is much perplexed to account for the existence of mighty 
nations possessing well organized armies, embracing thousands of fight- 
ing men, at that early period. 

In India, the priests claim a duration of about 2,000 millions of years 
since the beginning, and allege that Brahma was 17 millions of years 
creating. They mention also those deluges and periodical submersions 
required by the claims of geology. Sir Wm. Jones computes the first 
book of Vedas to be written about 2,800 B .C. In tlie year 1,000 A. C. 
the Arabs used the pendulum as a measure of time. A second calculated 
by the movement of a 39-inch pendulum is one with that motion, and 
the movement itself is a simple deflection of the combined motions of 
the earth in its orbit from east to west, and on its axis from west to east. 



77G 



ON TKLEGIIAPHY. 




DESCRIPTION OF THE TELEGRAPH AND HINTS TO LEARNERS. 

The cut represents a series of Grove's Batter}^, such as are generally 
used in telegraphs. When a plate of platina and one of zinc are placed 
in an acid solution a current tends to flow from the platina to the zinc, 
through any conductor Avliich may be so disposed as to connect the two. 
In the figure the galvanic series is represented, consisting of twelve pairs ; 
the zinc of each of which is connected with the platina of the next. It 
may be considered that a current is produced by each of these pairs, 
which has, however, to flow in the same direction, and fall m with all the 
others. Hence their intensity is multiplied twelve times. It is by this 
means that the resistance to the passage of the current through very long 
conductors is overcome. Each pair of the battery consists of a pint glass 
tumbler, a cjdinder of ziiic, a small porous cylindrical earthernware cell 
within the zinc, and a platinum strip suspended within the cell from an 
arm belonging to the zinc of the next pair. A solution of diluted sulphuric 
acid is used with the zinc outside the porous cell, and the cell itself is 
filled with nitric acid. The two acids are used on account of an increase 
of power depending on a chemical reaction. The zmc cylinder is amal- 
gamated with mercury to prevent its being acted upon by the acid when 
the battery is not in use. A solution of sulphate of soda is sometimes 
added to the sulphuric acid to assist in accomplishing the same object. 
Two screw cups rise from the battery, one of which is the positive pole, 
or extremity of the series, the other the negative ; to these the wires are 
attached which convey the current. 

The signal key is showed in the cut. When the hand depresses the _ 
key it comes in contact with the knob and metallic strip below, making ' 
connection between the screw cups, and completing the battery circuit. 

While the key is depressed a continuous current passes, but if it be 
depressed, and allowed to spring immediately up. only an instantaneous 
wave or impulse is communicated. 




Moksb's Usgisxeb, 



The annexed cut shows the registering apparatus of Morse's Telegraph. 
Two screw cups are seen on the board for the insertion of the wires 
from the distant battery. Next the screw cup is seen a U shaped electro- 
magnet, with coils of wire upon it, the ends of which, 'massing down 
through the board, are connected with the screw cups • over the poles 



ON TELEGRAPHY. 777 

of the magnet is a little armature, or bar of soft iron, attached to the 
short arm of a lever, whose long arm carries a point or stjie nearly in 
contact with the grooved roller above. Tlie action which takes place on 
depressing the signal kej' at the distant station is, a wave of electricity 
is transmitted through the wire of the telegraph, arrives at the electro- 
magnet, and circulates through the coils of wire surrounding it. The 
Lf shaped piece of soft iron immediately becomes a magnet, and attracts 
he little armature down to it, the long arm of the lever is thrown up, 
nd marks the strip of paper, passing between it and the roller. AVhen 
•e distant operator lets the signal key fly back and the current ceases, 
le iron of the electro-magnet loses all its magnetism, and the armature, 
with the lever, is carried back by the action of a little spring, being a dot 
impressed on a piece of paper. Should the distant operator hold down 
the key a continuous current will pass, and a line be marked in X)lace of a 
dot (-) on the paper Avhicli moves under the roller. 

When a long circuit is nsed, the resistance to conduction, measured 
by the amount of electricity which passes, is great, and would not give 
sufficient force to work the Morse instruments. To overcome this, Pro- 
fessor Morse uses one instrument called a Relay, which is similar in most 
respects to the main instrument, but of a more delicate electrical organiz- 
ation ; it has no work to do— simply to act as a contact maker, enabling 
a weak or exhausted current to bring into action and substitute for itself 
a fresh and powerful one from the^local battery which is placed in the 
office with the printing instrument, and which supplies the electricity 
which moves the instrument. 

The greatest recorded velocity of a signal through a suspended copper 
wire is 1,752,800 miles per second, by Mr. Hipp. The lowest velocity 
through a buried copper wire, 750 miles per second, by Faraday. 

Morse's Alphabet, Numerals and Pauses. 

A - - r Period 

B P o . 

C Q „ Comma 

j^_ S-"--" 4 Semicolon 

F T 5 



/-, TT "Interrogation 

^ ^ 6 

y^ ^ 7 . , Exclamation 

J X g Parenthesis 

L r, Italics 



M 



Z-- 



N & - - - - — Paragraph 

HINTS TO LEARNERS. 
Compiled from Modei^n Practice of the Electric Telegraph, hy FranJc i. 

Pope, * 

The characters of the American Morse Alphabet are formed of three 
elementary signals — 

The dot, whose duration is the unit of lengtli in this alphabet ; 

The short dash, which is equal to thi'ee dots ; and 

The lo7if/ dash, which is equal to six dots. 

The above are separated by variable intervals or spaces, iowx in num- 
ber : 

*D. Van Nostrand, Publisher, 23 Murray street, New York, 

33* 



778 ON TELEGRAPHY. 

1st — The ordinary space between the elements of a letter, equal to one 
dot. 

2d — The space employed in the spaced letters, equal to tioo dots. 

3d — The space between the letters of a word, equal to three dots. 

4th — The space between two words, equal to six dots. 

The dot signifies a point or a current of infinitely short duration, and 
involves time, which varies according to circumstances, the length of the 
dot increasing with the length of the circuit. 

In long submarine lines the dot has to be made longer than the dash 
itself on short open air lines, and the same thing occurs in working 
through repeaters. 

In commencing to learn telegraphing, the beginner should acquire the 
habit of making short, firm dashes, instead of light, quick dots. 

In the valuable Manual of Prof. Smith, published by L. C. Tillotson & 
Co., New York, six elementary principles are laid down as the basis for 
practicing the alphabet, viz : 

1st Principle.— Dots clo.^e together: 

I S HP 6 



2d Pbinciple. — Dashes close together : 
M 5 ^ 



3d PaiNCiPLE. — Lone dots: 

E 

4th Pkinciple. — Long dashes : 

T L or cipher. 



5th — Principle. — A dot followed by a dash: 

A 

6th Principle, — A dash followed by a dot: 

To send messages, place the first two fingers upon the top of the button 
of the key, with the thumb partly beneath it, the wrist being entirely free 
from the table; the motion being made by the hand and wrist, the thumb 
and fingers being employed merely to grasp the key. The motion up and 
down must be free and firm. Tapping on the key must be strenuously 
avoided. 

The dovmvmrd movement of the key produces dots and dashes; the 
upward movement, spaces. 

The beginner should first practice the 1st principle, making dots at 
regular intervals, of definite and uniform dimensions. 

2d Principle. — Make dashes, first at the rate of one per second, and 
slowly increase to three, the space between the dashes to be as short as 
possible. 

3d Principle. — Letter E, formed by a quick, but firm, downward move- 
ment of the key. 

4th— The visual tendency is to make T too long and L too short. The 
same character is used for L and the cipher, or 0; occurring by itself, or 
among letters, it is tianslated as L ; when found among' figures it be- 
comes 0. 

5th — The Letter A may be timed by the pronunciation of the word 
afjain. strongly accenting the second syllable. 

0th— The dash followed by a dot; usually the student separates the prac* 



PHOTOGRAPHY MADE EASY. 779 

tice. The lever of the Morse instrument makes a sound at each movement, 
the downward motion producing tlie heavier one, or that representing dots 
and dashes ; i. e., the heavy stroke indicates the commencement of a dot 
or dasli, and the lighter one its cessation. A dot makes as mueli noise as 
a dash, the only difference being in the length of time between the two 
sounds. 

Technical Terms Used in the Telegkaph Service. 

Line. — The wire or wires connecting one station with another. 

Circuit. — The wires, instruments, etc., through which the circuit passes 
from one pole of the battery to the other. 

Metallic Circuit. — A circuit in which a return wire is used in place of 
the earth. 

TA)cal Circuit. — One which includes only the apparatus in an office, and 
is closed by a relay. 

Local. — The battery of a local circuit. 

Loop. — A wire going out and returning to the same point, as to a branch 
office, and forming part of a main circuit. 

Bindimj Screivs or !re?'?n/n«Zs.— Screws attached to instruments holding 
the connecting wires. 

2b Cross Connect Wires. — To interchange them at an intermediate 
station. 

To Put Wires Strairjht. — To restore the usual arrangement of wires and 
instruments. 

To Groimcl a Wire, or Put on Ground. — To make a connection between 
the line wire and the earth. 

To Open a Wire. — To disconnect it so that no current can ]iass. 

Jieversed Batteries. — Two batteries in the same circuit, with like poles 
towards each other. 

To Reverse a Batterii. — To place its opposite joole to the line ; or, in 
other words, interchange the ground and line wires ut the poles of the 
battery. 

Escape. — The leakage of current from the line to the ground, caused by 
defective insulation and contact with partial conductors. 

Cross. — A metallic connection between two wires, arising from their 
coming in contiict with each other, or from other causes, 

PHOTOGRAPHIC PORTRAITURE MADE EASY 

By C. J. P. Handey. 

Author of "Puzzle Writing," &c., &c. 

Instructions. 

Pictures produced by the agency of light are called photographs, whether 
taken on glass or pajier These are divided into two classes — negatives 
and positives ; negatives being pictures with tlie lights and sliadesof the 
object reversed, while positives represent the lights and shades as iu 
nature. 

Pictures taken on glass are called positives, which are complete in them- 
selves. The negative process is that pursued when the intention is to pro- 
duce a paper proof. Paper portraits are not obtained like positives by one 
operation in the camera, but a negative is taken from which the copies 
are procured by photographic printing. To take a portrait oil glass-— 
either a negative or positive-— requires five operations. First, giving the 
glass plate a collodion coating ; second, exciting the glass plate ; third, 
exposure in the camera* fourth, developing the latent image; fifth, fixing 
the picture. 



780 PHOTOGRAPHY MADE EASY, 

APPARATUS. 

A camera is the first requisite. The most convenient form consists of 
two portions of boxes, one sliding within tlie other. 

TliG double-combination lens is used for portraiture. It consists of a 
set of three glasses, mounted in a brass tube, with a rack and pinion ad- 
justment. 

A camera stand is requisite, which should be from four to five feet 
high. A tripod stand, Avith a screw to fix the camera with, is the best. 

A porcelain bath is required to hold the silver solution for exciting the 
collodionized plate. 

One or two graduated glass measures, to measure the solutions, esti- 
mated by fluid measure. 

A set of scales and weights for weighing the chemicals. 

Two or three porcelain dishes, for holding solutions of silver, toning 
bath, &c. ; &c. 

A printing frame will be required, after taking a negative picture, to 
produce the paper copies. 

A few packets of different-sized glass, a piece of wash-leather, and a 
linen cloth, will complete the requisites. 

DAKK EOOM. 

It will be necessary for the success of the second, third, and fourth 
operations in producing a collodion picture, that they should be per- 
formed in a dark room. The best and easiest way will be to obtain a 
small room or closet with a window, and to cover the window with several 
sheets of yellow paper, which will exclude the chemical rays. A table or 
shelf should be fixed under the window, and a j)ail kept at the side, con- 
taining water for washing the pictures. 

If a glass room cannot be had, the photographer must arrange an apart- 
ment according to his means. In selecting a room, he must bear in mind 
that it should not only have a good side light, but a sky-light, if possible. 

In taking a portrait, the sitter should not be opposite the window, but 
a little behind it — a more even focus is thus secured, 

A proper background is of some importance, A white wall will do 
very well, but something a shade darker will be better. 

In focussing the lens have the stand and camera placed seven or eight ft. 
from the sitter. The better to observe the image, a dark cloth is thrown 
over the camera and head of the operator. The proper attitude of the 
person sitting for the portrait must be left to the taste of the operator 
Allow the sitter time to get seated, and accustomed to the light, before 
removing the cap oft the lens. And now, having concluded these pre- 
liminary remarks, we will proceed to take a picture . 

POSITIVE PROCESS. 

Chemicals. — The most important chemical used in photography is col- 
lodion. As it is extremely volatile, it should be kept in a stopi^ered 
bottle. 

Excitinq Bath. — Mtrate of silver, 2 drachms; distilled water, 4 ounces; 
iodized collodion, 6 minims. Filter before using. 

Developing /S'oZ^^iion.— Protosulphate of iron, 2 drachms ; acetic acid, 2 
drachms ; methylated alcohol, 2 drachms ; water 10 ounces. 

Fixing Sohttion-.—Cyanide of potassium, 2 drachms ; water, G ounces. 
This solution will keep for months without losing its strength, 

MANIPULATION. 

TJie Collodion Coating. — Having selected a piece of glass, entirely free 
from blemishes, and quite clean, hold it as level as possible by the left- 
hand corner, then, in the centre, form a good pool of collodion. Slant the 
glass so that the collodion may cover all portions, taking care that it does 



PHOTOGIIAPIIV 3IADE EASY. 781 

not touch the haudfl. Pour the superfluous quantity back into the bottle. 
I'he glass is now ready for immersion in the .silver batli, which is called 

Excitimi the Plate, — The manipulation may be coiiducted in daylight uj) 
to this point ; but as the immersion of the collodiouized plate renders it 
sensitive to light, recourse must be had to a dark room. Having the 
silver solution ready, place the prepared glass on the dipper, and im- 
merse in the solution. When the plate has remained in the bath about a 
minute it should be withdrawn, then immersed for half a minute longer, 
then drain the glass plate, place it in the dark slide of the camera, and 
proceed with the third operation — 

Exposure in tlie Camera. —Assuming that the camera has been prepared, 
and the image properh' focussed, remove the ground glass screen, and 
insert the slide containing the plate. Desire the sitter to keep perfectly 
still, and look at some dark object ; then take the cap off the lens and 
allow the plate to be exposed for twenty or thirty seconds, then close the 
shutters of the dark-slide, and return to the dark room to 

Develop the Picture. — Having excluded all white light from the dark 
room, remove the glass plate from the slide. Holding it by the left-hand 
corner, proceed to pour on the developing solution. Begin by pouring 
on at one edge, inclining the plate so as to enable the liquid to flow uni- 
formly over the surface. The first effect will be the appearance of white 
lights, then the half tones, and, finally, the darker shades. When this 
is obtained, the plate must be thoroughly washed. It can then be passed 
on to the next and last operation — 

Fixing the Picture. — Having well washed the picture, the door of the 
dark room may be opened to observe the action of the fixing agent. 
Pour this mixture over the plate until the creamy appearance is dissolved. 
When this is the case, it must be again washed and set on edge to 
dry. As the picture is now finished, it should be varnished with jet 
varnish, which should be poured on the plain side of the glass. In 
mounting the picture, put it into a gilt mat and preserver ; and when 
finished, the lights and shades will te shown to perfection. 

NEGATIVE PROCESS. 

Chemicals. — Negative collodion differs slightly from ix>sitive in the 
preparation of the iodized solution. 

Excitimi Bath. — Nitrate of silver, 2 drachms; distilled water, 3^ om^ices; 
iodized collodion, 3 minims. 

Developinfi Solution. — No. 1. Protosulphate of iron, 1 drachm ; acetic 
acid, 2 drachms ; methylated alcohol, 2 drachms ; Avater, 4 ounces. No. 
2. Pyrogallic acid, 13 grains ; citric acid, 15 grains ; distilled water, 4 
ounces. 

Fixing Solution. — Cyanide of potassium, 2 drachms ; water, 5 ounces. 

MANIPULATION. 

The Collodion Coating is applied in the same manner as for positives, 
and then 

Sensitized, which is accomplished by immersion in the nitrate bath. 
The plate should remain in the bath from two to three minutes. When 
the collodion surface presents a nice even film, drain off the excess of 
silver, and lay the glass plate carefulh^ in the dark slide, taking care not 
to allow any specks of dust or dirt to get near it. It is then readj" for 

Exposure. — After exposing the plate for the necessary time, whi«h will 
be double that required for a positive, proceed to 

Develop.— Ha.xing removed the dark slides in the dark room, pour the 
developer, No. 1, evenly over the plate. As the picture will appear sud- 
denly, it must be watched. Continue the action of the iron developer 
until there is fear of the dark shadows becoming veiled. When the glass 



782 pnoTOGRAPur made easy. 

plate has been washed, pour into a measure — which must be perfectly 
clean — sufficient of the developer No. 2 to cover the surface of the plate, 
to this add ten minims of the silver bath. This mixture must be used 
immediately by pouring it over the plate. When sufficiently intense, the 
surface must be again washed. It is now ready to be 

Fixed, using the cyanide solution. This is to be poured over the plate 
in the same manner as the developer, and the surplus rebottled. It 
should now be thoroughly washed to remove all traces of chemicals, 
which, if allowed to remain, would eventually spoil the picture. The nega- 
tive will now require to be 

Varnished. — The most convenient varnish for a tyro to use is amber or 
crystal varnish ; it is simply poured on the plate, and then drained off at 
the lower end. 

PRINTING PROCESS. 

ChetnicaU. — Exciting bath; nitrate of silver, 120 grains; distilled water, 
2 ounces. 

Toning Bath. — Acetate of soda, 30 grains; carbonate of soda, 10 grains; 
chloride of gold, 1 grain ; distilled water, 4 ounces. This solution will keep 
for a considerable length of time, and may be used over and over again 
until the gold is thoroughly exhausted, when more must be added, if 
again required. 

Fixing Bath. — Hyposulphate of soda, 1 ounce ; distilled water, 10 
ounces. This solution may be made up for a fortnight before using, as 
it is much better for keeping. It must not, however, be used a second 
time, but a fresh one made for every batch of prints. 

MANIPULATION. 

Sensitizinf/ . — Filter the silver solution into a shallow dish, then take a 
piece of albumenized paper, cut to the size, and, holding the two ends, let 
the centre drop until the albumenized face touches the solution; then 
lower the ends, and leave the paper floating. When it lies flat, and 
ceases to curl up, it should be removed, and, when perfectly dry, it 
may be passed on to the next operation. 

Printing the Positive. — Take a printing frame and remove the back 
board; then lay the negative in the rabbits of the frame with the collodion 
side upwards, and cover the face with a sheet of sensitized paper, re- 
place the back board, turn up to the frame, and expose to the light. 
When the desired strength of picture is obtained, remove the paper, and 
proceed Avith tlie 

Toning Process. — Having removed the prints into a dark corner of the 
room, wash them in several changes of water to remove the nitrate of 
silver. They are now ready for the toning bath, therefore immerse 
them in a porcelain dish, filled with the solution. When the color of 
the prints change 'from a brown to a purple black, remove them to the 
last operation, the 

Fixing Process. — The pictures are immersed in the hyposulphate solu- 
tion for about five minutes, then washed in running water for at least ten 
minutes. As the fixing solution will greatly reduce the depth of the print, 
it should be over-printed, to allow of the reduction, else the detail of the 
picture will be entirely lost. 

Mounting Prints. — Starch is the most suitable adhesive substance. It 
is pre^red by mixing a small quantity with sufficient boiling water to 
work into a stiff paste. 

Apply the starch to the back of the picture by means of a brush, then 
carefully lower the prints on to the card, lay a piece of blotting paper 
over it, and rub to expel the air bubbles. When nearly dry, place 
under pressure for a few hours. The picture is now finished. 



PHOTOGRAPHY MADE EASY. 783 

CONCLUDING REMARKS. 

In purchasing apparatus, it is advisable that the tyro should be accom- 
panied by one who is experienced in such matters ; any mistakes as to the 
quantity and quality of the articles required is thus prevented. 

The camera may be made either square, oblong, or bellows body, ac- 
cording to taste. The former is considered the most serviceable and the 
cheapest. 

The lens may be had without a rack and pinion if desired. A better 
focus, however, is obtained by having tlie rack adjustment ; it is also 
much easier to work, and it is not liable to shift when the cap is removed. 
Some lenses are provided with "diaphragms or stops, but as these are 
rather expensive, I should advise the young tyro to make his own, which 
he can easily do by cuttmg different sized holes in sevei-al pieces of stiff 
cardboard, and then making them to fit the interior of the lens tube. 
These diaphragms, it must be borne in mmd, are only to be used on cer- 
tain occasions, as, for instance, when the sun is shining, the light of 
course is much too ix)werful for the open aperture of a lens. It is, there- 
fore, requisite that it should have a stop inserted in order to retard the 
rapid action. A diaphragm with an openmg of about one inch diameter 
will be sufficiently large for a quarter-plate lens. 

Camera stands are made of various shapes and material ; the one most 
recommended is the plain ash triix)d, that being both light and useful, 
and the most portable. 

The sensitizing bath should not measure less than seven by five inches, 
as that is the proper size for quarter ))lates. 

The graduated measures should hold at least five and ten ounces re- 
spectivelj-. 

The funnel may be either six or eight inches in diameter, with a long, 
narrow neck. 

The toniitg and fixing dishes should be as large as possible, in order to 
allow the prints plenty of room, and preventing them adhering to each 
other. 

Chemicals may be purchased in small quantities, but it is not advisable 
to buy collodion in less quantities than five ounces, as it is extremely 
volatile, and soon loses its power of action. 

Nitrate "of silver may be bought either in crj-stals or blocks ; the former 
is preferable, as it can be obtained in smaller quantities than the latter, 
which is only sold in one ounce boxes. 

Hyposulphate of soda, protosulphate of iron, and methylated alcohol are 
exceeding]}' cheap, as are also most of the other chemicals. 

The tyro must be very Ciireful, when using cyanide of ])otassium, not 
to allow the least drop to enter any cuts in the flesh, for, being a most 
deadly poison, it is likely to cause death, if the part is not immediately 
washed in warm water and the poison thereby removed. As cyanide 
possesses an odor something like peppermint, it is advisable not to i^lace 
it within the reach of children. 

The silver bath should be filtered at least three times before using ; 
this will ensure the removal of every particle of collodion. 

The toning and fixing baths, after being made up, should be allowed to 
stand for atleast four-and-twenty hours before being used. The longer 
these solutions are kept the better they work. 

If the tj-ro wishes to become a first-class ix>rtrait taker, he must study 
the following rules, and strictly adhere to them : — 

RULES. 

1. Never allow any one but the sitter to be present when taking a pop 
trait 



784 CHEMICAL N03IENCLATUKE. 

2. Always make it a rule to have a place for every thiugj and every tiling 
in its place. 

3. Never open the door of the dark room when exciting or developing 
a plate. 

4. The camera and dark slide sliould be dusted out every morning pre- 
vious to being used. 

5. Never allow anj' one to meddle with your apparatus, as it is very 
easily put out of order. 

6. Do not handle your sitter more than you can help, but tell him in 
what position you wish him to stand, and he will pose himself much 
better than you can. 

PHOTOGRAPHIC REQUISITES. 

The following is a correct list of all articles required in photographic 
portraiture : Square mahogany camera, double combination lens, tripod 
stand, screw stand, screw top, porcelain bath and dipper, two graduated 
glass measures, set of scales and weights, a glass or porcelain funnel, one 
deep and two shallow dishes, a tent, printing frame, a packet of quarter-size 
glass, some filtering paper, a wash-leather, and a linen cloth, negative 
and positive collodion, crystalized nitrate of silver, pictcsulphate of iron 
glacial acetic acid, methylated alcohol, chloride of gold, hyposulphate 
carbonate, and acetate of soda, cyanide of potassium, distilled water, &c. 
See also page 552. 

CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE. 

For an intelligent apprehension of the meaning of chemical tenns we 
will define several relating to sulphur, Avhich, combined with oxygen, 
produces an acid. This acid exists in two states of saturation, jDossessing 
diifferent properties. It is necessary to designate all the saline compo- 
nents of these two acids and to trace sulphur in its various cpmbiuations 
with alkalies, earths, and metals. The five following terminations de- 
scribe these five states of the same principle. 1. Sulphuric acid signifies 
sulphur in the greatest degree of saturation with oxygen. 2. Salphuro?/s 
acid signiifies sulphur combined with a smaller proportion of oxygen. 3. 
Sulphc6i5e is the generic name of the salts composed by the sulphuric acid. 
4. Sulphite is the name of the salts formed by the sulphurous acid. 5. 
Sulphured a the name of the various combinations of sulphur not acidu- 
lous. 

In union with oxygen, carbon is carbonic acid, combined with gas, it 
forms carbonic acid gas. Oxydized, and composing salts with bases of 
iron, minerals, or alkali, it becomes carbonate of lime, iron, or potash. 
In union with oxygen, it forms with iron carburet of iron, &c. Salts are 
discriminatea by two .lames, the one denotes the acid, the other the base. 
For example sulj)hote of iron is a combination of sulphuric acid and iron, 
sulphate of soda is a union of sulpliii?7'c acid and soda, muriote of soda is 
a compound of rauriai'ic acid and soda. Salts composed of acids ending 
in ous, have the termination ite instead of ate. See the folloAving exam- 
])les in sulphur. 



Sulphuric acid, a strong acid. 
Sulhpuric acid, aAveakacid, 
Sulphured of iron, Sulphur and iron. 
P/*ot-oxide of sulphur is the first 

degree. 
Dei^t-oxide, the second degree. 



T/'iY-oxide the third degree. 
Pe/'-oxide many degrees. 
Sulphate is the salt of sulphuric 

acid. 
Sulphi'te the salt of sulpheroa.-? acid. 
Bi sulphate the salt of a double 
dose. 

7i?//9o-sulphurous acid, — less oxygen than sulphurous acid (1 tc 2). Hypo 
sulphuric acid — less than sulphuric. 



ON HUNTING AND TRAPPING. 785 




OIV HluXTINO AND TRAPPBiVG. 

To Trap the Common Black Beak— Select a suitable spot for the 
trap bet-ween logs, trees, or hills, close to their suspected haunts, and 
secure it ■v^ell with a short, stout chain. Bait the trap -with a piece of 
pork, mutton, or beef, and if the bait is scented with honey it will prove 
a powerful attraction ; the bear will push himself forward where there is 
any thing to eat, being dominated more by greed and voracity, than by 
craft and cunumg. He is a No. 1. contractor at a job for taking a fat 
porker from the farmers pen off to the Avoods, and will squeeze himself 
into a deadfall or figure 4 trap, intent only on getting at the bait, but is 
decidedly dangerous to attack single-handed with a gun, as he isperfectlj^ 
furious 'when wounded. On one occasion, a bear emerged from the 
woods and destroyed a sheep belonging to the writer. One of the farm 
hands, a veteran hunter and trapper, took the remains of the sheep to 
the woods and placed them in such a position, near some fallen trees, 
that the bear would be compelled to go through a passage w^ay between 
two logs in order to reach the carcass. At right angles with this passage 
Avaj-, but back from it, he secured a Spencer rifle (loaded with slugs) in a 
firm position, so as to sweep the i^assage, and arranged a small cord ex- 
tending across the narrow avenue, with one end fastened to the trigger 
of the rifle, and the other to the timbers opposite its muzzle. The res^ilt 
was a loud bang from the rifle in the evening, a lantern hunt in the 
woods at night, and a dead bear shot through the heart behind the fore- 
legs, within a few feet of the rifle. The black bear is usually less than 6 
ft. in length, domiciles under the snow and in hollow logs during winter, 
and produces from 1 to 5 at a birth, generally in January. 

The Grizzly Bear is a huge brute of vast size, sometimes as much as 
8 or 9 ft. in length, and of prodigious strength. He is of massive build, 
,has a thick stout neck, shaggy hair, coarse formidable tusks, and power- 
ful claws of great length ; is altogether an ugly customer and requires 
for his capture the largest size trap that is made. In the Northwestern 
(British) Territory, on sighting the hunter he generally makes for his 
enemy, and has a curious habit when 60 or 70 yards distant of sitting up 
erect on his haunches and taking a survey of the field, as if calculatin"- 
his chances in the coming fray, and will repeat the examination at inter^ 
vals of nearly 20 yards as he approaches. The hunter Avill do well to 
reserve his fire until the bear comes within a few yards' distance, when, 
if he suddenly extends his arms the animal will come to a full stop and 
erect himself again. This is the time to take unerring aim at close quar- 
ters and make sure work, for if he fails he will never hunt another bear. 
In the Sierras, the Rocky INIountains, and in California, no animal roam- 
ing his native wilds surpasses the grizzly in savageness and strength. 
His weight is upon the average from 1000 to 1200 lbs., and one bite of 
Jiis jaws or one stroke of his paw is certain death. On the Pacific coast 



78G ON HUNTING AND TRArrJNG. 

he is often hunted by mounted Vaqueros, -who usually go five in a com- 
pa]iy ; lour use the lasso, which they throw over the bear at opposite 
angles from each other, and while he is thus held tight from four oppo- 
site directions, it is possible for the fifth man to approach and finish him 
with a knife. It is extremely dangerous work, for if one or more of the 
ropes should slip, unless it is immediately secured by another successful 
throw, there is danger of instant death to the nearest man if his horse is 
not smart enough to carry him off in safety. The grizzly makes jumps 
of 10 feet, and when he has a chance to charge it requires immense agil- 
ity to dodge or escape him. All of the vaqueros have a number of lassos, 
and in case of a slip make prompt action with another throw. In nearly 
every case the grizzly invites attack, he will run from men at an extreme 
distance, but never fails to make a savage charge if he comes within hail- 
ing distance. 

Baits for Trappers' use. — 1. Fish Oil, is made by mincing eels, bass, 
trout, or other small fish, and allowing the pieces to remain in a loosely 
corked bottle exjposed to the rays of the sun for 2 or 3 weeks during the 
heat of summer, until a sort of oil is generated, which owing to its very 
intense odor, is perceived by wild animals at an immense distance and 
forms a most attractive scent. 2. Oil of Anise. 3. Oil of lihodivni. 4. 
Assafceiida. 5. Oil of Amber. 6. Oil of sweet fennel. The last noted 
articles (five in number) are procured in drug-stores. 7. Maskrat-nwsk, 
a most iDOwerful scent, is an oil obtained from that animal, and is con- 
tained in glandular sacs situated near the anus. 8. Castoreiim; called 
Bark-stone by the fur traders, is a fatty substance of an intensely strong 
odor contained in similar sacs in the back parts of the Beaver. It forms 
a more attractive scent for that animal than any other. 9. Otter mvsk, de- 
rived in a similar way from the otter, is very successful in attracting that 
animal. 10. A mixture composed of equal parts of fish-oil, a ssafcBtida, musk- 
rat-musk, and oil of anise, is said by old trappers to be the most attractive 
scent obtainable for almost any animal. The odor reaches far and wide, 
forming what a Frenchman would call "one grand stink" of the first 
magnitude. It is used on baits for traps, and for scenting trails leading 
to the traps by sprinkling it in successive drops on the ground. 11. A 
rank codfish drawn along on the earth by means of a string, in a direction 
leading to the traps will also answer this last named purpose very well. 
12 Musk-rat musk and skunk musk mixed. This receipt has been sold 
for $75. 13. Unslaked lime ^ lb., salammoniac 3ozs. , or muriate of ammo- 
nia, 3 ozs. Mix and pulverize, keep in a corked bottle a few days until a 
thorough admixture takes place. For mink, sprinkle on the bait around 
the trap. Keep in a closely stoppered bottle. This receipt has been sold 
for $50. In using these compounds on baits for trapping foxes and other 
ely game, it is often advisable to smear a little on the trap in order to 
overpower the human scent arising from handling tliem ; it would be a 
better way to wear gloves when handling traps, and employ a slight 
emearing of beeswax or blood to overcome the odor of the iron. 

To protect the hen roost from these depredators, saw out an aperture 
large enough to admit the fox on a level with the ground. Inside the 
roost place a box without a. lid and open at one end. This open end must 
be placed against the aperture in the wall, on the ground, so that the fox 
will pass into it on his entrance into the roost and the side without the lid 
will be uppermost. Set your trap in the box just opposite the entrance 
to the roost, secure it with a chain and lightly cover with dried leaves, 
grass, or other material adapted to conceal it. Next, place a chicken in- 
side a smaller box and nail slats on one side instead of a cover, and place 
this box with the slatted side downwards, on the top of the first box, im- 
mediately over the trap and exposed to the view of the fox. The temp- 



ON HUNTING AND TRAPPING. 787 

tation Avill i:)rove too much even for a fox to resist, and he ■will enter only 
to be caught in the trap. Mink, raccoons, weasels, skunks, &c., may be 
caught in the same manner. Close up every entrance to the roost except 
the one just described. 

In trapping Mink in the water, the trap should be set in a shallow part, 
not more than one or two inches deep, with the bait suspended about 18 
inches above it ; this compels the animal to erect itself on its hind legs, or 
leap upwards to get the bait, and thus to tread on the trap and get caught. 
Traps may also be set sunk in their beaten tracks, or at the mouths of 
their holes, and concealed by dried grass, leaves, &c., with excellent 
effect. 

In trapping Wolves or Foxes, use a trap well cleaned with weak lye; 
after drying^ oil or grease it well, and smoke it over burning hair or feath- 
ers. In'handling it use clean buckskin gloves to avoid impartmg the least 
human odor. Make the bed for the trap about 3^ ft. in diam. so that the 
jaws when set will be on a level with the ground. Cover with fine dried 
gi-ass, wheat, oat, or buckwheat chaff, secure it well with a chain, level 
all neatly to a nataml appearance, and bait with fresh meat or roasted 
cheese. In going and coming, your chances will be increased by rubbing 
fish oil, or some other powerful odor on the soles of your boots, to scent 
the way leading to the trap. Wolves and foxes are easily destroj-ed by 
mixing a little strychnine with grease and concealing it in pieces of meat 
scattered around in places Avhere they haunt. It destroys animal life in 
a very few minutes after it is taken, but it is injurious to the fur. 

In trapping the Otter, take a large sized steel trap, set it, hang it over 
a fire 2 or 3 hours, then take a stick or board, and get into your boat or 
canoe, go to the place most frequented by them, and place the trap about 
3 inches under water and carefully cover it with leaves, light trash or 
grass gathered from the bottom of the stream, and chain it securely. Be 
very careful not to touch the bank above water, if you do, your labor is 
gone for nothing. The otter will leave at once for a quieter home many 
miles distant from the scene. In visiting your trap never go nearer than 
the opposite side of the stream, or go by means of a boat. When caught, 
the otter will point directly for his den ; if the trap is not heavy enough 
to drown him, a weight can be attached to the chain. 

Raccoons may be caught in a steel trap set on the edge of a swamp, li 
ins. below the surface of the water, and secured by a chain to a stake" 
Suspend the bait — a jnece of a chicken, fish, or frog — 2 ft. above the i^au of 
the trap. The raccoon will leap for it, and when he comes down, up goes 
the trap and holds him a prisoner. Another plan Is to set the trap on an 
old log in or near the swamp, then get two long poles or old limbs, set 
one on each side of the log over the trap, crossiiig it like the letter x, so 
that the coon will have to go under tliem and over the trap. Bait the 
trap if you Avish, but the coon is certain to run the old log if he comes in 
the neighborhood. One of the surest ways to catch raccoons is with a 
good cur dog, one that will not give tongue on track, but will bark at the 
tree: 

MusKRATS may be taken in large numbers by sinking an old barrel 
with its top on a level with the ground on the edge of a stream near their 
haunts. Half fill it with water, put in a couple of shingles or light strips 
of board to float on the water, on these jjlace small bits of sliced apples, 
potatoes, or carrots, and place some more in the runs of the muskrats, so 
us to lead them towards the barrel. The rats Avill leap into the barrel 
after their food and cannot get out. A cheaper and more effective con- 
trivance could not be imagined. In using a trap, note a tree or old log 
with recent droppuigs on it leading from the bank into the stream. On 
this set your trap, say, 2 ins. under water, place a bait on a projecting 



788 ON HUNTING AND TRAmNG. 

stick about G or 8 ins. above the pan of the trap, securing? the latter with 
a chain sufficiently long to permit access to deep water, but not to go 
ashore. By this means the fur is preserved in good order and tlie animal 
is safely secured. In winter it is quite common for trappers to take the 
muskrats by apjiroachiug quietly on the ice and driving a spear into their 
house. The}'- must be approached with the greatest caution, as they take 
to the water at the slightest noise. Another way is to make an opening 
in the side of their house, set the trap iu their bed, lightly covering it with 
moss, &c. ; allow a sufficient length of chain to perniit the animal to leap 
into the water, secure the chain by a fastening outside the house, plaster 
up the aperture with mud, retire, and await results. 

Squirrels may be taken by setting a steel trap on the upper rail of a 
fence where they frequent ; set a pole with an ear of corn fastened to it 
so that the bait may be suspended 6 or 8 ins. over the jian of the trap, 
and in reaching for the bait the squirrel will get caught. 

Badgers may be caught by setting the traps, carefully covered, at the 
mouth of their holes, or in their tracks or resorts about cultivated fields. 
Thej^ may also be taken iu deadfalls, using a piece of meat for a bait, 
and if the ground is hard frozen during early spring, they may be ex- 
pelled by filling their holes with water. In summer the water would 
soak away through the earth, during hard frost it cannot do so, and the 
animal is compelled to come out of its hole or drown. 

In trapping Beavers, the best place to set the trap is right at the 
entrance to their holes in the banks, a few inche^ under water. Get a 
small stick, -and batter or bruise the thickest end soft, smear it Avith bait 
No. 8, and stick the small end in the bank so that the baited end Avill pro- 
ject a few inches above the water right over the pan of the trap ; the 
beaver, in raising himself to get the bait, will get caught. Another way 
is to break an aperture iu the dam a few inches below the surface of the 
water, set the trap on the upper side of the break, and the beaver will 
get caught when he comes to investigate and repair the damage. The 
trapper will usually secure his prize by placing his trap a few inches below 
the surface of tlie water at those places where they make their landings 
by springing from the stream onto tlie bank. 

The Pine-Marten or American Sable lives in the trees and preys 
on partridges, mice, squirrels, hares, &c. A piece of either of these may 
be used as bait, or the head of a fish, pheasant, or a piece of meat, and 
the trap may be ])laced in a hollow tree, in any natural or artificial en- 
closure, or in the track of a deer ; in each case let it be well covered with 
light grass, decayed moss, or rotten Avood, so as to present a natural ap- 
pearance. 

The Fisher-Marten is attached to low, swampy ground, is partially 
web-footed, and subsists on fish, mice, rabbits, &c. It may be caught in 
the same manner as the last-named animal. Be careful to scent the trap 
and conceal it properly, also attach it to a spring pole or twitch-up con- 
trivance, so that when caught it be elevated outof the way of becoming 
a prey to larger animals, and prevented from dismembering itself to get 
clear of the trap. The Pine-Marten and the Fisher both live and breed in 
hollow trees; they are by no means very cunning or difficult to trap, but 
are absolutely furious when cauglit. 

The WooDCHUCK, o?- Gro-und Hog, as it is stj^led in Canada, constructs 
burrows in the ground, extending 20 or 30 feet, usually entering the slope 
of a hill, at the root of a tree or stump, under a fence, or in crevices be- 
tween rocks. They are very destructive to crops in cultivated fields. 
Sometimes they are drowned or flooded out of their holes by means of 
water, at other times they are shot, but in the great majority of cases 
they are caught by traps set without bait . (although they will take roots, 



ON HUNTING AND TRAPPING. 



789 



corn, or breaa), and carefully covered wltli i>aper, sand, &c., at the mouths 
of their holes. 

Gophers may be caught by makhig a slight excavation at the mouth 
of their hole and placing a trap so that the pan and jaws Avill be on a 
level with the surface of the ground and covered as above described. 

HUNTERS' AND TRAPPERS' TABLE, 

SHOWING THE VAKIOUS SIZES OF XEWHOUSE TRAPS ADAPTED TO THE 
CAPTURE OF niFFEREXT KIXDS OF GAME, 



Kind of Animal. 


No, of Trap. 


Bait required. 


Squirrel, 





Grain, nuts, or ear of corn. 


Gopher, 


I 


do. do. do. 


Musk rat, 


1 


Carrots, potatoes, apples, &c. 


Woodchuck, 


1 or VA 


Roots, fiuit, corn, or bread. 


Mink, 


ll/o 


Fowl, flesh, or roasted lisli. 


Fisher-Marten, 


iy2 


Meat, muskrat or deer llesh, fish. 


Skunk, 


IVa or 2 


Mice, meat, piece of a fowl. 


Fox, 


2 


Fowl, flesh, flsh, toasted cbcesc- 


Opossum, 


2 or 3 


Nuts, corn, mice, piece of fowl. 


Raccoon, 


2oi-li 


Chicken, fish, or frog. 


Badger, 


3 


Mice, or flesh of any kind. 


Otler, 


3 


Fish, piece of a bird, or otter musk. 


Marten, 


3 


Head of a Ibh, piece x)f meat, or fowl. 


Beaver, 


4 


Fresh roots, castoreum oii the end of 
a stick. 


Wolf, 


4 


Waste parts of tame or wild fowl. 


Common Black Bear, 


5 


Pork, beef, ear of corn, honey. 


Grizzly Bear, 


G 


do. do. do. do. 



Note, — The numbers 0, 1, and ly^, respectively, are single spring traps ; 
No, is the smallest size ; all the others are double spring traps. No. 6 being 
the largest trap made. The above baits should be scented, where necessary, 
by a proper selection from the preparations previously described. Wildcats, 
foxes, wolves, and all the weasel tribe -will take flesh and flsh of all kinds, 
with this exception, that foxes, wolves and dogs will not eat their own kind ; 
weasels of every kind will. 

All furs arc best in winter, but trapping may be done with profit from 
the first of October to the beginning of April. All fur-beaiing animals 
lose the best ixirt of their fur as the warm weather a])proaches, and 
reo'ain it as tlie cold weather sets in during the fall, so that from the first 
oflviay to near the end of September trapping is but labor lost. This 
process is indicated in the case of the muskrat and some other animals, 
bv the color of the inside part of the skin. Towards summer it becomes 
brown and dark, a sign that the best fur is gone. Afterward it grows 
lio-ht-colored and in winter, when the fur is in tlie best order, it is alto- 
oether white. When the pelt is wliite it is called prime by the fur dealer.^, 
the fur is then glossy, thick, and of the richest color and the tails of such 
animals as the mink,^narten, and fisher, are full and heavy Beavers and 
nmskrats are not thorouglily prime till about the middle of winter; other 
animals are prime about the first of November. The skms of anmials 
trapped are always valued higher than those shot, as shot not only makes 
holes, but frequently plow along the skin, making furrows as well as 
shaving off the fur, ' Newhouse gives the following rules to trappers as 
the result of much experience : ., . ^, , . .„ * 

1 Be careful to visit your traps often enough, so that the skin will not 
have time to get tainted. 2. As soon as possible after an animal is dead 
and dry, atteiid to the skinning and curing. 3. Scrape off all superfluous 



790 ON HUNTING AND TRAPPING. 

flesh and fat, and be careful not to go so deep af? to cat the fibre of tlie 
skin. 4. Never dry a skin by the fire, or in the sun, but in a cool, shady 
place, sheltered from rain. If you use a barn door for a stretcher, as boys 
sometimes do, nail the skin on the inside of the door. 5. Never use 
"preparations" of any kind in curing skins, nor even wash them iu 
water, but simply stretch and dry them as taken from tlie animal. 

To Deodokize Skunk Skins, or Scented Clothing. — Hold them 
over a fire of red cedar boughs, and sprinkle with cliloride of lime ; or 
wrap them iu green hemlock bouglis wlien they are to be had, and in 24 
hours they will be cleaned. 

For arsenical soap for preserving skins, see page 124. Skulls of animals 
may be rapidly prepared by boiling in water for a few hours ; a little 
potash or lye will facilitate the removal of the flesh. A mixture of equal 
parts of good glycerine and water, to every gallon of which is added 1 oz. 
of the crystals of carbolic acid, constitutes a good preserving liquid for all 
animal substances. The use of pure glycerine, with about ^ pt. alcohol, 
and ^ oz. carbolic acid, added to each gal., makes an excellent mixture for 
preserving the tissues of soft animals, where it is desired to preserve tho 
color as well as the tissues. 

According to M. Devergie, of the Paris Scliool of Practical Anatomy, a 
mixture of 3 pts of glycerine, and one of carbolic acid, injected into dead 
bodies, will prevent any unpleasant odors emanating from them for sev- 
eral months. Another high authority. Dr. Lowell, of Brooklyn, recom- 
mends as a preservative fluid, the use of zinc chloride. The quantity 
used for a human subject is 5 gals. The apparatus required consists of a 
porcelain lined vessel, which is elevated to such a height that the solu- 
tion is injected into the artery by the simple gravity of the liquid, as it 
descends through glass and rubber tubing. Dr. Lowell writes : " The 

injection may be made by either arter}' or vein I prefer the brachial 

artery above the elbow as the point for introduction of the glass tube, for 
the primary incision is slighter, and consequently divides smaller and 
fewer veins than when I expose the femoral artery. I use the gravity 
method, and introduce about five gallons of the antiseptic fluid. The 
effects are eminently satisfactory. The color of the integument is im- 
proved." 

To Preserve Insects.— After killing the insect with chloroform, paint 
it with a solution of carbolic acid in alcohol — 4 grains to the ounce — 
then dry in the sun. This will keep it fresh and beautiful. 

To Trap Hawks or Owls.— Take a pole 20 feet long. Set it a short 
distance from the house or barn, or on the poultry house. Split the top 
so as to admit the base of a common steel trap, which should be secured. 
When the trap is set the depredators will be pretty certain to alight on it 
and get caught, as they usually select a lofty perch from which to pounce 
upon tlieir prey. 

The Shooting of Birds. — Tlie wanton shooting of harmless birds, 
merely for sport, is a most heartless and cruel recreation. The plea of 
commercial necessity and self-preservation )nay be ui-ged in behalf of tho 
shooting and trapping of wild animals, but no such excuse can be alleged 
for the extermination of harmless birds. Let them sing in the broad 
vault of heaven to their heart's content, and tenant the fields and their 
forest homes without molestation. A hunter narrates that he once fired 
at a bird which he followed up as it fluttered away. He said, " I saw a 
sight I never will forget. There it was, with its wings broken, and all 
bespattered with blood, at the nest with its young. I felt so bad that I 
vowed never to shoot another bird ! " Again we say, spare the innocents. 

To Select Furs. — A sure test of what dealers call prime fur is the 
length and density of the down next the skin. This can be determined 



ON BOOK-KEEPING. 791 

by blowing a brisk current of air from the mouth against the set of the 
fur. If the fibres open readily, exposing the skin to the view, reject the 
article; but if the down is so dense that the breath cannot penetrate it, or 
at most shows but a small portion of the skin, it is all right. 

To Clean Furs. — Strip the furs of their stuffing and binding, place 
them, if possible, in a flat position, and brush them briskly with a stiff 
clothes-brush. Cut out all moth-eaten portions, and replace by new bits 
of fur to match. Sable, chinchilla, squirrel, fitch, &c., should be treated 
by an application of hot bran ( warmed in a pan), well rubbed into the fur 
with the hand. Repeat this two or three times, shake the fur, and give it 
a good brushing,to free it from dust. White furs may be cleaned by lay- 
ing the furs on a table, and rubbing them with bran made moist by warm 
water. Rub until quite dry, then apply dry bran. The wet bran should 
be put on with flannel, the dry wuth book muslin. In addition to the 
above, light furs should be well rubbed with magnesia, or a piece of book 
muslin, after the bran process. 

ON BOOK-KEEPIXG. 

In Book-Keeping, he who buys what he does not pay for at the time, is 
said to go in debt for it, and is called a debtor, and he Avho sells the goods 
and gives credit for them is called a creditor. In entering accounts it is 
usual to abridge the terms and write Dr. for Debtor, and Cr. for Creditor. 
In every case thei-eceiver is always the Debtor, and the seller is always 
the Creditor. In Book-Keeping, "the thing received is Dr., the thing de- 
livered is Cr. ; what you owe is Cr., what owes you is Dr. The whole 
system of Book-Keeping rests upon chair/es and credits ; when you sell 
to your neighbor, it is a charge against him, and you must charge him 
with it on the debit side of the account ; Avhen you receive anything from 
im, it is a credit, and you must credit him with it on the credit side of 
«ue account. 

The word To, in keeping accounts, denotes that the debtor owes for 
what has been sold to him, and tlie word By, is an indication that the 
debtor has made a payment by which he has paid a part or the whole of 
the debt charged to him. 

There are two methods of book-keeping, Single and Double Entrj' ; the 
last is employed in extensive and complicated mercantile business, where 
a check is required upon eacli entry, to prove that it has been properly 
recorded. The first is generally used by persons engaged in ordinary 
business, as it is more simple and sufficiently correct for such pur^wses. 
It requires but three books — the Day-Book, Ledger, and Cash-Book ; to 
these may be added, a Bill-Book, in which all notes, received or given, 
are recorded, showing when drawn, by whom, in Avhose favor, length of 
time, when due, amount of note, and any explanatory remarks required ; 
also, a Sales-Book, in which orders for goods or the details of sales are 
entered, and a Receipt-Book, Avhere receipts can be permanently kept. 

DAY-BOOK. 

The Day-book should contain statements of every business transac- 
tion, which gives rise to persons owing us or to our owing them, ])roi> 
erly arranged under the head of debtor or creditor. The accounts sliould 
be entered in this book at the time they were created, or iii the order in 
which they occurred in business. 

The book should be conmienced by stating the name of the owner and 
his residence. The day, month, and year, should then be written, and 
repeated at the head of each page corresponding with the date of the first 
transaction on the page, the subsequent dates on the page may stand 
above the transaction to which they belong. In making an entry the 
name of the person with whom we deal is written, with Dr. or Cr. at the 
right of the name, to show wliether he becomes debtor or creditor by tho 



792 ON BOOK-KEEPING. 

transaction. Then a statement should follow of tl\e business done, 
specifj'ing the articles bought or sold, and the price of each. The total 
amount should be added up and entered in the dollar and cent columns. 
The person with whom you deal is debtor for whatever he receives of you, 
and creditor for whatever you receive of him, is the rule for determining 
how an entry must be made. The entries in the Day-book are trans- 
ferred to the Ledger, where all the transactions relating to an individual 
are recorded on a page devoted to his account. The figure at the left of 
an entry indicates the page of the Ledger to which it has been carried. 
If a mistake is made in an account, it should not be corrected by 
altering the original entry, but a new entry made debiting or crediting 
the amount of the error, thus, " John Smith, Cr. by [or Dr. to] error in 
account of Oct. 6, ^1.50." This will enable a person to swear before a 
court that his book contains his original entries without an alteration. 

LEDGER. 

The Ledger is employed for collecting the scattered accounts of the 
Day-book. The accounts w-hich relate to the same individual are brought 
together on one page, showing all the debits and credits, thus enabling 
the owner to tell at a glance the state of his account with any person. 
The Dr. accounts are placed on the left hand of the page, and the Cr. on 
the right. Tlie Ledger may be ruled according to the example on page 794. 
Every Ledger should have an index, in whicli all the names it contains 
are alphabetically arranged, with the page of the Ledger on wliicli the ac- 
count can be found. 

Posting Accounts. — Transferring accounts from the Day-book to the 
Ledger is called posting. Commence with the first name in the Day-book, 
which in our example is M. Marshall ; begin by writing his name in a 
fair hand at the top of the page, with his residence, if different from your 
own, placing Dr. on the left, and Cr. on the right of the name. As he is 
debtor to us we commence at the left hand, writing in the first column the 
year, month, and diij, in the second the page of the Day-book on which 
the original entry can be found, in the third the name of the article, or 
if several articles are recorded under one date, they may be entered Avith 
the general designation of sundries or merchandise, and in the fourth 
column the total "amount of the transaction. Against the account in the 
Day-book mark the page of the Ledger to which it has been posted ; a 
mark can also be made to show that it has been transferred to the 
Ledger. Now take the second transaction in the Day-book, and if it is 
another name take a new page in the Ledger, and proceed in the same 
manner as the first. In this way all the entries in the Day-book are 
posted to each person's account, every Aveek or month as oppoitunity 
may occur. By subtracting one side from the other the balance which is 
due will be found. The specimen page represents three pages of a 
Ledger, to correspond wdth three persons who have transactions in the 
Day-book. 

Balance Sheet. — This may be made to accomplish a double purpose, 
as it w'ill exhibit the state of 'the owner's accounts, by determining the 
amounts owing him and that he mnj owe, and also prove that the ac- 
counts have been correctly posted and added. The method is as follows : 
rule a sheet of paper similar to ledger page, for debtor and creditor ; add 
up all the items of credit on a page of the" Day-book, and enter the amount 
on the sheet, then add the debits in the same manner, and proceed in this 
way for whatever time it is wished the proof should cover, add up the 
two columns and subtract one total from the other, and the dilTerenco 
will be the balance of the Day-book. Turn to the Ledger and obtain the 
balance of each person's account, and place it under its proper head ; add 
these up, and the difference will be the Ledger balance. If the two bal- 
ances agree, it proves the entries have been correctly posted. 



F0K3I OF DAY-BOOK. 



793 



BOOK-KEEPIXG. 

DAT-BOOK. 
Robert Baker, St. Johx, N. B., October 2, 1877- 



M. Marshall 



Dr. 



To 8 yds. of muslin, at 9 cts. a yd S 0.72 

To 4 yds. of cloth, at §3 a yd 12.00 

To 1 scythe 1.10 



James Brown Dr. 

Tolpr. of shoes §1.40 

To 1 lb. of tea 75 



David Moore 
By 1 yoke of oxen. 



Cr. 



James Brown Dr. 

To 14 lbs. nails, at 6 cts. ?0.84 

To 5 galls, molasses, at 32 cts 1.60 

To 12 lbs. cheese, at 10 cts 1.20 

Cr. 
By 8 lbs. -wool, at 36 cts 



Cr. 



M. Marshall 

By 1 load of hay §6.00 

By 12 lbs. butter, at 9 cts 1-08 



David Moore 
To Cash 



Dr. 



M. Marshall Dr. 

To 1 stove §14.00 

To 8 yds. cloth, at §3 24.00 

To 1 horse 42.00 



David Moore Dr. 

To 1 set of harness §20.00 

To 1 wagon 64.00 

5 



James Brown 



Dr. 



To 28 lbs. sugar, at 8 cts §2.24 

To 1 barrel of flour 7.00 

To 3 brooms at 14 cts .42 



David Moore Cr. 

By 20 bushels corn, at 62 cts §12.40 

By Cash 30.00 

By order on Peter Wilkins 21.00 

David Moore Dr. 
To check to balance account 



10 



James Brown 
By Cash to balance account. 



Cr. 



12 



M. Marshall 
By his note at 3 months from date 

34 



Cr. 



§13 

2 
115 



82 

15 
00 

64 

88 

08 
00 

00 
00 

66 



63 40 



50 



80 



84 



44 



12 



iO 



57 



75 OQ 



794 



FORM OF LEDGER. 



Dr. 



BOOK-KEEPIXG. 

LEDGER. 
M. Marshall 



Cr. 



W77. 
Oct. 2 


1 
■1 


To Sundries 

'' Sundries 


S 13 
80 


82 
00 

82 
74 


1877. 
Oct. 3 
" 12 


1 

1 


By hay and butter. 
" note at 3 mos 


S 7 
75 
11 

03 


08 
00 
74 










93 


82 


•' 11 


To Balance 


11 





Dr. 



James Brown. 



Cn. 



1877. 
Oct. 2 



To Sundries 
" Sundries 
" Sundries 







1877. 




S 2 


15 


Oct. 3 


1 


3 


64 


" 10 


1 


9 


66 






15 


45 



By wool. 
" cash . 



S2 
12 



15 



44 



Dr. 



David Moore. 



Cr. 



1877. 

Oct. 3 
" 4 
" 7 



To Cash , 

" harness & wagon 
" check to balajice 







1877. 




$50 


00 


Oct 2 


1 


84 


00 


"' 5 


1 


44 


40 






178 


40 







By oxen . . . 
" sundries. 



IllX 



17« 



40 



Dr. 



Cash-Book. 
Cash. 



Cr. 



1877. 

Oct. 2 
" 5 
" 9 
" 5 



Oct. 9 
" 10 



To cash on hand 

Received of M. Marshall 

Order on I. Rose 

Receipts of store 



To cash on hand 

Received of J. Brown. 



$15( 


)0 


3( 


JO 


21 


00 


IOC 


75 


307 


:5 


$130 


15 


12 


57 



1877. 

Oct. 2 
3 
7 
9 
9 



Paid rent of store 6 mos. 

" David Moore 

'* David Moore 

" expenses in store. 
Cash on hand 



50 

44 

8 

130 



$307 



75 



INTEREST TABLES. 



795 



A complete balance-sheet should be made ont once or twice a year, 
when jiu iuveutory ol\stack on hand is taken and added to the debtor bal- 
ances of accounts,' and the original capital is added to the credit bahmcea, 
(or balances we owe,) these compared will give the amount of profit or 
loss. It will be remembered that this sheet is an account between our- 
selves and our books. 

All the accounts in the Ledger ought to be balanced twice a year. To 
do this add up each column and find the difference, and make' an entry 
of this balance on the side that is smallest (this should be made with red 
ink to distinguish it from other entries) ; both sides now being equal, 
di*aw aline under them to show the fact, Kow place the balance on the 
opposite side, so that it will exhibit the true state of the account. (See 
M. Marshall's account of the Ledger page. ) 

CASH-BOOK. 

The Cash-book records the payment and receipt of cash. Cash is made 
debtor to the cash on hand and cash received, and credited with -what is 
l)aid out. At the close of eacli day or week, the cash on hand is counted, 
and the amount entered on the credit side. This should make the delits 
and credits equal ; the amount of cash on hand is then entered on the 
debtor side. If money is ])aid to or received from a person who has an 
account ^vith us it is also entered in the Day-book ; the total receipts and 
exi>enditures are carried to the Day-book as often as the Cash-book is 
balanced. (See form of Cash-book.) 

As a help to compute interest we append the following Table to show 

the time required for a given number of dollars to draw an equal number 

of cents at various rates of interest. The rule is to strike off the odd 

cents from the principal and you have the interest at the following rates : 

Interest Interest Interest 

per cent. No. Days. | per cent. ] No. Days. I per cent. [ No. Days. 



4 

44 

5 

5-20 

<) 



90 
80 
72 
70 
CO 



7 

7-30 

8 

9 



52 
48 
50 
45 
40 



10 
10-40 



35 
So 



The next Table shows the varions sums of money which draw 1 cent 
interest per day, calculated at different per cents, so that the number of 
cents will always be found equivalent to the number of days the money 
has been drawing interest. 
Amount. Per cent. I Amount. Per cent, i Amount. Per cent. 



690 
80 
72 
70 
60 



Per cent. 


Amount. 


4 


352 


^ 


50 


5 


48 


5-20 


45 


6 


40 



7 
7-30 

8 
9 



$30 
35 
30 
24 



10 

10-40 
12 
15 



Valuable Interest Rules, Basis 30 days per month or 360 
DAVS to the CoatMERCiAL YEAR. Multiply the principal by the re- 
quired number of days, and for 4 per cent, divide by 9, and point off ; 
for 5 per cent, divide by 72 ; for 6 per cent, divide by 6, and point off 
three figures from the right; for eight per cent, divide by 45; for 9 percent 
divide by four, and point off three figures from the right ; for 10 per cent, 
divide by 36 ; for 12 per cent, divide by 3, and point off three figures 
from the right ; for 15 per cent, divide by 24 ; for eighteen per cent, divide by 
2, and point off three figures from the right, for 20 per cent, divide bj^ 18. 

A new way, called " a rule for reckoning interest on odd days, at any 
rate per cent., which involves no subdivision whatever," is as follows: 



796 



INTEREST TABLES, &C. 



Miiltiph- the principal by the number of days, and for 6 per cent, divide 
by GO ; for 7 per cent, by 51 ; for 8 per cent. , by 45 ; for 1) per cent, by 
40 ; for 10 per cent, by 36, for G twice over ; for 12 per cent, by 30. 
For further information refer to interest Tubles. 









INTEREST 


TABLE. 


TEX PER CE 


ST. 








TIME. 


$1 


$2 



S3 



§4 



$5 


S§6 


^i 


J»« 


9'J 


1 ^JIO 


$iO 


$50 


§100 


$1000 


4 Days. 





1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


4 


5 


11 


1 11 


8 " 








1 


1 


1 


1 


2 


2 


2 


2 


8 


11 


22 


2 22 


12 '*' 





1 


1 


1 


o 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


12 


16 


33 


3 33 


16 *« 





1 


1 


2 


2 


3 


3 


4 


4 


4 


16 


22 


44 


4 44 


20 " 


1 


1 


2 


2 


3 


o 


4 


4 


5 


6 


24 


28 


56 


6 56 


24 " 


1 


1 


2 


3 


3 


4 


5 


5 


6 


7 


28 


33 


67 


6 67 


2iS " 


1 


2 


2 


3 


4 


5 


5 


6 


i 


8 


32 


39 


78 


7 78 


i MoN. 


1 


<> 


3 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


8 


32 


42 


83 


8 33 


2 " 


2 


3 


5 


7 


8 


10 


12 


13 


15 


17 


68 


83 


1 67 


16 67 


3 " 


o 


5 


8 


10 


12 


15 


18 


20 


23 


25 


100 


125 


2 50 


25 00 


4 " 


3 


7 


10 


13 


17 


20 


23 


27 


30 


33 


132 


165 


3 33 


33 33 


6 " 


4 


8 


13 


17 


21 


25 


29 


33 


38 


42 


168 


2 08 


4 17 


41 67 


6 " 


5 


10 


15 


20 


25 


30 


35 


40 


45 


50 


2 00 


2 50 


5 00 


50 00 


1 YEAB. 


10 


20 


30 


40 


50 


60 


70 


80 


9) 


$1 


4 00 


$5 


$10 


$100 



TABLE, SHOWING THE NUMBER OF DAYS FKOM ANY DAY IN ONE MONTH 
TO THE SAME DAY IN ANOTHER. 



Kiom 



To 



January . 
February 
IMareh . . . 
April. ... 

May 

June 

July , 

Aug 

Sept 

Oct , 

Nov 

Dec 



365 



31 



334 365 

3061337 

275 306 

245 276 

214i245 

1841215 

153 184 

122 1 153 

92 123 

61 92 

31 62 



c3 
'59! 

28 
365 
334 
304 
273 
243 
212 



Pa 

. 90 
59 
31 
365 
335 
304 
274 
243 



181 212 
151 182 
120 151 
90 121 



120 

89 

61 

30 

365 

334 

304 

273 

242 

212 

181 

151 



151 

120 

92 

61 

31 

365 

335 

304 

273 

243 

212 



181 

150 

122 

91 

61 

30 

365 

334 

303 

273 

242 



fcc 

13 
<_ 

212 
181 



243 
212 
153 184 



122 
92 
61 



153 
123 

92 



31 62 
3651 31 
334! 3G5 
304 335 
273 304 
243 1 274 



273 
242 
214 
183'214 



> 

o 

_^ 

304 
273 
245 



153 

122 

92 

61 

30 

365 



184 

153 

123 

92 

61 

31 



3.34 365 



334 
303 
275 
244 
214 
183 
153 
122 
91 
61 
.30 



182,212 243!274 3041335 365 
Explanation.— To find the number of days from January 20 to 
Dec. 20, follow the horizontal line opposite January until you reach the 
column headed by December, when you will find 334, re^-)resentinlJ the 
required number of days, and so on with the other months. During 
leap year, if February enters into the calculation, add one day to the 
result. 

how to CONDFCT a successful BUSINESS. 

That short credit and small profits forms the golden rule for success in 
trade may be seen from the following table, exhibiting the amounts re- 
alized for SlOO at various percentages during various periods. 









Am' tat 


Am't at 


Am't at 


Am't at 






. 


3 pr. ct. 


5 per ct. 


8 pr. ct. 


10 pr. ct. 


If turned 


over 


every 3 months, 


$326.20 


$703.99 


$2172.45 


.^525.92 






" 6 " 


180.61 


265.32 


46G.09 


672.75 






u g cc 


155.79 


207.89 


317.21 


417.72 






" 12 " 


134.39 


162.88 


215.89 


259.37 






" 2 years. 


115.92 


127.62 


146.93 


161.05 






u 5^ u 


106.09 


110.25 


116.64 


121.00 



MERCANTILE ITEMS. 



797 



Tares Allowed by the Jobbers of Xew York City. —It is under- 
stood that if ii retail merchant orders less tlian an original package on 
whicli the jobber gets tare that no tare is allowed by the jobber to the 
retailer. 



Argols— Actual tares. 

Barley, &c.— Come 100 lbs. in keg 
— all net. 

Bird Seed— 2 per rt. 

Butter- I lb. on tubs as soakage ; 2 
lbs. on firkins ; pails net weight. 

California Hoxey — cases — (weigh- 
ing 70 to 75 lbs.), 14 lbs. 

Caraavay Seed— 2 per ct. 

Cheese — Always net or mrkd tares. 

Chicory — Casks, marked tares, 10 
per ct. additional. 

CiTROx, and all Peels— 2i/2 Ihs. per 
box. 

Coffees — 1 per ct. on everything ex- 
cept as below. 

Jamaica and St. Domingo, 2 per 
ct. ; Savanilla, in double bags, and 
Laguayra, in heavy bags, 2 per ct. 
Costa Rica, in lieavy bags, 2 per ct. 
Old Government Java, in mats, 1 
per ct. 

Mexican coiTee — in bales, 15 lbs. 
Mocha Coffee — 14 bales, 6 lb. ; Vk, 4 
lb. ; 1/3, 2V2 a. 3 lbs. 

Currants— Bbls, 27 to 29 lbs. aver- 
.age ; in box, 41bs. 

Dates— In frails, 9 per ct. 

FiG.s — Drums, 10 per ct. ; in kegs, 10. 
Layer figs, Boxes, 12. 

HoMiXY— 200 lbs net. 

Lentils- 2 perct. 

Molasses axd Syrups— Always al- 
low V2 S'^^ • out. 

Nutmegs — Cases and casks marked 
tares* 



Pruxes— German, 4 lbs. per box. 
French — Marked tares. Turkish, 
in casks, marked tares. 

Raisixs — Sultana, in boxes 10 per ct. 

KicE— 4 lbs. per bag ; tierces 10 per 
ct. 

Rock Caxdy — In bxs marked tares. 

Sal Soda — Casks, 7 per ct. 

Soda — English, mrkd English tares. 

Spices — 2 per ct., except Cinnamon 
and Cloves. 

Cassia — 9 per ct, on bales aiid 
mats ; and l^^ lbs. extra for bale ; 
cases 17 lbs. 
Cloves— 9 lbs. per bale. 

Sugar— Hhds., 12 per ct. ; Refined 
Sugars always 7iet or marked tar-es. 
Boxes — 15 per ct. Mats and Bags 
— 1 per ct. Barrels— Demarara, ex- 
cept where marked net, 12 per ct. 
The per cent for bags and mats 

with the trade applies only to East 

India sugars. On bags and mats im- 
ported from other countries the tare 

is according to agreement between 

buyer and seller. 

Tapioca— 1 per ct. Sago— 2 per ct. 

Tea — Invoice weight ascertained as 
follows : three to four pkgs are ta- 
ken out of each .50 or 60 (usually 
those numbered the same), the tea 
turned out, and the pkgs weighed ; 
the average of the three or four is 
taken as the tare of the whole. 

Valexcia Raisixs— 5 lbs. per box, 
usually. 



Nuts— 2 lbs. per bag. 

Items Regardixg Fish. — Mackerel comes in barrels, half and quar- 
ter barrels, and kits, containing full weight, respectively, 200, 100, 50, 
and 20 lbs. Xo 1 mackerel should not be less tlian 13 inches in length, 
from the extremity of the head to the fork of the tail, fat, free from 
rust, taint, or damage. Xo. 2 mackerel should not be less than 11 ins. 
in length, fat, and free from rust, &c. Xo. 3 mackerel should not be 
less than 10 ins. in length. Xo. 3, large, should not be less than 13 ins., 
and in qualitj^ are those that remain after the selection of Xo. 1. Xo. 4. 
mackerel comprise all not in the above, and should be free from taint or 
damage. 

The above is the standard established by law in Massachusetts, and is 
generally accepted by the trade elsewhere. Mackerel should be kept 
covered with brine and not exposed to the air as they become rancid or 
" rusty," after a few daj's. Mess mackerel — the finest fish, with head 
and tail removed. Extra Xo. I's are selected fish. Large Xo. 2's — Fish 
over 13 ins. in length, and not good enough in quality for Xo. I's. 

Scaled herrings should be fat fish, free from scales, and when smoked 
be of a bright golden color. Xo. 1 herring are generally small and poor 
fish. The complaints of short weight packages of fish are very many, 
some of which exceed the entire profit. 

Hes'ts to Grocers. — To keep ants out of sugar, take, say, 3 ozs. 
gum camphor, wrap it in one thickness of tea-paper, lay it on the sugar 
in the barrel and they will leave at once. Keep your tea in a close chest 



798 MERCANTILE ITEMS. 

or canister, and keep coffee by itself, as its odor affects other articles. 
Look after the number of oranges and lemons in a box and see i-f tliey 
hold out. If not, claim. Oranges and lemons keep best wrapped in 
soft paper, and if possible laid in a drawer. Keep bread or cake in a tin 
box or stone jar. Cranberries will keep all winter in a firkin of watei 
iu a cellar. September and October butter is the best for winter use. 

Flavoring ExTKACTS, 27 Kinds. — The forniuhe given below ie[)ie- 
sent the average standard. strength, but they may be reduced if required. 
1. Extract of Lemon, oil of lemon, 2 ozs., freshly grated lemon peel, 1 oz., 
alcohol, 2 pts. 2. ExU of Orange, oil of orange, 12 drs. , freshly grated 
lemon j^eel, 4 ozs-, alcohol 2 pts. 3. Another, Valencia oranges, 1 doz., 
alcohol, 2 pts. Carefully detach the yellow portion of the rind, and 
macerate it for ten days iu tlie alcohol. Owing to the difficulty of pro- 
curing fre&h oil of orange, this formula is generallj'^ preferred. 4. Ext. 
of Rose. Red rose leaves, 2 ozs., oil of rose, 1 dr., alcohol, 2 pts. 5. 
Ext. of Celery, celery seed, bruised, 2 ozs., alcohol, 1 pt. G. Ext. of 
Ginger, tincture of ginger, 1 pt, alcohol, from ^ to 1 pt. Some use the 
tincture without dilution. 7. Ext. of Bitter Almonds, oil of bitter al- 
monds, 1 oz. alcohol, 13 oZvS., water, Gozs. Some color it with ^oz. tincture 
of turmeric. 8. Ext. of Cinnamon. Oil of cinnamon, 2 drs., Ceylon cinna- 
mon, bruised, 4 ozs., diluted alcohol, 2 pts. 9. Ext. of Peppermint. Es- 
sence of peppermint,, U. S. P., 1 pt., alcohol, from ^ to 1 pt. Some pre- 
fer tlie essence without dilution. 10. Ext. of Coriander. Powdered co- 
riander, 4 ozs,, oil of coriander, 1 dr., alcohol, 21 ozs., water, 8 ozs. 11. 
Ext. of Nutmeg. Oil of nutmeg, 2 drs., powdered mace, 1 oz., alcohol, 
2 pts: 12. Ext. of Vanilla. Vanilla bean, 1 oz., loaf sugar, 1 oz., alco- 
hol, 70 iper cent. , sufficient. Triturate the vanilla with the sugar until a 
No 20 powder is obtained. Introduce into a 2 pt. stone jug Avith two ozs. 
of the menstruum, cork tightly, and digest several hours at a tempera- 
ture of about ISO''. Allow the mixture to cool, transfer it to a percolator, 
pack it firmly, and pour enough alcohol on it to make the j^ercolate 
measure 1 pt. 13. Ext. of Spear m,int. Essence of spearmint, U. S. P., 
1 pt., alcohol, from ^ to 1 pt. Some use the essence without dilution. 
14. Ext. of Anise. Anise seed, 2 ozs., oil of star anise, 1 oz., alcohol, 2 
pts. 15. Ext. of Pine Apple, Artificial. Chloroform, 1 fl. oz., aldehyde, 
1 do., butyric ether, 5 fl. ozs., butyrate of amyl, 10 do., glycerine, 3 fl. 
ozs., alcohol, 100 do. 16. Ext. of Sassafras. Oil of sassafras, 1 oz., sas- 
safras in coarse powder, 2 ozs., alcohol, 2 i)ts. 17. Ext. of Peach, Arti- 
ficial. Oil of bitter almonds, 2 ozs., acetic ether, 1 oz., alcohol 3 pts. 
18. Ext. of Nectarine. Extract of vanilla, 1 pt., extract of lemon, 1 pt., 
extract of pine apple, 8 ozs. 19. Ext. of Wintergreen. Oil of wintergreen, 
1 oz., alcohol, 1 pt. , cudbear, or cochineal, 10 ozs. 20. Ext of Clove. 
Powdered clove, 4 ozs., diluted alcohol, 1 pt. 21. Ext. of Blackberry, 
Artificial. Tinct. of orris root, (1-8) 1 pt., acetic ether, 30 drops, buty- 
ric ether, 60 drops. 22. Ext. of Tonka Bean. Tonka bean, coarsely 
ground, 4 ozs., diluted alcohol, 1 pt. 23. Ext. of Allspice. Allspice, 
corsely ground, 4 ozs., diluted alchohol, 1 pt. 24. Ext of Pear, Artificial. 
Acetic ether, 5 fl. ozs., acetate of arayl, 10 do., glycerine, 10 fl. ozs., alco- 
hol, 100 do. 25. Ext. of Apple, Artificial. Chloroform, 1 fl. oz., nitric 
ether 1 do., aldehyde, 2"fl. ozs., acetic ether, 1 do., valerianate of amyl, 10 
fl. ozs., oxalic acid, 2 drs., glycerine 2 fl. ozs., alcohol, 100 do. 26. Ext. 
of Strawberry, Artificial. Nitric ether, 1 fl. oz., acetic ether, 5 do., for- 
mic ether, 1 fl. oz., "butyric ether, 5 do., salicylate of methyl, 1 fl. oz., 
acetate of amyl, 3 do. , butyrate of amyl, 2 fl.ozs., glycerine, 2 do., alcohol, 
100 do. 27. Ext. of Raspberry, Artificial Nitric ether 1 fl. oz., alde- 
hyde, 1 do., acetic ether, 5 fl. ozs., formic ether, 1 do., bixtj-ric ether, 1 
fl. oz., benzoic ether, 1 do., cenanthylic ether, 1 fl. oz., sebasic ether, 1 
do., salicylate of methyl, 1 fl. oz. acetate of amyl, 1 do, butyrate of amyl, 
Ifl. oz., tartaric acid, 2 ozs., glycerine, 4 fl. ozs., alcohol, 105 do. For 
other receipts, consult pp. 30, 159, and 207. 



SUCCESS IN BUSINESS. 799 

The credit system has bankrupted more people than perhai^s all other 
causes put together. The most rigid scrutiny should therefore ttike place 
in every instance where credit is solicited. A good way is to make the 
party sign a statement of his assets, debts, means of payment, &c., and 
grant a limited credit on that basis. If the result proves intentional 
fraud then you have your remedy at law. Cash down is the only abso- 
lutely safe rule. Curtail every possible expense. Let the profits accumu- 
late, hold on to them, and avoid uncertain outside speculations. See 
table of daily savings on page 587, and profit by its suggestions. Attend 
to the details of your business, see that the store is opened in good time, 
goods dusted, floor swept, paper, twine, nails, &c., picked up and 
everything kept in trim order. In establishing a business it is not always 
the best plan to open out in a new locality where rents are low and ex- 
penses light. The result will be in many cases, that before tlie new local- 
ity acquires the ability to rendei- adequate support to a respectable busi- 
ness (after an unavailing struggle) the funds of the merchant Avill gradu- 
ally give out, and he will be obliged to close his doors at the very time 
when he should have opened them. If, however, he succeeds, the dealer 
will do well to confine his attention more to the supply of the necessaries 
than the luxuries of life, until a more general demand arises for the lat- 
ter as the neighborhood grows older. 

Taking everything into account, the best localitj'^ for business purposes 
is in a city or town in a prominent throughfare where those whose trade 
you desire can most easily find you. A suitable place being secured, 
mount a proper sign board in a prominent manner, and make sure to pre- 
sent an imposing display of your choicest goods in your store windows. 
This, of itself, is a powerful attraction to passers by, who will frequently 
see just the article they require and call for it at once. This accommoda- 
tion, coupled with civil treatment on your part, will often secure you a 
permanent customer, for people are bound to go w^here they are M'ell used. 
A notable and most successful method of attracting customers and build- 
ing up a lucrative business, is to sell a few of the leading staples at low 
figures, and obtain a fair profit on the rest. The most sagacious and 
far-seeing merchants do this, with the most astonishing financial results. 
In fact, thousands who are independently rich would now be bankrupt 
but for this system of transacting business. 

The following directions deserve a wide circulation : — 

" Enter into a business of which you have a perfect knowledge. In your 
own right, or by the aid of friends on long time, have a cash capital suffi- 
cient to do at least a cash business. Never venture on a credit business 
at the commencement. Buy all your goods or materials for cash ; you 
can thus take every advantage of the market, and pick and chose where 
and when you will. Be careful not to overstock yourself. Rise and fall 
with the market on short stocks. Alwaj^s stick to those whom you prove 
to be strictly just in their transactions, and shun all others even at a 
temporary disadvantage. Never take advantage of a customer's ignor- 
ance, nor equivocate nor misrepresent. Have but one price and a small 
profit, and you will find all the most profitable customers — the cash ones 
— or they will find you. 

" If ever deceived in business transactions, never attempt to save your- 
self by putting the deception upon others ; but submit to the loss, and be 
more cautious in future. According to the character or success of your 
business, set aside a liberal percentage for printing and advertising, and 
do not hesitate. Never let an article, parcel, or package, go out from you 
without a handsomely-printed wrapper, card, or circular, and dispense 
them continually. Keep yourself unceasingly before the public by judi- 
ciously advertising ; and it matters not what business of utility you make 



800 SAFE BUSINESS RULES. 

choice of, for if iutelligeutly and iudastriously pursued, a fortuue will be 
the result. 

"Learu to say *No' -with decisiou ; 'j-es' with caution — *No' 
with decision whenever it resists temptation ; 'yes' witli caution when 
it implies a promise, A promise once given is a bond inviolable. A man 
is already of consequence in the world when it is known that we c;in im- 
plicitly rely upon him. Such a one is often preferred to a long list of ap- 
plicants, for some important change which lifts him at once into station 
and fortune merely because he has this reputation, that when he says he 
will know a thing he knows it, and when he says he Avill do a thing he will 
do it. Reflect over these maxims ; you will fiud it easy enough to prac- 
tice them." 

Rest assured industry and economy will be sure to tell in the end. Waste 
not want not go hand in hand. If in early life these habits become con- 
firmed, no doubt can exist as to the ultimate triumph of the merchant in 
attaining a competency. 

Be self-reliant and punctual. As you gain experience in business 
you can form your own judgment and act on it with more safety than you 
could on outside advice, and let no effort be considered too great which" re- 
sults in fulfilling your engagements and keeping your word. A good char- 
cter for punctuality is in itself a valuable capital, as it makes one in a large 
measure the master of another's purse. In expressing yourself, be frank, 
speak to the point ; form a habit of thinking vigorously and speaking 
correctly ; say what you mean ; and do what you say. 

In buying goods never take advantage of another's.necessities to beat 
him down to a figure which leaves him little or no profit, perhaps a loss, 
because he must have money. There is no manhood in such transactions, 
it may enhance your immediate profits, but will be disastrous to you in 
the end, besides being most unjust to the immediate sufferer. Let all 
your actions in buying and selling conform to the requirements of the 
golden rule. 

Be always alert to the acquisition of knowledge relating to your busi- 
ness, this may be gained by conversation with exi^erienced merchants, by 
the attentive reading of practical books treating on mercantile matters, 
and by taking trade papers, which in these stirring times have attained 
great perfection, embracing as they do an immense range of subjects, 
treating, each in its respective sphere, subjects of immense impoitance, 
relating to the hardware, grocery, dry goods, drug, and other mercantile 
trades, besides full reports of the markets pertaining to each business, an 
item which in itself no business man can afford to lose sight of. In this 
place the advice of the American Grocer to its subscribers to Cou>'t, 
Measuks, Weigh, and Gauge Everything You Buy, cannot be too 
strongly urgued upon the notice of business men. Profits will be greatly 
enhanced by taking advantage of the discounts which nearlj' all business 
men offer for cash payments. Keep your credit good and use it sparingly 
and discreetly. 

A noted merchant amassed an immense fortune hj the observance of 
these four simple rules : 1. Obtain the earliest and fullest information 
possible in regard to the matter in hand. 2. Act rapidly and promptly 
upon it. 3. Keep your intentions and means secret. 4. Secure the heat 
employees you can obtain, and reward them liberally. See pp 590. 

Rothschild's rules were. '' 1. I combined three profits I made the 
manufacturer my customer, and the one I bought of my customer ; that 
is, I supplied the manufacturer with the raw material and dyes ; on 
each of which I made a profit, and took his manufactured goods, which 
I sold at a profit, and thus combined three profits. 2. Make a bargain at 
once, be an off-handed man. 3. Never have anything to do with an 



SAFE BUSINESS RULES. 801 

unlucky man or place. I have seen manj' clever men -who had not 
shoes to their feet, I never act with them ; their advice sounds very 
■well, but fate is against them ; they do not get on themselves, how 
can they do good to me ? 4. Be cautious and bold. It requires a great 
deal of caution and a great deal of boldness to make a great fortune, 
and when you have got it, it requires ten times as much wit to keep it." 

Rules of John Mcbonough the millionaire of New Orleans. "1. Re- 
member always that labor is one of the conditions of our existence. 2. 
Time is gold ; throw not one miuute away but place each one to account. 
3. Do unto all men as you would be done by. 4. Never put off till to- 
morrow what you can do to-day. 5. Never bid another do what you can 
do yourself. 6. Never covet what is not your own. 7. Never think any 
matter so trivial as not to deserve notice. 8. Never give out that which 
does not first come in. 9. Never spend but to produce. 10. Let the 
greatest order regulate all the actions of your life. 11. Study in your 
course of life to do the greatest amount of good. • 12. Deprive yourself of 
nothing necessary to your comfort, but live hi an honorable "^simplicity 
and frugality. Labor then, to the last moment of your existence." 

Render yourself familiar with your business and"^ books, and do not be 
unduly anxious to extend your trade, remembering that a small busiiies.s 
on cash capital yields better profits than a large business conducted on 
credit ; also remember that the goods on j-our shelves are much better 
than having them charged up in bad debts. If it happens that you run 
an account with a doubtful customer, prudence requires that you should 
close the account at onc& and use every possible means to collect it with- 
out delay. It frequentlj'^ happens in cases of this kind that prompt action 
will result in the recovery of the whole debt, when a very slight delay 
will entail a total loss. Every populous community is infested by such 
a vast number of incorrigible rascals who never intend to pay their debts, 
that dealers are justified in rejecting every application for credit where 
the financial ability of the applicant is in the slightest degree doubtful. 

Avoid selfishness, niggardliness and parsimoniousness in the use of 
moiiej-or means. True nobility of character always finds its greatest pleas- 
ure in assisting and uplifting humanitj-. Viewed in this light it requires 
but slight exertion to solve the riddle iDropouuded by old Mr. Honest in 
the Pilgrim : — 

" There was a man, though some did count him mad, 
The more he threw away the more he had." 
The world presents many notable instances of a generous policy, It is 
s^afe to say that Peter Cooper, by his generous consecration of $2',000,00O 
to the up-building of the Cooper Institute, not to mention his other bene- 
factions, has conferred more substantial benefitsonhumanity than whole 
dynasties of tyrants who misgovern empires, and render themselves a 
terror to peaceable nations. 

In mercantile matters courage is indispenable, slackness is absolute 
ruin. It requires courage to tell a man you will not credit him, courage 
to insist on prompt payments from customers, courage to speak your 
mind candidly at all times, courage to deny yourself the possession of 
many things you want. It requires courage to refuse to conform to the 
absurd demands of fashion, to show respect for real worth even if it 
appears in humble garb, and to discountenance unprincipled rascality in 
fine clothes. It requires courage to act justly without fear or favor, to live 
within your means, to pay 3"our debts, to collect your accounts, to with- 
stand ridicule while acting righteously ; in one word, if you lack courage 
never go into business at all. 

In mercantile circles the commercial traveller occupies a most import- 
ant position and in many cases proves himself a most valuable auxiliary 

34* 



802 ON MARKING GOODS. 

to the mci-chaut. To become a successful traveller it requires prolonged 
service on the road, a vast amount of shrewdness, and a profound linowl- 
edge of human nature. He must possess a clear head, a good temper, a 
readj^ easy, and natural aptitude for making profitable bargains, with 
a good gift for mental, off-hand calculations in all possible emergencies. 

In a work treating of commercial travellers in France, we fiud the 
following description of one of them : " With his customers, as every 
where else, he is polite and obliging ; he kisses the baby, pats tlie spaniel, 
pays a compliment to the young lady behind the counter, and offers a 
piiich of snuff to the master of the shop. He inquires respecting the 
state of the vintage, foretells the result of the season, speaks at some 
length on the state of the grain market, obligingly inquires after ma- 
dame's health, and invites her husband to call and see him in Paris 
' We'll dine at the Rocher,' laughs the traveller, adding, in a lower key, 
• and discuss a bottle of A 1, eh ? ' Briefly, he obtains an order, and 
often a verj^ extensive one." 

In marking goods it is usual with merchants to make use of a private 
mark, phrasefor kev-word to designate the cost and selling price of their 
goods, the object being to conceal these points from all except their own 
sal&smen. The following words and phrases present a choice from -svhich 
to make a selection. 

GAS FIXTURE. FISH TACKLE. BROWN SUGAR. 

BLACK HORSE. CASH PROFIT. NOW BE SHARP. 

MISFORTUNE. SO FRIENDLY. ELUCIDATOR. 

IMPORTANCE. GAINFUL JOB. OK INDUSTRY. 

It will be noticed that each word or phrase contains ten letters, no 
two alike, the object being to use letters instead of figures in marking the 
goods. For instance, take the phrase 

GAS FIXTURE. 
123 45078 9 

In marking the cost and selling price on a ticket, we assume that the 
cost is $3.25 and the selling price $i.37; this Avould be represented by the 
dumb letters s a i—fst. The cost price is generally placed uppermost on 

tlie tag, the selling price below it, thusjr^. An extra letter, styled 

a repeater, is used to obviate the repetition of a letter or figure as well as 
to prevent the disclosure of the private mark, for instance instead of writ- 
ing 366 by the key- word, "which would be 5 X a;, use as a repeater the 
letter o, and make it read s x o. Fractions may be written thus : 456 §=/ ^ x 
-. For further information on marking goods see page 210. 

In advertising, let your announcements be short, spicy, attractive, and 
prominently displayed ; study brevity, using as few words as possible to 
express your meaning. A long, diffuse advertisement kills its object, 
people will not read it. Let an advertisement be truthful, free from 
senseless bombast, circulate them widely, and when your new customers 
come in, fulfil to the letter, the promises made in your announcements ; 
you will thus obtain their confidence, retain their custom and their efforts 
to obtain more customers for you. Remember, judicious advertising 
always pays ; but it requires judgment to advertise aright. Select the 
channels which circulate most widely among the class of customers you 
desire to reach, and advertise persistently and liberally. Every dollar 
expended will bring tenfold profits. In advertising on printed cards or 
circulars, it is an important object to connect them with some matter 
valuable to the receiver, such as a calendar, a railway time table, an ele- 
gant picture, or any other matter that will be preserved for its inherent 
value. Lithographed circulars, in i:uitation of the handwriting, sent 
direct to parties, are a first class advcrtisiug media. Never quit r.dver- 



BUSINESS FOIiMS. 803 

tising until you quit business. The most successful merchants in New 
York are the ones which advertise largely, and consider their outlay in 
this manner just as necessary as the payment of their rent or clerk hire. 

Next to prominence in announcing your business is civility, politeness, 
and honest treatment of customers. These elements of character. Avhich 
can never be ignored without serious detriment to any one engaged in pub- 
lic business, cost nothing, and will often enable the small dealer to outstrip 
his rich rival. A cheerful, civil, and polite manner is all-powerful in 
obtaining and retaining customers, and a grand mistake is often made by 
men on the road to fortune, in forgetting or neglecting to exercise this 
cheap and pleasant means of its ultimate attahmient. 

In opeuing an account with a bank provide yourself with a proper in- 
troduction. Never draw a check for a larger sum than the amount at 
your credit, and do not send your check to a remote person with the ex- 
pectation of depositing funds to meet it before it gets back ; the telegraph 
may explode that bubble. Never exchange checks with any one, or give 
a check under the sti^^ulation that it is not to be used until a given time. 
Never take a distant check from a neighbor to pass it free through your 
bank, giving him your check for it. Never give your check to a stranger; 
it is liable to be raised, and passed, thus entailing a heavy loss on the 
bank. In sending a check to a distance, with the name and residence of 
the payee, thus ; John Kamsden & Co., of Buffalo, N. Y. This will give 
a clue to the bank Avhen it is presented for payment. In presenting an ac- 
commodation note for discount, tell your bank the real nature of the paper. 
It is much better to act in this candid, unreserved manner than otherwise. 
Never consider your bank arbitrary if it declines to discount an accommo- 
dation note ; in any event never wrangle or contend with it, but act 
squarely with them by settling in full, and then go elsewhere if discourte- 
ously treated. If you wish to get a customer's note discounted to obtain 
funds to take upaprioi' i^ot© by the same customer, inform your bank 
fullv about it. Don't waste arguments to induce your bank to discount 
paper which it has already declined, it may have the best of reasons for 
such action. In your dealings with bank officers never exhibit asperity of 
temper, but study politeness, civility, candor and courtesy under all cir- 
Oil Timf"*! iir*f^^ 

COMMERCIAL AND LEGAL FORMS. 
t 

No. 1. Ne(jotiahle Note. 
|;400 Montreal Jan. 1, 18 — . 

Three months after date , I promise to pay Oliver Cromwell, or order, 
Four Hundred Dollars, for value received. 
j^ote. John Howard. 

For an interest-bearing note, add " with interest" after "value re- 
cei ved. ' ' 

No. 2. Joint Note. 

.S430 xllj St. John, N.B., Jan. 4, 18—. 

Six months after date we jointly, but not severally, promise to jiay 
^omas Bruce, or order. Four Hundred and Thirty tI*";; Dollars, for value 
/reived, with interest. John Spencer, 

David Thomson. 
No. 3. Note payable at a Bank. 

SlOOO New York, Jan. 11, 18—. 

Three months after date, I promise to pay to the order of Hiram 
Brown, the Sum of One Thousand Dollars, value received, at Park Na- 
tional Bank, New York. 

Peter Pringt.e. 



804 BUSINESS FORMS. 

No. 4. Note payable by Instalments. 

SlOO Toronto, Feb. 10, 18- 

For value received, I promise to pay to John Fleming, or order. One 
Hundred Dollars, in the way and manner following, to wit : Fifty DolIar.s 
in three months from date, and Fifty Dollars in four months, with interest 
on the several sums as they become due. 

Alex. Armstrong. 

No. 5. Note not Necjotiable. 

$600 Sj-racuse, N.Y., July, 15, 18— 

Three months after date, for value received, I promise to pay Thomas 
Bonner, Five Hundred Dollars. 

William T. Bell. 

No. 6. Note on Demand. 

S300 Hamilton, March 14, 18—. 

On demand I promise to pay John Rose, or order, Three Hundred 
Dollars, value received, Avith interest. 

William Wallace. 

No. 7. Note iKiyable in Merchandise. 
•STOO Frederictoa, N.B., June 1, 18—. 

For value received, on or before the first day of November next, I 
promise to pay to A. Gibson, or Order, Seven Hundred Dollars in good 
merchantable Spruce Logs, at his Sawmill near this city, at the market 
value on the maturity of this note. 

John Streamdriver. 

No. 8. Due Bill for money. 

London, Ont, June 20, IS — . 
$140 105 Due to John Baxter, or order, on demand, One Hundred and 
forty /J^o Dollars, value received. 

J. B. Perkins. 

No. 9. Due Bill payable in Goods. 
$200 Chicago. 111., July 14, 18—. 

Due on demand, to R. Wj-llie, Two Hundred Dollars, in inerchandise 
from our store, 

T. M. Hunter & Co. 

No. 10. Check on a Bank. 
No. 16. New York, July 20. 18- 

NiNTH National Bank. 

Pay to Bradford & Parker or order, Three Thousand iVo Dollars. 

$3,000 G. Bl-rnham. 

No. 11. Form of a Bank Draft. 

$6,300 Bank of the Metropolis No. 107. 

' New York, Aug. o, 18—. 

Pay to the order T, M. Banker Six Thousand and Three Hundred 

Dollars. ^ ,. . 

Duplicate unpaid. 

G. A. CoPELAND, Cashier. 
To Eliot Nat. Baiik, Boston. 



BUSINESS FORMS. 805 

No. 12. Sight Dvafi. 

S600 New York, Aug. 10, 18- . 

At Sight, pay to the order of R. Pitman & Co., Six Hlmdred dollars, 
value received, and charge the same to our account. 

George Root & Co. 
To James Allison, Chicago. 

No. 13 Time Draft 

^200 Rochester, N.T., Aug. 11, 18—. 

Thirty days after date, pay to the Order of John Hall, Two Hundred 
and ?ifty Dollars, value received, and charge to our account, 

T Banning «&; Co. 

No. 14 Set of Foreign Bills of Exchange 

Exchange for £-5,000 New York, Aug. 10, 18—. 

Ten days after sight of this First of Exchange (our Second and Tliird 
unpaid), pay to the Order of David Perry, Five Thousand Pounds Sterling, 
value received, and charge the same without further advice, to, 

Joseph Seligman & Co, 
To Baring Brothers. 

No. 220 London, Eag 

Exchange for £5,000 New York, Aug. 10, 18—. 

Ten days after Sight of this Second of I^change (First and Third un- 
paid), pay to the order of David Perrj^ Five Thousand Pounds Sterling, 
value received, and charge the same without further advice, to 

Joseph Seugman & Co. 
To Baring Brothers. 

No. 220. London, Eng. 

Exchange for £5,000 New York. Aug. 10, 18—. 

Ten days after Sight of this Third of Exchange (First and Second un- 
paid), pay to the order of David Perry, Five Thousand Pounds Sterling, 
value received, and cliarge the same without further advice, to 

Joseph Seligman & Co. 
To Baring Brothers. 
No 220. London, Eng. 

No- 15- Form of a Protest. 

.'ii;2,000 New York, Aug. 15, 1877. 

Please to take notice, that a Promissorj^ Note for Two Thousand Dollars, 
made by Robert Brown, May 12, 1877, and endorsed by you, having been 
duly presented and payment thereof demanded, which was refused, is 
therefore protested for non-payment, and that the holders look to you for 
payment, interest, costs, and damages. 

Toy. Lookout. I.L. Ketchum. 

Notary Public. 

No. 16. JReceiptfor Money on Account. 

Received, New York, March 23, 1878, of Thomas Paywell, Seventy-five 
dollars on account. 
$75 R. Thankful 



806 BUSINESS rOKXS. 

No. 17. Receipt in Fall. 

Frederictou, N. B., March 12, 18—. 
Received of John Murray, One Hundred Dollars, in full of all demands 
to date. 
^'lOO. Henry Blackburn. 

No. 18. Receipt for Money advanced on a Contract. 

^1-000 Woodstock, Out, May 1, 18—. 

Received of A. Campbell, One Thousand Dollars in advance, on a con- 
tract to build for him a Frame house on Dundas street. 

R. TURNBULIi. 

No. 19. Receipt for Rent. 

$200 Gait, Ont., June 1, 18.— 

Received of A. Thomson, Two Hundred Dollars in full for one year's 
rent for dwelling on Water Street. 

Charles Wilson. 

No. 20, Receipt for a Note, 

New York, June 2, 18 — . 
Received of Hiram Edson, his note for Four Hundred Dollars at three 
months, in full oi account. 

Thomas Harrison. 

No. 21. Order for Money. 

Baltimore, Juno 5, 18 — . 
Mr. Robert Hill, 
Please pay Thomas Jamison, or Bearer, Fiftj-^ dollars on ray account. 

David Hillman. 

No. 22. Order for Merchandise. 

Mr. R. T. Bonner. 

Please deliver to the bearer, Joseph Fallett, such goods as he may de- 
sire from your store to the amount of Sixty-five dollars, and charge the 
same to my account. 

John Gardiner 

No. 23. Letter of Credit. 

I Toronto, October 5, 18— 
Gentlemen : — Allow me to introduce to your firm the Bearer, Mr. J. 
S. Harper ; should he make a selection from your stock to the amomit of 
One Thousand Dollars, I will be answerable for that sum in case of his 
non-payment. 

Yours, truly, 

RuFCs Barlow 
To Lord & Taylor, New York, 

No. 24. Landlord's Agreement. 

This certifies, that I have let and rented, this first day of June, 1878, 
unto Robert Walker, my house and lot No. 150, Dundas street, London, 
Out., and its appurtenances ; he to have the free and imiuterrupted oc- 
cupation thereof for one year from this d,ate, at the yearly rental of One 



BUSINESS rORMS. 807 

Thousand Dollars, to be paid monthly in advance ; rent to cease if de- 
stroyed by fire, or otherwise made untenantable. 

Jas. Kingman. 

No. 25. Tenant's agreement. 

This certifies that I have hired and taken from Joseph Kingman, his 
house and lot No. 150, Duudas street, Loudon, Out., with appurtenances 
thereto belonging, for one year, to commence this day at a yearly rental 
of One Thousand Dollars, "to be paid monthly in advance, unless said 
house becomes untenantable from fire or other causes, in which case 
rent ceases ; and I further agree to give and yield said premises one year 
from this first day of June, 1878, in as good' condition as now, ordinary 
wear and damage by the elements excepted. 

Given under my hand tliis day. 

Robert Walker. 

No 26. Notice to Quit. 

To A. B. Palmer. 

Sir : — Please observe that the term of one year, for which the house 
and land, situated at 47 Pearl street, and now occupied by you, were 
rented to you, expired on the first day of June, 1878, and as I desire to 
repossess said j)remises, you are hereby requested and required to vacate 
the same. 

Yours trulv, 

T. H. Carter. 

No. 27. Tenant's Notice ofleavinr/. 

Bear Sir: The premises I now occupy as your tenant, at No. 56, Main 
street, I shall vacate on the first day of May, 1878. You will jplease take 
notice accordingly. 

Dated this 26th day of March, 1878. 

William Gilbert. 
To John Lawrence, Esq. 

No. 28. Common Form of Bond. 

Know all Men by these presents, that I, David Wilson, of Fredericton, 
York County, Province of New Brunswick, am held and firmly bound unto 
John Scott of the place aforesaid, in the sum of six hundred dollars, to be 
paid to the said John Scott, his heirs or assigns ; for which payment to be 
well and truly made, I bind myself, my heirs and assigns, by these pres- 
ents. 

Sealed with my seal, and dated this first day of August, one thousand 
eight hundred and seventy-eight. 

Tlie condition of this obligation is such, that if I, David Wilson, my 
heirs, assigns, or executors, shall promptly pay to the said John Scott, his 
lieirs or assigns, the sum of six hundred dollars in three equal annual in- 
stalments from the date hereof, with annual iuterest, then the above 
obligation to be void ; otherwise to be in full force and virtue. 



Sealed and delivered 
Presence of 

Adam Clark. 



"! 



DAVID WILSON, (L.S). 



808 BUSINESS I'ORMS. 

No. 29. Form of Bill of Sale. 

Know all men by these Presents, that I, Peter Dennian, of the city of 
Boston, in the County of Middlesex, and State of Massachusetts, of' tlie 
first part, for and in consideration of the sum of six hundred dollars, 
lawful money of the United States, to me in liand paid, at or before the 
ensealing and delivery of these presents, by Robert Ensign of the same 
place, of the secoid part, the receipt whereof is hereby acknowledged, 
have bargained and sold, and by these presents do grant and convey, unta 
the said party of the second part, his executors, administrators, and 
assigns, one six year old dark-bay horse Jijieen hands high, one black 
horse, one double harness, one carriage, two coxes andjive pigs, to have 
AND TO HOLD the Same unto the said party of the second part, his heirs, 
administrators and assigns for ever. 

And I do for myself, my heirs, executors, and administrators, covenant 
and agree, to and with the said party of the second part, to warrant and 
defend the sale of the said goods and chattels hereb}- sold unto the said 
party of the second part, his executors, administrators, and assigns, 
against all and every person and persons whatsoever. 

In witness avhereof, I have hereunto set my hand and seal, this 
sixth da}^ of April one thousand eight hundred and seventy-eight. 

PETER DENM AN, (L.S). 
Sealed and delivered in presence of 
Peter "Wilson, 
j. goddakd. 

No. 30. Chattel Mortgage. 

This indenture, made this fifteenth day of April, one thousand eight 
hundred and seventy-eight, between David Allan of the town of Giielph, 
County of Wellington, Province of Ontario, party of the first part, and 
Alfred Baker of the same town, county and Province, party of the second 
part. 

WITNESSETH, that the said party of the first part, for, and in consid- 
eration of the sum of six hundred dollars in hand paid, the receipt of 
which is hereby acknowledged, does hereby grant, sell, convey and con- 
firm unto the said party of the second part, liis heirs and assigns forever, 
all and singular, the following described goods and chattels, to wit : 

1 Weber piano, 4 black walnut bedsteads, 1 stove, 2 mahogany 
bureaus, 2 sofas, 1 dozen chairs, etc., now in possession of said Allan, in 

his dwelling at No. street, Guelph. To have and to hold 

all and singular the goods and chattels above bargained and sold, or in- 
tended so to be, unto the said party of the second part, his executors, 
administrators and assigns forever. And the said party of the fir.'-t part, 
for liimself, his heirs, assigns, and administrators , all and singular the 
g )c>is and chattels above blirgained and sold unto the said party of the 
first i^art, and against all and every jjerson whomsoever shall, and Avill, 
warrant and forever defend 

Upon condition, that if the said party of the first part shall and do 
well and truly pay unto the said party of the second part, his executors, 
administrators, or assigns, the sumof six hundred dollars lawful money of 
this Province, with interest thereon, one year from this date, thence these 
presents shall be void. And tho said party of the first part, for himself, 
his executors, and assigns, doth covenant and agree to and with the said 
party of the second part, his executors, administrators and assigns, that 
in case default shall be made in the payment of the said sum above 



BUSINESS FORMS. 80i) 

mentioned, then it shall and may be lawful for, and I, the said party of 
the first part, do liereby authorize aud empower, the said party of the 
second part, his executors, administrators, aud assigns, with the aid and 
assistance of any person or persons, to enter my dwelling-house, or sucl; 
otlier place or places as the said goods and chattels arc or may he jilaced. 
and take and convey away the said goods and chattels, and to sell or 
dispose of the same i'or the best price they can obtain, and, out of the pro^ 
ceeds thereof, to retain and pay the s:iid sura above mentioned, and all 
charges touching the same, rendering the overplus (if any) unto me, or to 
my executors, administrators or assigns. 

AxD, UNTIL DEFAULT be made in the payment of the said sum of 
money, I am to remain and continue in the quiet possession of the said 
goods and chattels, and in the full and free enjoyment of the same. 

In WITNESS WHEREOF, I, the said party of the first part, have here- 
nnto set my hand and seal the day and year first above written. 

Signed, sealed and deliv- ] 

'"■^'ge^kob RoBsL. \ DAVID ALLAN, (L.S.) 

Thomas Neilson. J 

Note. — The law, both in Canada and the United States, requires that 
Jill chattel mortgages should be filed in the Clerk's, Register's, or Re- 
corder's office of the town, city, or county where the mortgagor resides, 
and the property is, when mortgaged. Unless the same is renewed at 
or before the close of the year, its virtue expires,, and every creditor will 
have the same right to the i^roperty as the mortgagee. 

Ko. 31. Claim to he filed hy Lien Creditor's in Clerk's Office. 

Henry Wilson, of Buffalo, in the County of Erie, and State of New 
York, lumber merchant, files his claim for five hundred and sixty dollars 
against a certain house aud lot of ground, belonging to John Rodgers, 
situated on the south side of Clinton street, No. 27, in the plan of said 
city, containing in front on Clinton street, forty feet, and in depth one 
hundred feet, bounded on the north by the said Clinton street, on the 
west by ground of John Smith, on the east ground of Thomas Nelson, 
and on the south by ground of Thomas Carter, for that sum due him for 
lumber and other materials furnished by him, in erecting the aforesaid 
house in October, 1877. 

HENRY WILSON. 
November 4, 1877. 

Note. — The above form is applicable for any claim whatever that may 
be due to lumber merchants, brick-makers, carpenters, ]^ainters, masons, 
plumbers, or others engaged in furnishing materials or labor in erecting 
buildings. 

No. 32. Form of Jud<jm,ent-Note. 

For value received I promise to pay to Henry Jordan of Lockport, or 
Order, four hundred dollars, with interest, on the first day of June next ; 
and I hereby nominate, constitute, and appoint, any attornej^-at-law of 
this State, my true aud lawful attorney, irrevocable, for me and in my 
name to appear in any court of record of this State, at any time after the 
above promissory note becomes due, and to waive all process and service 
thereof, and to confess judgment in favor of the holder hereof for the 
Bura that may be due and owing h.ereon, with interest and costs, waiving 



810 BUSINESS FORMS 

all errors, etc, with stay of execution mitil the first day of April next. 

Witness my hand and seal at Lockport, N. Y., this first day of Decem- 
ber, in the year one thousand eight hundred and seventy-seven. 

Sicklied, sealed, and deliv-"! 

ered ^y^^^^^'f^^^^^^ \ THOMAS WEBSTER, (L.S.) 

Robert Kerr. J 

Note. — The above note enables the holder, in several States, to enter 
up judgment thereon without suit, if not paid when due. 

No. 33. Form of I^ote for Indiana. 
$200. Richmond, Ind,, April 1, 18 — . 

On demand, for value received, I promise to pay Charles Marsh, or 
Order, two hundred dollars, with interest, payable without any relief 
whatever from valuation or appraisement. 

ROBERT MILLER. 

No. 34. Form of Note of Pennsylvania. 
$500. Philadelphia, Pa. , April 8, 18 — . 

Three months after date, I promise to pay to the order of Thomas 
Maxwell, five hundred dollars, without defalcation, for value received, 

ALEXANDER REID. 

No. 35. Form of a Bill of Lading for Timber, Ac. 
Shipped, in good order and condition, by Robert Godfrey & Co., on 
board the good ship ^^ Dominie SamjDson," whereof P M. Marshall is 
master for this present voyage, now lying in the port of St, John, N. B., 
and bound for Liverpool, England, To say :— 

66,760 feet Mer. Spruce, all under deck. 
100 M. Spruce laths, all under deck. 
90 M. ft. Mer. Pine, all on deck, 
being marked and numbered in the margin ; and are to be delivered, in 
like good order and condition, at the aforesaid port of Liverj^ool (the 
danger of the seas and fire always excepted), unto Thomas Adams & 
Co., or to assigns, he or they paj'ing freight for the said timber at the 
rate of ten dollars per M. feet, and one dollar per M. for laths, without 
primage and average accustomed. 

Inioitness ichereof, the master of the said vessel hath affirmed to three 
bills of lading, all of this tenor and date ; one of Avhich bemg accom- 
plished, the others to stand void. 

* P, M. MARSHALL. 

Dated at St John, N. B., | 
June the 6th, A.D. 1878. ) 

No. 36. Form of a Siirvcij Bill of Lumber, &c. 
Surveyed from Alex. Gibson of Nashwiiak, New Brunswick, U 
Schooner " Inflexible " Captain Duncan. To say : — 

43,600 ft. 2x8, from 12 ft. long up (Mch. ) Spruce. 
37,300 " No. 1 Pine boards. 
19,400 " 10x12 Mer. Pine timber. 
24,500 " Hemlock boards (Mch ). 
159 M, No. 1 Pine Shingles. 
NasUwaak, N. B., ) DAYID MORRISON, 

June 5, Anno Domini 1878. ( Sm^eyor 



BUSINESS FOllMS. 811 

No. 37. Form of Agreement and Warrant for the Sale of Horse. 

This agreement, made this eighth day of April, one thousand eiglit 
hundred and seventy-eight, 'between Robert Pringle of the village of 
Stanley, county of York and Province of New Brunswick, of the first 
part, and David Browii of said place, of the second part. 

WITNESSETH, that the said Robert Pringle hereby agrees to sell to the 
said David Brown his dark-hay horse, Avith a white star in the forehead, 
and black mane and tail, and to warrant the said horse to be well broken, 
to be kind and gentle, both under the saddle and in single and double 
harness, to be sound in every respect and free from vice, for the sum of 
one hundred dollars, to be i)aid by the said David Brown, on the seventh 
day of June next. 

In consideration whereof, the said David Brown agrees to purchase 
the said horse, and to pay therefor to the said Robert Pringle the sum of 
le hundred dollars on the seventh day of June next. 

In "WITNESS WHEREOF, &c. (as in No. 29). 

No. 38. Agreement to Cultivate Land oh Shares 

This agreement, &c. (as in No. 30). 

WITNESSETH, that the said Robert Pringle agrees with the said David 
Brown, that he will properly plough, harrov/, till, fit, and prepare fo 
sowing, all that certain field of ground belonging to the said Brown, 
which field lies, etc. {here insert description of field) containing aboiit 
ten acres, and to sow the same with good fall wheat, finding one-half the 
seed wheat necessary therefor, on or before tlie fifteenth day of 
September next : and that he will, at the proper time, cut, harvest, 
and thresh, the said wheat, and winnow and clean the same, and 
deliver the one-half part of the said wheat to the said David Bi'own, 
at his barn, on his premises, in the village of Stanley, aforesaid, 
near his dwelling house, within ten days after the same shall have been 
cleaned ; and will carefully stack the one-half of the straw on the prem- 
ises of the said David Brown, near to his barn aforesaid. 

And the said David Brown, in consideration of the foregoing agree- 
ment, promises and agrees, to and with the said Pringle, that he may 
enter in upon said field for the purpose of tilling and sowing the same, 
and of harvesting the crop ; and free ingress and egress have and enjoy 
for the purpose aforesaid ; and that he will furnish to the said Pringle 
one-half of the seed wheat necessarj- to sow the same, on or before the 
fifteenth day of September next, and permit the said Pringle to thrash 
and clean the wheat upon the ])remises of the said David Brown. 

In witness whereof, &c. (as in No. 29), both parties will sign. 

No. 39. Lease of a Farm. 

This Indenture, made this first day of March, one thousand eight 
hundred and seventy-eight, between Peter Marshall, of the township of 
Dumfries, county of Waterloo, and Province of Ontario, of the first part, 
and Robert Walker of the said township and countj' of the second part. 

WITNESSETH, that the said Peter Marshall, for, and in consideration 
of the yearly rents and covenants hereinafter mentioned, and reserved on 
the part and behalf of the said Peter Marshall, his heirs, executors and 
administrators, to be paid, kept, and performed, hath demised, set, and 
to farm let, and by these presents doth demise, set, and to farm let, unto 
the said Robert Walker, his heirs and assigns, all that certain piece, 



812 BUSINESS FORMS. 

parcel or tmctoi laiia situate, lying and being in the township of Dum- 
fries aforesaid, known as lot No. {here describe land) now in the posses- 
sion of , containing one hundred acres, together with all and sin- 
gular the buildings and improvements, to have and to hold the same 
unto the said Robert Walker, his heirs, executors and assigns, from tho 

day of next, for, and during the term of five years, thence 

next ensuing, and f ullj^ to be complete, and ended, yielding and paying 
for tlie same, unto the said Peter Marshall, his heirs and assignsj^ tho 

yearly rent, or sum dollars, on the first daj" of in each arid 

every year, during the term aforesaid, and at the expiration of said 
term, or sooner if determined upon, he the said Robert Walker, his heirn 
or assigns, shall and will quietly and peaceably surrender and jield up 
the said demised premises, with the appurtenances, unto the said Peter 
Marshall, his heirs and assigns, in as good order and repair, as the same 
now are, reasonable wear, tear, and casualties, which may hai>peu by 
fire, or otherwise, only excepted. 

In witness whereof we have, etc. ( as in No. 29). 

No. 40. Warranty Deed by Husband and Wife, with Covenants. 

This Indentl'BE, made this eighteenth day of June, in the year of 
our Lord one thousand eight hundred and seventy-eight, between John 
Wilson, of Newton, county of Sussex, State of New'Jersej', and Charlotte, 
his wife, of the first part, and Peter Cimniugham of tlie same x>la.ce, ol 
the second part. 

'WITNESSETH, that the said party of the first part, for and iu consider- 
ation of the sum of two thousand dollars in hand, well and truly jpaid 
by the said party of the second part, the receipt whereof is hereby ac- 
knowledgai, have granted, bargained, and sold, and by these presents do 
grant, bargain, and sell, unto the said party of the second part, his heirs 
and assigns, all the following described lot, piece, jjarcel or tract of laud 
situated iu the town of Newton, couutj^ of Sussex, and State of New 
Jersey, to wit: (Here describe the propertrj.) 

Together with all and singular the hereditaments and appurtenances 
thereunto belongmg or in any wise ap])ertaining, and the reversion aud 
reversions, remainder and remainders, rents, issues, aud profits thereof ; 
and all the estate, right, title, interest, claim and demand Avhatsoever, of 
the said party of the first part, either in law or equit}", of, in, and to, the 
above-bargained premises, wath the hereditaments and appurtenances: 
To HAVE AND TO HOLD the Said premises above bargained and described, 
with the appurtenances, unto the said party of the second part, his heirs 
and assigns, for ever. Aud the said John Wilson, and Charlotte Wilson, 
his wife, parties of the first part, hereby expressly waive, release, and 
relinquish unto the said party of the first x^art, his heirs, executors, ad- 
ministrators and assigns, all right, title, claim, benefit, and interest what- 
ever, in, and to the above-described premises, and each and everj- part 
thereof, which is given by or results from, all laws of this State pertain- 
ing to the exemption of homesteads. 

And the said John Wilson aud Charlotte Wilson, his wife, party of the 
first part, for themselves and their heirs, executors, and administrators, 
do covenant, grant, bargain, and agree, to and with the said party of the 
second part, his heirs and assigns, that at the time of the ensealing and 
deliver}-- of these presents they were well seized of the premises above 
conveyed, as of a good, sure, perfect, absolute aud indefeasible estate of 
inheritance, in law and in fee simple, and have good right, full jwwer, 
and lawful authority to grant, bargain, sell, aud convey the same, iu man- 
ner and form aforesaid, and that the same are fi'ee and clear from al] 
former and other grants, bargains, sales, liens, taxes, judgments, assess- 



BUSINESS FORMS. 813 

meuts, and incumbrances of what kind or nature soever: and the above- 
bargauied premises in the quiet and peaceable ix>ssession of the said party 
of the second part, his heirs and assigns, against all and every or persona 
lawfully claiming or to claim the whole or any part thereof, the said 
party of the first part shall and will warrant and forever defend. 

In testimony whereof, the said parties of the first part have hereunto 
set their hands and seals the day and year first above written. 

JOHNT WILSON, (L.S.) 

„. , CHARLOTTE AVILSON, (L.S. ) 

Signed, sealed and deliv- ) 

ered in presence of I 

Hexry Xelson. I 

Robert Reid. ) 

No. 41. AclcHowledgment of Deed. 

Sussex County, X. J. 

On the eighteenth day of June, one thousand eight hundred and 
seventy-eight, personally appeared before me .John Wilson, and Charlotte, 
his wife, whom I know to be the persons described in, and who executed 
the within instrument, and who severally acknowledged that they execu- 
ted the same : the said Charlotte being by me examined separate and apart 
from her husband, acknowledged that she executed the same freely, and 
without fear or compulsion from him. 

PHILIP HUNTER, J. P. 

Minute of liecord. 

Recorded in the Clerk's office of 
the County of Sussex, in Liber 
45, p. 81, 'of Mortgages, 18th 
June, 1878, at 30 minutes past 
2 IX m. 

RoBEKT Watts, Register. 

No. 42. Mortgage of Land to secure Payment of Money. 

This Indenture, made the tenth day of April, one thousand eight 
hundred and sevent.y-eight, between John Hunter, of Dorset, county of 
Bennington, State of Vermont, merchant, and Margaret, his Avife, of 'the 
first part, and William West, of the same place, agent, of the second 
part: Whereas, the said John Hunter is justly indebted to the said party 
of the second part, in the sum of five thousand dollars, lawful money of 
the United States, secured to be paid bj- Iiis certain bond or obligation, 
bearing even date with these presents, in the penal sum of ten thou- 
sand dollars, lawful money as aforesaid, conditioned for the payment of 
the first-mentioned sum of five thousand dollars, as by the said bond or 
obligation, and the condition thereof, reference being thereunto had, may 
more fully appear. Xow this Indenture Witnesseth, that the said 
parties of the first part, for the better securing of the said sum of money 
mentioned in the condition of the said bond or obligation, with interest 
thereon, according to the true intent and meaning thereof, and also for and 
in considerationof thesumof onedollartome in hand paid by the said party 
of the second part, at, or before the ensealing and delivery of these pres- 
ents, the receipt whereof is liereby acknowledged, have granted, bargained, 
sold, aliened, released, convej'ed, and confirmed, and by these presents 
do grant, bargain, sell, alien, release, convey, and confirm, nnto the said 
party of the second part, and to his heirs and assigns for ever, all that 



814 



BUSINESS FORMS. 



certain piece, parcel, or lot of land, situate, lying, and being: {Here describe 
premises. ) To have and to hold the same^ together with all and singular 
the tenements, hereditaments, and appurtenances thereunto belonging, 
or in any wise appertaining, and the revereion and reversions, remainder 
and remainders, rents, issues and profits thereof; And also, all the estate, 
right, title, interest, dower, propertj^ possession, claim, and demand 
whatsoever, as well in law as in equitj"^, of the said parties of the first 
part, of, in, and to the same, and every part and parcel thereof, with the 
appurtenances. To have and to hold the above granted and described 
premises, with the appurtenances, unto the said party of the second part, 
his heirs and assigns, to his and their proper use, benefit, and behoof for- 
ever. Provided always, and these presents are upon this express con- 
dition, that if the said j)arty of the first part, his heirs, executors and 
assigns, shall well and truly pay or cause to be paid unto the said party 
of the second part, his executors, administrators or assigns, the said sum 
of money mentioned in the condition of the said bond or obligation, and 
the interest thereon, at the time, and in the manner mentioned in the 
said condition, according to tlie true intent and meaning thereof, that 
these iDreseuts and the estate hereby granted shall cease, determine, and 
become null and void. And the said John Hunter, for himself, his heirs, 
executors, and administrators, dotli covenant and agree to pay imto the 
said party of the second part, bis executors, administrators, or assigns, 
the said sum of money and interest, as mentioned above and expressed in 
the said condition of the said bond. And if default shall be made in the 
paj^ment of the said sum of money above mentioned, or the interest that 
may grow due thereon, or of any part thereof, that then, and from 
thencefortli, it shall be laAvf ul for the said party cf the second part, his 
executors, administrators and assigns, to enter into and upon all and 
singular the premises hereby granted, or intended so to be, and to sell 
and dispose of the same, and all benefit and equity of redemption of the 
said party of the first part, his heirs, executors, administrators, or assigns, 
therein, at public auction, according to the act in such case made and 
provided : And as the attorney of the said party of the first part, for that 
purpose by these presents duly authorized, constituted, and appointed, 
to make and deliver to the purchaser or purchasers thereof, a good and 
sufficient deed or deeds of conveyance, in the law for the same in fee 
simple, and, out of the money arising from such sale, to retain the 
principal and interest which shall then be due on the said bond or obliga- 
tion, together with the costs and charges of advertisement and sale of 
the premises, rendering the overplus of the purchase money (if any there 
shall be) unto the said John Hunter, party of the first part, his heirs, ex- 
ecutors, administrators, or assigns, which sale so to be made shall for- 
ever be a perpetual bar, both in law and in equity, against the said party 
of tlie first part, his heirs and assigns, and all other persons claiming or to 
claim the premises, or any part thereof, by, from, or imder, him, them, 
or either of them. 

In avitness whereof, the parties of the first part have hereunto set 
their hands and seals tlie day and year first above Avritten. 

JOH^^ HUNTER, (L.S.) 

MARGARET HUNTER, (L.S.) 

Signed, sealed, and delivered] 

in presence of I 

Thomas Bates, J 

William Bell. J 



BUSINESS FORMS. 815 

No. 43. Form of Satisfaction Piece. 

I, William West, of Dorset, Bennington County, Vermont, do hereby 
certify that a certain mortgage, bearing date the tenth day of AiDril, one 
t'nousaud eight hundred and seventy-eight, made and executed by John 
Hunter, and Margaret, his wife, of the same place, and recorded in the 
office of the Clerk of the county of Bennington, in Liber 45, p. 76, of 
Mortgages, on 10th day of April, 1878, is paid. Dated 1st May, 1878. 

WILLIAM WEST, (L.S.) 
Bennington County, Vermont, SS. : 

Ou the first day of May, 1878, before me came William West, to me 
personally known to be the individual described in, and who executed 
the above certificate, and acknowledged that he executed tlie same. 

JOHN HAMPDEM, J. P. 
No. 44. Assignment of Mortgage. 

Know all men by these Pkesents, that I, AVilliam West, of Dor- 
set, county of Bennington, State of Vermont, agent, of the first part, for 
and in consideration of the sum of five thousand dollars, lawful money 
of the United States, to. me in hand paid by John Howard, of the same 
place, farmer, of the second part, at or before the ensealing and delivery 
of these presents, the receipt whereof is hereby aclaiowledged, have 
granted, bargained, sold, assigned, transferred, and set over, and by 
these presents do grant, bargain, sell, assign, transfer, and set over, unto 
the said party of the second part, his heirs and assigns, a certain inden- 
ture of mortgage, bearing date the 10th day of April, one thousand eight 
hundred and seventy-eight, made by John Hunter, and Margaret, his 
wife, and recorded in the office of the Register of the county of Benning- 
ton, State of Vermont, in Liber 36, of Mortgages, p. 50, togetlier with 
the bond or obligation thereto belonging, and the money due, and to be- 
come due thereon, with the interest, To have and to hold the same 
unto the said party of the second part, his heirs, administrators and 
assigns for ever, subject only to the proviso in the said Indenture of 
Mortgage mentioned. And I do hereby make, constitute, and appoint 
the said part}' of the second part, my true and lawful attorney irrevocable, 
in my name or otherwise, but at his own proper costs and charges, to have, 
use and take, all lawful ways and means for the recovery of the said 
money, and interest, and, in case of payment, to discharge the same as 
fully as I might or could do if these presents were not made. 

In "WITNESS avhereof, I have hereunto set my hand and seal, the 
first day of Maj-, one thousand eight hundred and seventj-eight. 

WILLIAM WEST, (L.S.) 
In presence of ) 

Duncan Forbes, > 
John Reid, ) 

Note. — Deeds, mortgages, and assignments of mortgages should be 
put on record in the Register's office without delay after being executed. 
I'he foregoing forms (as well as the following) are suitable for either 
the United States or Canada. 

No. 45. Form of Will for Real and Personal Property. 

I, Joseph Knight, of the city of Toronto, county of York, and Prodnce 
of Ontario, grocer, realizing the uncertainty of life, and being of feeble 



816 BUSINESS FORMS. 

health, but of sound mind, memory, and judgment, do make and declare 
this to he my last will and testament iu manner and form following, to 
wit: 

First, I give, c'emise, and bequeath unto my eldest son, Robert Knight, 
the sura of four thousand dollars, now on deposit in the Bank of Mon- 
treal, together with my grocery store at No. street, Avith all the 

tenements and improvements thereto belonging: to have and to hold 
unto my said son, his heirs and assigns forever. 

Second, I give and bequeath unto my beloved wife, Charlotte, abso- 
lutely, the house in which I now reside, at No. street, together 

with all the furniture therein, including piano, organ, linen, china, the 
plate, wearing apparel, etc., together with ten thousand dollars in Bank 
stock and Railway bonds, now lodged in my safe ; the Same to be iu lieu 
of her dower at common law. 

Third, I give and bequeath to my invalid mother, Ellen Knight, the 
income and rents from my farm in Scarboro during the term of her natu- 
ral life. Said farm to revert to my sons and daughters iu equal propor- 
tion upon the demise of my said mother. 

Fourth, I give and bequeath unto my youngest son, Joseph Knight, 

three thousand dollars, also my tenement house on street, with all 

the improvements thereto belonging; to have and to hold unto my said 
son, his heirs and assigns forever. 

Fifth, I give and bequeath the sum of one thousand dollars to my 
executors, to be equally divided between them, iu full, for all services in 
the matter of the execution of this my last will and testament. 

Sixth, I direct that my debts and funeral expenses be paid from moneys 
now on deposit to my credit in Savings Bank of Toronto, the bal- 
ance of such money, together with all the rest and residue of my estate, 
to my three daughters,' Mary, Ellen, and Isabella, to be equally' divided 
between them for their use forever. 

I hereby nominate and appoint David Watersou, Robert Ford, and 
James Thomson, the executors of this my last will and testament, and re- 
voke all other and former wills made and executed by me. 

Iisr WITNESS WHEREOF I have hereunto set my hand and seal this tenth 
day of April, one thousand eight hundred and seventy-eight. 

JOSEPH KNIGHT, (L.S.) 
Sighed, sealed, published, 
declared and acknowl- 
edged, by the above- 
named testator, to be his 
last will and testament, 
in our presence, and Ave 
each, at his request, and 
in his presence, and in 
the presence of each 
other, subscribe our 
names as witnesses. 
Alexander Adam, 75 

King St., Toronto. 
Thomas Robson, 214 

Yonge St. , Toronto. 
Adam Clark,95 Adelaide 
St., Toronto. 



BUSINESS FORMS. 817 

XoTE. — The provisions of a will should, in every case, be so clearly 
defined that there can be no mistake about the meaning. Any i^erson of 
proper age, and sound judgment may convey property by -will. All lega- 
tees are debarred by law from witnessing wills in which they are int'er- 
csted; their signature would nullify the wliole instrument, ancl no person 
can serve as executor if he be under 21 years of age, iv lunatic, convict, 
imbecile, or an alien at the time of proving the will. The father may ap- 
Doint his wife, son, brother, or any other relative as executor, and each 
in their turn may do likewise, as confidence may exist. An addition to 
tlie will, called a codicil, designed to modify, add to, or change previous 
bequests, may be executed at anytime, but in every case it must be ren- 
dered as definite and precise as the will itself, witnessing included. 

No. 46. Agreement for the Sale and Purchase of Land. 

This aosreetviext, made and executed the first day of May, one 
thousand eight hundred and seventy-eight, between Charles Giles, of 
Kingston, L'lster county. State of New York, farmer, of the first part, 
and Thomas Kingman, of the city of New York, milkman, of the second 
l)art. 

WITNESSETH, that the said part}- of the first part, for and in consider- 
ation of the sum of three thousand dollars (to him promised to be paid), 
of which the sum of five hundred dollars is now paid, the receipt of 
which is hereb\- acknowledged, and the remaining twenty-five hundred 
dollars is hereby agreed to be paid at the time the deed hereinafter men- 
tioned is given, hath contracted and agreed to sell to the said party of the 
second part, all that certain piece, parcel, or tract of land situate in the 
town of Kingston, county of Ulster, and State of New York, aforesaid, 
known and described on the map made by Thomas Adams, surveyor, and 
filed in the Clerk's office of the said county. October o, 1830, [by the 
number (47) forty-seven,] and bounded and described as follows : {Here 
describe property). And the said part}* of the first part agrees to execute 
and deliver to the said party of the second part, a warranty deed, with 
full covenants, for the said described lands : Provided, and upon condi- 
tion nevertheless, that the said party of the second part, his heirs and 
assigns, pay to the said party of the first part, his heirs or assigns, for the 
said land, the sum of three thousand dollars, lawful money of the United 
States, in the waj^ and manner following, to wit: 

{Here specify the amount and dates of payments.) 

AxD the said party of the second part, for himself, his heirs, execu- 
tors, and administrators, doth covenant and agree, to and with the said 
])arty of the first part, his heirs and assigns, that the said party of the 
second part will pay the said several sums as they become due, without 
any deduction for taxes or assessments whatever: And it is further agreed 
between the parties to these presents, that, if default be made in fulfilling 
this agreement, or any part thereof, on the part of the said party of the 
second part, then, anci in such case, the said party of the first part, his 
heirs and assigns, shall be at liberty to consider this cancelled, and the 
money alreadV paid forfeited, and to dispose of the said land to any other 
])erson in the same manner as if this contract had never been made. 

In witness whereof, we have hereunto set our hands and seals the 
dav and year first above Avritten. 

CHARLES GILES. (L.S.) 
Signed, sealed, and deliv- ) THOM A S KINGMAN, ( L. S. ^ 

cred in presence of 
STp:rHEN Hamilton. 



818 BUSINESS FORMS. 

No. 47. Power of Attorney , General Form. 

Know all men by these presents, that I, Robert Grant, of Brook- 
Ij-n, iu the comity of Kings, and State of New York, merchant, liave 
made, constituted and api)ointed, and by these presents do make, consti- 
tute and appoint, Tliomas Bannerman, of the city of Hamilton, in the 
county of Wentworth, and province of Ontario, a true and lawful attor- 
ney for me, and in my name, i^lace and stead, and in my behalf, to (here 
insert the duties to be performed), hereby giving and granting unto my 
said attorney full power and authority in the premises to use all lawful 
means in my name and for my sole benefit, for the purposes aforesaid. 
And generally to do and perform all and every act and thing whatsoever, 
requisite and necessary to be done in and about the premises, as fully to 
all intents and purposes as I might or could do if personally present, with 
full power of substitution and revocation, hereby ratifying and confirm- 
ing all that my said attornej^, or his substitute, shall lawfully do, or cause 
to be done, by virtue hereof. 

In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and seal this first 
day of May, one thousand eight hundred and seventy-eight. 

ROBERT GRANT, (L.S.) 
Signed and sealed in presence of ) 
David Scott. | 

Note. — In cases where the attornej^ is empowered to sell land and 
grant deeds, the power of attorney must be placed on record in the 
County Register's oflfice. 

No. 48. Agreement for Building a House. 

Articles of Agreement, made the first day of June, one thousand 
eight hundred and seventy-eight, between John Hall, of Lockport, in the 
county of Niagara, and State of New York, of tlie first part, and George 
Hunter of the said town, county and State, of the second part. 

WITNESSETH, that the said John Hall, party of the first part, for con- 
siderations hereinafter noted, contracts, bargains, and agrees with the 
said George Hunter, party of the second part, his heirs, assigns, and ad- 
ministrators, that he the said Hall, will within four months, next follow- 
ing this date, in a good and workmanlike manner, and according to his 
best skill, well and substantially erect and finish a three-story brick 

dwelling house on lot No. — street, which said house is to be of 

the following dimensions, with brick, stone, lumber, and other materials, 
as described in the plans and specifications hereunto annexed. 
{Here describe buildings, material, plan, &c., in full. 

In consideration of which, the said George Hunter does, for himself 
and legal representatives, promise to pay to the said John Hall, his heirs, 
executors, and assigns, the sum of six thousand dollars, in the way and 
manner following, to wit: One thousand dollars at tlie beginning of said 
work, one thousand dollars on the first day of August next, one thou- 
sand dollars on the first day of September next, and the remaining three 
thousand dollars on the completion of the building. 

It is also agreed that the said John Hall, or his legal representatives, 
shall furnish, at his or their expense, all brick, stone, lime, lumber, doors, 
blinds, glazed sash, window frames, nails, paint, and other materials re- 
quired for the building and finishing of said house. 

It is further stijuilated that in order to be entitled to said pajnnents, 
the said John Hall, or his legal representatives-, shall, according to the 
jirchitect's appraisement, have expended, in labor and material, the 
value of said payments, on the house, at time of ixayment. 



BUSINESS FORMS. 819 

And for the true and faithful performance of nil and every of the 
covenants and agreements above mentioned, the i)arties to these presents 
covenant and agree, each with the other, that the sum of one tliousand 
dolkirs, as fixed, settled, and liquidated damages, shall be paid to the 
other by the failing party within one month from the time of so failing. 

Ix WITNESS w'HEREOF wc have hereunto set our hands the year and 
day first above written . 

JOHN" HALL, 
GEORGE HUNTER. 

Note. — Agreements should be executed in duplicate so that each party 
may hold a copy. If erasures or interlineations are made in agreements, 
conti'acts, deeds, mortgages, etc., the fact should be stated on the paper 
that they were so done before the i)arties signed it. Amounts and dates 
should always be written out, and not expressed in figures. Fraud viti- 
ates cvenj contract into which it enters. See legal brevities on page 
587. 

No. 49. Assignment of a Patent-Bight, 

"Whereas T, David Ritchie, of the city of Newark, in the county of 
Essex, and State of New Jersey, engineer, did obtain letters-patent of 
the United States for improvements in steam-engine governors, which 
letters-patent bear date the first day of April, one thousand eight hun- 
dred and seventy-eight ; and whereas Peter Jackson, of the uty of To- 
ronto, in the county of York, and Province of Ontario, is desirous of pur- 
chasing from me all the riglit, title, and i]iterest, which I have in and to 
said invention, in consequence of the grant of letters-patent therefor : 

Now THIS Indenture witnesseth, that for and in consideration of 
the sum of one thousand dollars, laAvful money of the United States, to 
me in hand paid, the receipt of which is herebj'^ acknowledged, I have 
assigned, sold, and set over, and do hcrebj^ assign, sell, and set over unto 
the said Peter Jackson, all the right, title and interest which I have in the 
said invention, as secured to me in the said letters-patent (for, to, and in 
the several jn-ovinces of the Dominion of Canada, and in no other place, 
or ])laces. ) 

The same to be held and enjoyed by the said Peter Jackson, for his 
own use and behoof, jind for the use and behoof of his legal representa- 
tives, to the full end of the term for Avhich the said letters-patent are or 
may be granted, as fully and entirely as the same would have been held 
and enjoj-ed hy me had this assignment and sale not been made. 

In testimony whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and seal this 
first day of May, one thousand eight hundred and seventy-eight. 

DAVID RITCHIE, (L.S.) 

Signed, sealed, and deliv- 1 

ered in presence of I 

Robert Logan, [ 

John A. Bruce. J 

Kg. 50. Form of Affidavit, 
State of Vermont, \ a.. -.^ 
County of Rutland. ) ^° ^^"* 

Robert Dawson, of the town of Whitehall, in the county aforesaid, 
being duly sworn, says {here stats the facts), and further says not. 
Sworn to this fifth day of 1 ROBERT DAWSON. 

October, A.D., 1877, before | 
me. f 

John Wallace, 
Commissioner of Deeds, J 



820 BUSINESS FORMS. 

No. 51. Partncrslilp Agreement. 

This Agreement made this first day of January, 1878, "oetweeu 
Thomas Murray of Toronto, York county, Province of Ontario, Domin- 
ion of Canada, of the first part, and John Campbell, of the same place, 
of the second part : witnesseth : That the said parties agree to associate 
themselves as co-partners, for a period of seven years from this date, in 
the business of buying and selling groceries and such other goods and 
commodities as belong in that line" of business ; the name and style of 
the firm to be " Murray & Campbell." For the purpose of conducting 
the business of the above named partnership, the said Murray has at 
the date of this agreement, invested four thousand dollars as capital 
stock, and the said Campbell has paid in the like sum of four thousand 
dollars, both of Avhicli amounts are to be expended and used in common, 
for the mutual advantage of the parties hereto, in the management of 
their business. It is further agreed by both j)arties hereto, that they 
will not, Avhile associated as co-partners, follow any avocation or trade 
to their own private advantage ; but will throughout the entire period 
of copartnership, put forth their utmost and best efforts for their mutual 
advantage, and the increase of the capital stock. 

That the details of the business may be thoroughly understood by 
each other, it is agreed that during the aforesaid period, accurate and 
full book accounts shall be kept, in which each partner shall record, or 
cause to be entered and recorded, full mention of all monies received and 
expended, as well as every article purchased and sold belonging to, or 
in any Avise appertaining to said partnership ; the gains, profits, expen- 
ditures and losses being equally divided between them. 

It is further agreed that once every year, or oftener, should either 
party desire, a full, just, and accurate exhibit shall be made to each 
other, or to their executors, administrators, or assigns, of the losses, re- 
ceipts, profits, and increase made by reason of, or arising from, such co- 
partnership. And after such exhibit is made, the surplus profit, if such 
there be, resulting from the business, shall be divided between said part- 
ners, share and share alike. Either of said parties shall be allowed to 
draw a sum, first year, not exceeding nine hundred dollars per annum, 
from the capital stock of the firm, in monthly instalments of seventy-five 
dollars each, which amount may be varied, more or less, by subsequent 
agreement. And furtner, should either partner desire, or should death 
of either of the parties, or other reasons, make itnecessary, they, the said 
copartners, will each to the other, or. in case of dentli of either, the sur- 
viving partner to the executors or administrators of the party deceased, 
make a full, accurate, and final account of the condition of the partner- 
ship as aforesaid, and Avill fairly and accurately adjust the same. 
And, also, upon taking an inventory of the said capital stock, with in- 
crease and profit thereon, which shall appear or is found to be remaining 
all such remainder shall be equally apportioned and divided between 
them, the said copartners, their executors, or administrators, share and 
share alike. 

It is also agreed that in case of a misundenstandingarising with the part- 
ners aforesaid, which cannot be settled between themselves, such differ- 
ence of opinion shall be settled by arbitrators upon the following condi- 
tions, viz, : Each i>arty to choose one arbitrator, which two thus elected 
shall choose a third ; the tliree thus chosen to determine the merits of 
the case, and adjust the basis of a settlement. 

In witness whereof the parties aforesaid hereunto set their hands and 
seals the day and year first above written, 

Signed in tlie presence of 

John Stewart, Thomas Murray, [L, S. 

Geo. Smjth, John Campbell. [L. S. 



BUSIlSrESS FORMS. 821 

No. 52. Assignment for the Benefit of Creditors. 

Kuow all men by these presents, that I, John Carrie, of the Town of 
Rutland, County of Riithmd, and State of Vermont, for value received, 
Lave sold, and by these presents do grant, sell, assign, and convey unto 
John Davidson, otthe same place, all the accounts, debts, dues, notes, 
bills, and demands enumerated and specified in the schedule hereunto 
annexed, and marked " Scliedule A. ;" {tliz schedule should state the as- 
signment to lohich they belong, andbe dated and signed by the x)artiesfor 
the purpose of identification), to have and to hold the same, unto the said 
John Davidson, his heirs and assigns : In trust to collect, sue for, de- 
mand, receive, and recover all such sums of money as may be due, 
owing, and payable thereon ; and after paying all reasonable a]Kl 
proper costs, charges and expenses, to pay to each and all of my credi- 
tors the full sum that may be due and owing to them from me, of whom 
the said John Davidson is one, and a full and complete list of whom with 
the true amount due to each, is contained in the schedule hereto annexed, 
inarked " Schedule B- ; '' and if the proceeds of the said notes, accounts, 
bonds, and so forth, be not sufficient fully and entirely to pay off. and 
satisfy each and all of my creditors, then to pay them pro rata in pro- 
portion to the amount due and owing to each. And if the proceeds as 
aforesaid shall be more than sufficient to pay every one of my creditors, 
then to pay and return to me the balance that may be left, if any, after 
paying all my creditors as aforesaid. 

And I do hereby noniinate, constitute, and appoint, the said John 
Davidson m^" true and lawful attorney, irrevocable, in my name or other- 
wise, for the purpose aforesaid, to ask, demand, sue for, collect, receive, 
and recover, all and singular, such sum or sums of money as now or 
hereafter may become due, upon, for, or on account of any of the j)roi>- 
erty, effects, things in action, or demands above assigned ; giving and 
granting unto my said attorney full power and authority to do and per- 
form evei"y act, deed, and thing, requisite and necessary in the premises; 
as fully, to all intents and purposes, as 1 might or could' do if this assign- 
ment had not been made ; witli full power of substitution and revoca- 
tion, hereby ratifying and confirming all that my said attorney or his 
substitute may lawfully do, or cause to be done, in the premises, by 
virtue hereof. 

In witness whereof I have hereunto set my liand and seal this fifth day 
of October, 1878. 

Signed, sealed, and delivered^ JoHX Curbie, [L. S.] 

In the presence of 

Robert Palmeb, 

Peteb Sheldon. 

No. 53, Form of Compositton with Creditors. 

Note. — The following shows the form of a contract between a debtor 
who is only able to i^ay a portion of his debts, with his (creditors, where- 
by they agree to accept a certain sum less than the original claim ; and, 
upon receipt thereof, not to prosecute or trouble the debtor on account 
of his debt. 

Kxow All Men by these Presents, that whereas John Smashwell, 
is justly indebted to us, Robert Rogers, Andrew J. Reid, and Henry Mid- 
dleton, creditors of the said John Smashwell, in divers sums of money, 
which he has become unable fully to pay and discharge; therefore Ave, the 
said creditors, do consent and agree with the said John Smashwell, to de- 
mand less than the full amount of our respective claims, and to accept 
of ten cents for every dollar owing to each of us the said creditors of 



822 BUSINESS FORMS 

the said John Smashwell, in full satisfaction and discharge of our sev- 
eral claims and demands ; the said sum of ten cents on a dollar, to be 
paid to each of us, our heirs, executors, and administrators, within the 
space of thirteen months from the date hereof. And -vve, the creditors 
aforesaid, do further severally and respectively covenant and agree Avith 
the said John Smashwell, that he may, witliiu the said term of thirteen 
months from tlie date hereof, sell and dispose of his goods and chattels, 
wares and merchandise, at his own free will and ijleasure, for the pay- 
ment of the ten cents on the dollar of each of our respective debts, and 
that neither of us will at any time hereafter sue, arrest or attach the 
said John Smashwell, or his goods and chattels, for any debt now due 
and owing to us or any of us, provided the said John Smashwell does 
w^ell and truly pay, or cause to be paid, the said ten cents for every^ dol- 
lar of each of our several and respective claims against him. And all 
and each of the covenants and agreements herein contained shall extend 
to and bind our several executors, administrators, and assigns. 

In witness whereof, we hereunto set our hands and seals this 
fifteenth day of November, one thousand eight hundred and seventy- 
eight. 
■ Signed, sealed, and delivered, Robert Rogers, [L.S.] 

In tlie presence of Andrew J. Reid, [L.S.] 

Thomas Barclay, Henry Middleton. [L.S.] 

John Thompson. , 

No. 54. Agreement for the Hirinrj of a Clerk or Workman. 

This agreement made the first day of October, one thousand eight 
hundred and seventy-eight, between Andrew Service of Niagara Falls, 
in the county of Niagara and State of New York, of the first imrt, and 
Thomas Merchant, of the city of Buffalo, in the county of Erie and State 
aforesaid, of the second part — 

WITNESSETH, that the said Andrew Service has agreed to 'enter the 
service of the said Thomas Merchant as clerk (journeyman, mechanic or 
laborer, as the case may be) in the store, {or factory, &c.) of the said 
Thomas Merchant, and faithfully, honestly, carefully, and truly obey, 
and to the utmost of his power serve the best interests of the said 
Tliomas Merchant, for and during tlie space of one year from the date of 
this agreement, for the compensation of six hundred dollars per annum, 
payable quarterly. 

And the said Thomas Merchant covenants with the said Andrew Ser- 
vice, that he will receive him as his clerk {or joxirneyman, <&c.)forthe 
term of one year as aforesaid, and will pay him for his services as such 
qIgxI^ {or journeyman, (fee.) the sum of six hundred doDars annually in 
quarter yearly payments. 

In witness whereof we have hereunto set our hands and seals the day 
and year first above written. 
. Signed, sealed, and delivered, 

In the presence of 
John W. Watson, Andrew Service, [L. S.] 

Wii,LiAM Strong, Thomas Merchant. [L. b.] 

Note.'— To prevent troublesome lawsuits and quarrels, it is often de- 
sirable to fix the damages for the violation of contracts. This may be 
done by inserting the following, just before the witnessing clause. 

And it is further agreed between the parties hereto, that the 
party that shall fail to jjerform this agreement on his part will pay to 
the other the full sum of sixty dollars^ as liquidated, fixed, and settled 
damages. 



BUSINESS FORMS. 823 

No. 55. Apprentices^ Indentures. 

This Indenture "Witnesseth, that Robert Hill, now aged sixteen 
Ycars, by and with the consent of his fatlier, Tliomas Hill, hath volun- 
tarily, and by his own free will and accord, put and bound himself ap- 
l)rentice unto Moses Goldsmith, of No. — Maiden Lane, New York, 
jeweller, to learn the art, trade, and mystery of the business of working 
and manufacturing the precious metals, and as an apprentice to serve 
from this date, for and during, and until the full end and term of six 
years next ensuing, during all of which time the said apprentice his 
master faithfully, honestly, and industriously shall serve, his secrets 
keep, all lawful commands obej'^, and at all times protect and preserve the 
goods and property of his said master, and not suffer or allow any to be 
injured or wasted ; he shall not buy, sell, or traffic with his own goods, 
or the goods of others, and not be absent from his master's service day 
nor night Avithout leave, and in all things behave himself as a faithful 
apprentice ought to do during the said term. And the said master shall 
use and emploj^ the utmost of his endeavors to teach or cause him, the 
said apprentice, to be taught, or instructed in the art, trade, and mys- 
tery of a jew^eller as aforesaid, {here insert conditions as to board and 
lodgings, rate of icages, time of payment, &c., as agreed betiveen the par- 
ties. ) 

And for the true performance of all and singular the covenants and 
agreements aforesaid, the said parties bind themselves firmly, each to the 
other firmly by these presents. 

In witness whereof, the parties aforesaid have hereunto set their 
hands and seals the twenty -fifth day of October, one thousand eight 
hundred and seventy-eight. 

Signed, sealed and delivered, Robert Hill,, [L. S.] 

In the presence of Moses Goldsmith. [L. S.] 

William Gordon, 
Thomas Workman. 

I do hereby consent to and approve the binding of my son, Robert 
HiU, as in the above indenture meutioued. 

Thomas Hill. 

No. 50. Agreement of Teacher with School Trustees. 

This agreement, made this first day of November, one thousand 
eight hundred and seventy-eight, between Peter Whackboy, of the vil- 
lage of Stanley, county of York, Province of New Brunswick, Dominion 
of Canada, school teacher, of the first part, and David Brown, John Sau- 
som, and "VVilliam Currie, of the village, count}', i^rovince, dominion 
aforesaid, school trustees, of the second part. 

WITNESSETH, that the said Peter Wliackboy, holding a certificate 
from the proper authority as a duly qualified first class teacher, has 
agreed to enter the service of the said school trustees as teacher in the 
common school in said village, and that he Avill faithfully, honestly, and 
diligently reuder his best services in teaching and instructing the chil- 
dren, and all others in attendance on said scliool, imparting to them, ac- 
cording to the best of his ability, a thorough knowledge of reading, 
Avriting, arithmetic, grammar, and the other English branches usually 
taught in common schools, and further, that he will, by every means in 
Jus power, maintain good morals, order, and discipline, and discounte- 
nance immorality among the attendants at said school, and will faithfully 
obey all reasonable wishes and commands of the said ti'ustees, forand 
during the space of one year from tlie first day of December next, for the 
compensation of twelve hundred dollars per annum, payable quarterly. 

And the said David Brown, John Sausoni, and William Currie, covenant 



824 BUSINESS FORMS. 

Avith the said Peter Wliackboy that they will engage him as teacher in 
said school for tlie term of one year as aforesaid, and will pay him for 
liis services as such teacher the sum of twelve hundred dollars i^er au- 
inim. in quarter yearly payments. 

In witness whereof, we have hereunto set our hands and seals the 
day and year first above written. 

"^Signed, sealed, and delivered, Peter Whackboy, [L. S.] 

In the presence of David Brown, [L. S] 

David R. Moore, John Sansom, [L. S.] 

David Potter. William Currie, [L. S.] 

No. 57. Form of Marriage. 

In conformity to an orderly and long established custom the ceremony 
of marriage is usually performed either by a clergyman or civil magis- 
trate ; the latter may be a justice of the peace, a justice of the supreme 
court, a judge of an inferior court,the mayor of a city, or a police justice, 
as the law of the land may empower and authorize them to solemnize mar- 
riage. In Canada and some of the States, a license to marry must first 
be procured of the cit}^, town, or county clerk, or other agent appointed 
for that purpose, duly authorizing the clergyman or magistrate to marry 
the affianced parties. Marriage is a civil contract, and may be entered 
into by parties capable of consenting thereto. It cannot be entered into 
by idiots or lunatics. When brought about by force or fraud, it is also 
void. Marriage is likewise prohibited between near relations. The par- 
ties must be of the age of consent, which is generally fourteen in males, 
and twelve in females. No particular ceremonies are enjoined by the 
common law to the valid celebration of the marriage rite, but the follow- 
ing form is in common use by magistrates in the United States. 

Form of Marriage. 

(TJie man and looman standing, the justice loill say to the man :) 

"■ Will you have this woman to be your wedded wife, to live together 
after God's ordinance, in the holy estate of Matrimony, to love her, com- 
fort her. honor and keep her, in sickness and in health, and forsaking 
all others, keep thee only unto her, so long as you both shall live ? " 

{^ext, addressing the looman, the justice will say :) 
"Will you have this man to be your wedded husband, to live together 
after God's ordinance, in the holy estate of matrimony, to love, honor, 
and keep him, in sickness and in health, and forsaking all others, keep 
thee only to him so long as you both shall live ? " 

{Each party responding in the affirmative, the justice ivill then direct 
them to join hands and say :) 

" By the act of joining hands you take upon yourselves the relation 
of husband and wife, and solemnly- promise and engage in the presence 
of these witnesses, to love, honor, comfort, and cherish each other as 
such, so long as you both shall live ; therefore in accordance with the 

laws of the State of '■ , I do hereby pronounce you husband and 

wife." 

No. 58. Short Form of Marriage. 

{On the contracting parties rising and joining hands the justice icill 
say :) 

" By this act of joining hands you do take upon yourselves the relation 
of husband and wife, and solemnly promise and engage, in the presence 
of these witnesses, to love, honor, comfort, and cherish each other as 



FORM OF MARRIAGE CERTIFICATE, ETC. 825 

such, as lon<r as j-ou both shall live ; therefore in accordance with the 

laws of the State of , I do hereby pronounce j'ou husband and 

wife." 

Tiie form used by clergymen varies but very slightly from the fore- 
going ; to all intents and purposes it is the same, although the wording 
may be modified according to the mode prescribed by the denomination 
to which the clergyman may belong. The marriage license must be re- 
turned by the clergyman or magistrate to the issuing cleric for record, 
who should also at the time of issue, furnish a blank marriage certificate to 
be filled by the magistrate or clergyman at the conclusion of the ceremo- 
ny. The certificate, which should, for obvious rea.sons, be always most' 
carefully preserved by both husband and wife, may be in the following 
form 

No. 59. Marria.ffe Certificate. 

MARRIAGE CERTIFICATE. 

State of Michigan, Wayne County. 

This certifies 
That John Goodfellow, of Cliicago, in the State of Illinois, and Sarah 
Lovejo}' of Detroit, Wayne county, State of Michigan, were attlie house 
of John Splicewell, in the said city and county by me joined togetlier in 

HOLY MATRIMONY, 

On the tenth day of January, in the year of our Lord, one thousand 
eight hundred and seventj'-seven. 

In the presence of " Gamaliel Bangtext, 

Timothy Courtwell, Pastor of the First Church, 

Thomas Hopegood. Detroit. 

On Legal Advice. — Lord Mansfield considered a clear understand- 
ing of the duties of men in society as the true basis of legal science. He 
says : "I may cite one of the ablest lawyers of this century, who, to 
strong natural sense, united to largest exi^^rience, for a similar oj^inion — 
my honored master, the late Mr. Tidd. I well remember the advice he 
gave to a pupil who was about to commence practice : ' AVhen you are 
called upon for your opinion, make yourself perfectly familiar with all 
the facts, and then consider what is right. You may be pretty sure that 
is the law, without looking much into cases. Wlien once the facts are 
well ascertained, few persons differ in opinion as to the result of a civil 
action.'" 

Prayer of Dr. Samuel Johnson when he was about to commence the 
study of Law, September 2G, 1765. 

Almighty God, the Giver of Wisdom, without whose help 
resolutions are vain, "without whose blessing study is ineffectual, 
enable me, if it be Thy will, to attain such knowledge as may 
qualify me to direct the doubtful and instruct the ignorant, to 
prevent wrong and terminate contention ; and grant that I may 
use that knowledge which I shall attain to Thy glory and ray 
own salvation, for Thy blessed Name's sake. Amen. 



826 



VALUK OF CURRENT COINS. 



Ct'KKEXT COINS OF THE PEINCIFAL COUUEKCIAL COUNTKIES, WITH TIIEIE YALL'K IN 
U.S- DOLLABS, CENTS AND MILLS. 





D.C.M. 


Austria, Gold, Quadruple Ducat, 


12 


" " Ducat, 


2 27 5 


" " Sovereign (for Lombardy),6 75 


" Silver, Rix Dollar, 


!)7 


. " " Florin, 


48 5 


" " 20 Kreutzers, 


16 


" " Lira (for Loiubardy) 


IG 


Baden, Gold, 5 Gulden, 


2 04 


" Silver, Crown, 


1 07 


" " Gulden, or Florin, 


39 5 


Bavaria, Gold, Ducat, 


2 27 


" Silver, Crown, 


1 0« 5 


" " Florin, 


39 5 


" " 6 Kreutzers, 


03 


Belgium, Gold, 20 Franc piece, 


3 8'i 2 


" " 25 Franc piece, 


4 72 


Silver, .5 Francs, 


C 1>3 


" " '2)4 Francs, 


40 5 


" " 2 Francs, 


37 


" " 1 Franc, 


18 5 


Bolivia, Gold, Doubloon, 


15 58 


Silver, Dollar, 


1 00 c 


" X Dollar (debased 18'K)) 


.0 37 5 


" X Dollar (debased 1830) 


, 18 7 


Brazil, Gold. Piece of C,400 Keis, 


8 72 


" Silver, 1,200 Reis, 


99 


" " 800 Reis, 


CO 


" " 400 Reis, 


3;^ 


Bremen Silver, 3G Grote, 


35 G 


Britain, Gold, Sovereign, 

Silver, Half Crown, 


4 84 5 


54 


" Shilling. 


21 7 


Brunswick Gold, Ten Thaler, 


7 89 


Silver Thaler, 


G8 


Central America, Gold, Doubloon, 


14 9G 


" " Escudo, 


1 G7 


" Silver, Dollar, 


G7 


Costa Rica, Gold, Half Doubloon, 1850 


, 7 G2 


" Silver, New Real, 


05 8 


Chili, Gold, Doubloon (before \Sr,5), 


15 57 


" " Doubloon (since 1835), 


15 GG 


" Silver, DoUai:, 


1 01 


" " >^ Dollar, 


22 4 


" " X Dollar or Real, 
Denmark, Gold. Doub Fred, or 10 Thai 


11 2 


.7 88 


" Silver, Rigsbank Dalcr, 


52 3 


" " Specie Daler, 


1 04 7 


'• " .S2 Skillings, 
Ecuador, Gold, X Doubloon, 


17 


7 GO 


Silver, k Dollar, 
Egypt, Gold, 100 Piasters, 


18 7 


4 97 


" Silver, 20 Piasters, 


96 


France, Gold, 20 Francs, 


3 a'> 


" Silver, 5 Francs, 


93 


'» " Franc, 


18 5 


Frankfort, Silver, Florin, 


39 5 


Greece, Gold, 20 Drachms, 


3 45 


" Silver. Drachm, 


IG 5 


Guiana, Br., Silver, Guilder, 


26 2 


Hanover, Gold, 10 Thaler, 


7 89 


" Silver, Thaler (fine silver), 


C9 2 


" Thaler (750 fine). 


68 


Hayti, Silver, Dollar (100 centimes). 


25 7 


Hesse Cassel, Silver Thaler, 


G7 5 


"1 Thaler, 


11 



Hesse Darmstadt, Silver, Florin, C 

Hindoostan, Gold, Mohur (£. 1. Co.), 7 

" Silver, Rupee, 

Mecklcnberg, Gold, 10 Thaler, 7 

Mexico, Gold, Doubloon, av. 15 

" Silver, Dollar, av, 1 

Naples. Silver, Scudo, 

Netherland, Gold, Ducat, 2 

" 10 Guilders, 4 

" Silver, 3 Guilders, 1 

" " Guilder, 

" " Twenty-five cents, 

', " 2>^ Guilders, 

New Granada, Gold, Doubloon, 21 car. 15 

" " including the silver, 15 

" " 9-lOths the stand., 15 

" " including the silver, 15 

Silver, Dollar. U. S. weight, 1 

" " Dollar, or 10 Reals, 

Norway Silver. Rigsdalcr, 1 

Persia, Gold, Soniann, 2 

" Silver, Sahib Koran, 

Peru, Gold, Doubloon, Lima, to 1833, 15 

" " Cuzco, tol833, 15 

" " Cuzco to 1837, 15 

" Silver, Dollar, Lima mint, 1 

" " " Cuzco, 1 

" " J^'Dol., Cuzco, debased, 

" " ^ Dol ., Arequipa " 

" " J? Dollar Pasco, 

Poland, Silver, Zloty, 

Portugal, Gold, Half Joe (full weight), 8 

■ '■ ■" 5 


1 

8 





Crown, 
" Silver, Ouzado, 
" " Crown of 1000 Reis, 

" " Half Crown, 

Prussia, Gold, Double Frederick, 
*' Silver, Thaler, average, 
" " i Thaler, average. 



" D'ble Thai. 3X Gulden, 1 



Rome, Gold, Ten Scudi, 

" Silver, Scudo, 
i " " Seston (3-10 Scudi), 
I Russia, Gold, 5 Roubles, 

" Silver, Rouble, 

" " Ten Zloty, 

" " 30 Copecs, 
Sardinia, Gold, 20 Lire, 

" Silver. 5 Lire, 
Saxony, Gold, 10 Thaler, 

" " Ducat, u 

" Silver Species Thaler, 

" " Thaler (XIV E. M.) 

Siam. Silver, Tical, 

Spain. Gold (Qr. Doubloon), 3 

" Silver. Pistareen (4 Reals Vella), 

Sweden, Silver, Species Thaler, 1 

M Daler. 

Turkey, Gold. 100 Piasters, 4 

" " 20 Piasters (new), 

" Silver. 20 Piasters, " 

Tuscany, Gold, Sequin, 2 

" Silver, Lepoldone, 1 

" " Florin, 

Wurtemburg , Sil ver , G u 1 d f^u . 1 834 . 



C. M. 

39 5 

10 
44 5 

89 
53 

00 r 

94 
26 5 
00 7 

20 

40 
C) 
98 2 
Gl 
CG 
31 
3G 
02 
93 
05 
23 

21 

55 
C2 
5:5 6 

5 
„0 8 

36 
49 5 

11 2 
G5 

81 Q 
.55 2 

12 

56 


C8 

H 

39 

37 
5 

30 
96 7 
75 

13 5 

22 
84 5 

93 2 

94 
26 
96 
68 
53 5 

90 5 
19 5 

04 

r>2 

37 4 

82 
82 
30 

05 
26 2 

38 



The quarter of wheat is equal to the quarter of a ton of 2240 lbs. or 560 lbs. ; 
70 lbs- ill. weight are an English bushel of wheat, while 60 lbs. of wheat make 
our bushel ; so that the U. S- wheat bushel is just 6-7 ths of the English or 
imperial, and a quarter of wheat in England is equal to 9% bushels in the 
United States, though in capacity to only 8V4 bushels. 

The barrel of flour contains 5 Winchester bushels, and weighs, net 196 lbs. 
The barrel of Indian corn contains 3 1-8 bushels. The weight of a gallon of 
molasses is usually 11 lbs. but sometimes 10 or 12. 



STATE AND PROVINCIAL LAWS. 



827 



State and provincial laws regakdixg legal axd special 

INTEREST, TUE LIMIT OF TIME IN ACTIONS FOR DEBT, &C., 
TOGETHER "WITH THE LARGEST SUMS OBTAINABLE BV LEGAL PRO- 
CESS BEFORE A JUSTICE OF THE PEACE IN VARIOUS STATES, TER- 
RITORIES ANT> PROVINCES. 















<*! 


^ 


w • 




States and Territories . 


■n.a c 
.Sis 


r3 £ 
o « 




Is 
o S 


f sS 


m 

X C3 O 




— OS 

c a 4. 

S.C 4) 


Penalty for Usury. 




>A^.>' 


dr^ 


<>< 


^h 


20 


<ac>^ 


1-: P. 


v-^-J tu 




Alabama, 


i$100 


10 


3 


6 


1 


8 


8 


Forfeit all Int. 


Arkansas, 


500 


10 


3 


5 


10 


1 


6 


10 


For. prin. and int. 


Arizona, 














10 




None. 


California, 


300 


5 


2 


4 


5 


1 


10 




None. 


Colorado, 


300 


3 


6 


6 


3 


1 


10 




None. 


Connecticut, 


100 


17 


C 


6 


20 


3 


7 


7 


For. excess of int. 


Dalcota Ter., 


100 


20 


6 


6 


20 


2 


7 


12 


Forfeit all int. 


Delaware, 


100 


20 


3 


6 


20 


1 


6 


6 


Forfeit prin. 


Dist. of Columbia. 




12 


3 


3 


12 


1 


6 


10 


Forfeit all int. 


Florida, 


50 


20 


4 


5 


20 


2 


8 




None. 


Georgia, 


100 


20 


4 


6 


7 


1 


T 


12 


Forfeit all int. 


Idaho Ter., 


100 


5 


2 


4 


5 


2 


10 


24 


Fine and impris't 


Illinois, 


200 


10 


5 


10 


20 


1 


6 


10 


Forfeit all int. 


Indiana, 


200 


20 


6 


20 


20 


2 


6 


10 


Forfeit ex. of int. 


Iowa, 


300 


10 


5 


10 


20 


2 


6 


10 


Forfeit all int. 


Kansas, 


300 


15 


3 


5 


5 


1 


8 


12 


For. all int. over 12. 


Kentucky, 


50 


15 


2 


15 


15 


1 


6 


8 


Forfeit all int . 


Louisiana, 


100 


20 


3 


5 


10 


1 


? 


8 


Forfeit all int. 


Maine, 


20 


20 


6 


20 


20 


2 


6 




None. 


Maryland, 


100 


12 


3 


3 


12 


1 


6 


6 


Forfeit ex. of int. 


^lassacliusetts, 


300 


20 


6 


20 


20 


2 


6 




None. 


Michigan, 


300 


10 


6 


6 


6 


2 


7 


10 


For. ex. over 7 p. c. 


Minnesota, 


100 


6 


6 


6 


10 


2 


7 


12 


None. 


Mississippi, 


150 


7 


3 


6 


7 


1 


6 


10 


For. excess of int. 


;Mi8SOuri, 


300 


10 


5 


10 


20 


2 


6 


10 


Forfeit all int. 


IMontana Ter., 




10 


5 


10 


10 


2 


10 




None. 


Nebraska, 


100 


10 


4 


5 


5 


1 


10 


12 


Forfeit all int. 


Nevada, 


300 


4 


2 


4 


5 


2 


10 




None. 


New Brunswick 


20 




G 


6 


3 


Va 


6 




None. 


New HampBhire, 


13.33 


20 


6 


6 


20 


2 


6 


G 


For 3t the ex & costs 


New Jersey, 


100 


16 


6 


6 


20 


2 


7 


7 


Forfeit of all int. 


New Mexico, 


100 


10 


6 


10 


10 


1 


6 




None. 


New York, 


200 


20 


6 


6 


20 


2 


7 


7 


For. of contract. 


North Carolina. 


200 


10 


3 


3 


10 


3 


6 


8 


Forfeit of all int. 


Ohio, 


300 


15 


6 


15 


15 


1 


6 


8 


For. ex. over 6 p. c. 


Ontario, Can., 




20 


6 


6 


20 


2 


6 




None. 


Oregon, 


250 


20 


6 


6 


10 


2 


10 


12 


For. prin. and int. 


Pennsylvania, 


100 


20 


6 


6 


20 


1 


6 


6 


Forfeit ex. of int. 


Quebec, Can., 




30 


5 


5 


30 


1.2 


6 




None. 


Ehode Island, 


100 


20 


6 


6 


20 


1 


6 




None. 


South Carolina, 


100 


20 


6 


6 


20 


2 


7 ' 




None. 


Tennessee, 


500 


6 


6 


6 


10 


1 


6 


10 


Forfeit ex. of int. 


Texas. 


100 


5 


2 


4 


10 


1 


8 


12 


«< <( « 


Utah Ter. 


300 


7 


2 


4 


5 


1 


10 




None. 


Vermont, 


200 


8 


6 


14 


8 


2 


6 


6 


Forfeit ex. of int. 


Virginia, 


50 


20 


5 


5 


10 


1 


6 


6 


Forfeit of all int. 


Wash. Ter.. 


100 


6 


3 


6 


6 


2 


10 




None. 


West Virginia, 


100 


10 


5 


10 


lo 


1 


6 


6 


Forfeit ex. of int. 


Wisconsin, 


300 


20 


6 


3 


20 


2 


7 


10 


Forfeit of all int. 


Wyoming Ter.. 


100 


15 


6 


15 


15 


1 


12 




None. 



828 SPECIAL LAWS OF ALABAMA. 

Condensed synopsis of the laws pertaining to the 

COLLECTION OF DEBTS, 

Throughout the United States and Dominion of Canada, 

Presenting a digest of the laws of each Stat€, Territory and Province, relat- 
ing to Exemptions from Forced Sale, Mechanics Lien, Arrest and Attach- 
ment for Debt, Assignments, Garnishment, Bills and Notes, Jnrisdiction of 
(Joints, Judgments, Executions, Chattel Mortgages, Deeds, Rights of Married 
Women, Wills. &c. 

The immense utility of the following compilation will he self eA'ident to 
every Mechanic, Farmer, Trader, Merchant, Business Man, Professional 
Gentleman and Householder, Avhose interests are in the slightest degree 
identified with, or dependent upon, the supreme rule of law and order 
throughout the community. The enormous losses resulting from ignorance 
of the law on the aforesaid subjects are absolutely incalculable, and the 
diffusion of information bearing uj)on them cannot become too general. The 
coercive appliances of the Law are regarded with much disfavor by schem- 
ing and dishonest debtors, for it is Avell settled upon sound principles and 
the highest authority, that every bargain to do anything which the law for- 
bids, or the omission to do anything Avhicli the law enjoins, is null and 
void. No contract can be enforced which contravenes the principles of the 
common law, the provisions of a statute, or the general or public policj' of the 
law. In Nellis vs. Clark (4 Hiirs Rep. 424), it "was held that the vendor of 
real estate sold for the purpose of defrauding his creditors, could not re- 
cover the price. 

Business men, and all others having outlying debts to collect, are referred 
to an invaluable work entitled. The Collection Compendium, published by 
E. A. Smith, 516 Pine st., St. Louis. The work presents a new and original 
system for the collection of claims by means of local agents at all points in 
the United States and Canada, npon very low stipulated rates of percentages, 
without the intervention of third jiarties. With this work at hand no man 
need be at a loss to collect a debt in any part of the country (provided tlie 
debtor is responsible), on the most reasonable terms, and with very slight 
loss of time. 



SPECIAL LAWS OF ALABAMA. 

Exemptions. — Home rvortJi §2,000 and Personal Property .—'Bj the Constitu- 
tion of Alabama (1868), The personal property of any resident of this State to 
the value of one thousand dollars, to be selected by such resident, shall be exempt 
from sale or execution, or other final process of any court issued for the collection 
of any debt contracted since the adoption of the present Constitution (1868). Every 
homestead, not exceeding eighty acres of land, the dwelling and appurtenances 
thereon, to he selected by the owner, and not in a city, town or village, or in 
lieu thereof, at the option of the owner, any lot in a city, town or village, with 
the dwelling and appurtenances thereon, owned and occupied by any resident of 
the State, and not exceeding the value of §2,000, shall be exempt from sale on 
execution or any other final process from a court for a debt contracted since the 
adoption of this Constitution. Such exemption does not extend to any mortgage 
lawfully obtained ; but such mortgage or other alienation of such homestead, 
by the owner thereof , if a married man, shall not be valid without the voluntary 
signature and assent of the wife of the same. The homestead of a family, after 
the death of the owner, is exempt from the payment of debts contracted since 
the adoption of this Constitution in all cases during the minority of the children ; 
or if the owner dies leaving a widow and no children, the same shall be exempt 
foi- her benefit, and the rents and profits thereof shall enure to her benefit. 
This exemption does not: extend to cases of laborers' liens for work done and 
performed for the person claiming such exemption or the mechanics' lien for 
work done on the premises. (Constitution of \iiZ8.') 



SPECIAL LAWS OF ALABAMA. 829 

In addition to the above, the Legislature passed an Act (approved April 23d, 
1873), exempting by statue the personal property of any resident of this Slate 
to the value of 551,000, to be selected by the resident. The homestead of evei-y 
resident not exceeding one hundred and sixty acres of land, and appurtenances 
thereon, to be selected by the owner thereof, or in lieu thereof, at the option of 
the owner, any lot in a city, town or village, Avith the dwelling and appurten- 
ances thereon, said lot not to exceed §2,000 in value. 

LiEx OF Mechaxics axd Laboreks. — By act; approved March 19th, 1775, a, 
lien is given to laborers and employees (except officers) of railroads in this State, 
for work and labor done by them as such. Such extends to all the property, 
rights, effects and credits of every description of such railroad companies. A 
lien is also given to all contractors, mechanics, builders, bricklayers, plasterers, 
painters, and every other person whatever in the State of Alabama, for work and 
labor done by them as such, and for materials furnished ; and sucli lien extends 
to all the rights, title and interest of the person or persons for whom the Avork is 
done, or the materials furnished, in the property upon Avhich such work is done 
and for which such materials are furnished, including tlie land upon which such 
property may be situated. Provklcd, that all the liens given under this act shall 
all be held to be waived, unless proceedings are commenced within six months 
after the completion of such work, to enforce same. Such liens are enforced by 
process of attachment. (Act, approved 19th March, 1875.) 

Collection of Debts. — Attachment may issue for the collection of a debt, 
Avhether due or not for any money demand, the amount of which can be certainly 
ascertained, to recover damages for the breach of a contract where the damages 
are not certain or liquidated ; and where the action sounds in damages merely, 
upon an affidavit made by the creditor, or his agent or attorney, that the debtor 
absconds, secretes himself, o?' resides out of this' State, so that process cannot be 
served upon him, or is about to removehis property out of this State, whereby 
the plaintiff may lose his debt or be compelled to sue for it in another State ; or 
that the debtor has fraudulently disposed of, or is about fraudulently to dispose 
of his property ; or that he hns money, property or effects liable to satisfy his 
debts, which he fraudulently withholds ; and stating the amount due, and 'that 
the attachment is not sued out for the purpose of vexing or harrassing the debtor, 
upon the plaintiffs executing bond payable to the defendant in double the 
amount sworn to be due, or when he is unable to give bond with sufficient surety, 
upon making affidavit to that fact, an attachment maj" issue against the 
estate of the defendant, real and personal. Attachments auxiliary to suits pend- 
ing may be issued on the same grounds as in original attachments) in which case 
the suit proceeds as if commenced by original attachment. 

Every action founded upon a contract, express or implied, must be prosecuted 
in the name of the party really interested, whether he have the legal title or not, 
subject to any defense the debtor may have against tbe payee or creditor previous 
to notice of transfer; but this does not apply to bills of exchange, or instru- 
ments payable in bank or at a designated place of payment, and commercial 
instruments. 

Arrest in civil action or imprisonment for debt is prohibited in this State; 
■ Estates of deceased persons are subject to the payment of all debts except cer- 
tain exemptions in favor of the widow and children of the deceased. 

Deeds, Mortgages, Eights of Married Wo:me>-, Wills, etc. — Acknowl- 
edgments, and proof of conveyances maybe taken by judges of the supreme and 
circuit courts and their clerks, chancellors and registers In chancery, judges of 
probate, justices of the peace ami notaries public. If taken in other States of 
the United States, they may be taken by the judges and clerks of the federal 
courts, judges of any court of record in any State, :iotary public or commissioner 
appointed Isy the Governor of Alabama. Beyond the limits of the United States, 
such acknowledgements and proof may be taken by the judge of any court of 
record, mayor or chief magistrate of aiiy city, town, borough or county, notary 
public, or any diplomatic, consular or commercial agent of the United States. 
No other proof or authentication of such acknowledgement is necessary than the 
certificate of such officer, unless such officer be a justice of the peace, Avhen it 
must be certified that such officer was a justice of the peace, and that his attesta- 
tion is genuine, by some judge of a court of record, or a commissioner of that 
State. 

All conveyances of land must be written Or printed on parchment or paper, 
and signed by Uae vendor, or by his agent, legally authorized in writing, and 
when the party cannot write, his name must be written for him, -with a cross and 
the words as follcws : " his raaxk. ; " and when so executed must be attested by 
two witnesses who can write, who must w'rit<? their name? v.'itnefses thereto. 



830 SPECIAL LAWS OF ALABAMA. 

The wife may relinquish her right to dower by joining with her husband in a con- 
veyance of land, and acknowledging same as above provided. Husband's must 
join in conveyance of wife's separate property. 

If the grantor is unknown, his identity may be established by witnesses suffi- 
cient to satisfy the officer before whom the acknowledgment is made. 
[Acknowledgment of Husband and Wife.] 
[Form.] 
The State of Alabama, | 
Butler County, ) 

I (name and style of officer) hereby certify that Thomas Clark and Sarah 
Clark, his wife, whose names are signed to the foregoing conveyance, and who 
are known to me, acknowledged before me on this day, that being informed of 
the contents of the conveyance, they executed the same voluntarily, on the 
day the same bears date. 
Given under my hand this the day of , A.D. 187 . 

(Signature and title.) 

The real and personal property of any female in this State, acquired before 
marriage, and all property to which she may be entitled by gift, grant, inher- 
itance or devise, shall not be liable for any debts, obligations and engagements 
of her husband, and may be devised or bequeathed by her as she were a femme 
sole. (Const, of 1868). A conveyance of the wife's separate estate may be made 
by the husband and wife jointly, signed in the presence of two witnesses, or ac- 
knowledged before any officer authorized to take acknowledgments of deeds. 
The hvisband is not liable for the wife's debts contracted before marriage ; but 
she may be sued alone and her separate property is liable for the satisfaction 
thereof. 

When no officer is convenient for taking acknowledgments, a deed may be 
attested by two witnesses, and afterward proved in the following form : 

[Form.] 
The State of Alabama, \ 
Benton Countv. ) 

I (name and style of officer) hereby certify that , a subscribing witness 

to the foregoing conveyance, known to me, appeared before me this day, and being 
sworn, stated that , the grantor in the conveyance, voluntarily ex- 

ecuted the same in his presence, and in the presence of the other subscribing 
witness, on the day the same bears date ; that he attested the same in the presence 
of the grantor and of the other witness, and that such other witness subscribed 
bis name as a witness in his presence. 

Given under my hand this the day of , A.D. 187 . 

(Signature and title.) 

The examination of the wife separate and apart from her husband is neces- 
sary to convey the title to any homestead exempt by the laws of this State. 
(See Exemptions). This examination maybe had before a circuit or supreme 
judge, chancellor, or judge of probate or justice of the peace, who must endorse 
thereon a certificate in writing in the following form : 

[Form.] 
State of Alabama, ) 
County of Morgan, j 

I, , judge, (chancellor, notary public or justice of the peace, as the case 

may be), hereby certify that on the day of , A.D. 18 , camo 

before me the within named , known (or made known) to mc to be the 

wife of the within named , who, being by me examined separate and 

apart from her husband, touching the signature of the within , acknowl- 

edged that she signed the same of her own free will and accord, and without fear, 
constraint or persuasion of her husband. 

In witness whereof, I hereunto set my hand this the day of , 

187 . A. B. (judge, chancellor, etc., as the case may be). 

The widow, (if no provision is made for her by will), is entitled to one-third 
part of the real estate of which her husband died seized, and to which she has 
not relinquished the right of dower, and one-half of the personal property if 
there be no children or if there be but one child ; if there be more than one 
child, and less than five, she is entitled to a child's part ; if there be five children 
or more, she is entitled to one-fifth part in absolute right. She shall be endowed 
of one-half of her husband's absolute estate when he dies leaving no lineal des- 
cendants, unless the estate is insolvent. The widow may dissent from or waive 
provision in a will, and claim her dower, at any time within one year after the 



SPECIAL LAWS OF ARKANSAS. 831 

probate of the wiil. The widow may retain the dwelling-place, house, plantation, 
&c. , free from rent, until her dower is assigned her. 

Chattel mortgages, are legal in this State but are null and void as to creditors 
and purchasers without notice until recorded, unless the property is brought 
into this State subject to such incumbrance, in which case they must be regis- 
tered within four months, and if such property be removed to a different county 
from that in which the grantor resides, the conveyance must be recorded within 
six months from the removal, or it ceases to have effect as to creditors and pur- 
chasers from the grantee without notice. All such mortgages must be recorded 
in the county where the grantor resides, and also where the property is. 

Wills. — Every person 21 years of age, and of sound mind, may dispose of 
lands.by will. Wills nmst be signed by the testator, or by some one in his pres- 
ence and at his request, and attested by three or more witnesses. Noncupative 
wills may be established when the testator in his last illness calls on persons to 
take notice that such is his will. 



SPECIAL LAWS OF ARKANSAS. 

Exemptions.— ^ome worth §5,000, and personal property §2,000, IGO acres of 
land, or 1 town or city lot being the residence of a householder or the head of a 
family, the appurtenances and improvements thereto helonging, to the value of 
§5,000, and personal property to the value of §2,000. 

MEcnA>.'ics' LiEX. — Mechanics, material men and laborers have a lien on 
land and improvements to the extent of their labor. The original contractor must 
lile his lien within three months after all the things shall have been done or fur- 
nished. Sub-contractors must give notice to owner, proprietor, agent or trustee, 
before or at the time he furnishes any of the things or performs services. These 
-Jive precedence over all other subsequent incumbrances. 

Collection of Debts. — Attachments may issue against a defendant's prop- 
erty upon the following grounds ; In actions for recovery of money where tho 
action is against a non-resident ; one absent four months ; has left the county 
of his residence to avoid the service of summons ; about to remove, or 
has removed his property, not leaving enough to satisfy plaintiff's claim ; con- 
ceals himself ; has sold his property with fraudulent intent to cheat, hinder or 
delay his creditors, or is about to do so. Bond in double the amount claimed, 
with good securities, residents of county. 

Boats running on the navigahle water of 1ho state may be attached for debts 
contracted hy the owner, &c., on account of work or supplies furnished the 
boat. 

No arrest is allowable for debt in any civil action or mesne, or final process, 
unless in cases of fraud. 

In suits on open claims, the affidavit of plaintiff, legally taken and certi^d, 
will be deemed sufficient proof unless the defendant shall, under oath, deny the 
correctness of the account, either in whole or in part, in which event the 
plaintiff must prove the disputed portion of his account by other evidence. 

Affidavits may be made out of the state before a commission appointed by the 
Governor of Arkansas for that purpose, or before a mayor of a city, a judge of a 
court, notary public, or justice of the peace, whose certificate shall be deemed 
proof of its execution. Tlie affidavit must be signed by the affiant, the certi- 
ficate of the officer shall be written separately, following the signature of tho 
aHinut, and all verifications must be attached to the instrument verified. 

Garnishment can be issued upon judgments or attachments against any per- 
son owing the debtor, or having his property in possession. 

Assignments of bonds, bills, notes, agreements, and contracts in writing, for 
the payment of money of property, are permissablc here. Assignments for the 
benefit of creditors are held good. Every assignment of every instrument of 
writing must bear date of the true day on which it was executed. 

Eveiy protested draft or bill of exchange draws 10 per cent, interest from' 
date of protest. If drawn upon any person in the state, it is in addition subject 
to 2 per cent, damages, if on any person and payable in Alabama. Louisiana, 
Mississippi, Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and Missouri, or any 
point on the Ohio river, 4 per cent, damages, if upon any person and payable 
at any other place in the United States, 10 per cent, damages on amount specified 
in the bill. If owned by any person within this state, 2 i)er centum ; if without 
this state, but in the U. S., G per centum, if without the limits of the U. S., 10 



832 SPECIAL LAWS OF AKKAXSAS. 

per centum. The holder shall have his action against the owner, endorser, or 
acceptor, or either of them, and the protest is held to be evidence of demand 
and refusal of payment. 

Jxidgnients in circuit courts are a lien upon real estate in county for 3 years, 
and may be revived so as to continue lien to 10, after which iio execution can is- 
sue. Judgments injustice courts can form a lien by filing transcript in circuit 
clerk's office. 

Executions cannot issue for 10 days after judgment unless ordered by the court 
and when issued to the proper officer are liens upon property liable to seizure. 
If no goods be found the debtor and any one supposed to owe him, or have his 
property in possession can be made amenable to answer under oath what prop- 
erty 01' interest he has subject to execution. 

Jurisdiction of justice of the peace in matter of contract is $100 exclusive of 
interest, for damages flOO ; in replevin $300; and in suits concurrent with 
the circuit court when amount does not exceed §300. Circuit courts have juris- 
diction of all sums over $100, both at common law, and in equity. 

Deeds, Mortgages, akd Chattel Mortgages, Rights of Married 
"Women, Wills, &c. — Deeds must be under seal— a scrawl is a seal. Acknow- 
ledgement, if made in this State, may be made before a justice of the peace of 
the county where the land lies, judge of supreme or circuit court, or clerk of any 
court of record, or notary public ; if out of the United States, before the court 
of any State, Kingdom or Empire having a seal, or any mayor or cliief officer 
of any city or town having an official seal, or before any officer of any foreign 
country, who, by the laws of such country, is authorized to take probate of the 
conveyance of real estate of his own country, if such officer has, by law, an offi- 
cial seal. "When taken out of this State, but within the United States or their 
territories, before any court of the United States, or any State or territory having 
a seal, or the clerk of any such court, or before the mayor of any city or town, 
or chief of any city or town having a seal of office, or before any commissioner 
appointed by the Governor of this State. The seal must be attached, when there 
is one, and the deed recorded in the county where the land lies. 

The following is the form when husband and wife join in the deed, the latter 
releasing dower. It is necessary for husband and wife to join in, whether his 
own or her property : 

[Form I.] 
State of , ) 
County of , j 

Be it remembered that on this day of , one thousand eight 

hundred and seventy , before me. the undersigned, , came , 

who are personally known to me to be the same persons whose names are sub- 
scribed to the foregoing instrument of writing, as parties thereto, and severally 
acknowledged the same to be act and deed for the purposes and consider- 

ation therein mentioned. 

And at the same time the said wife of the said having been 

by me first made acquainted with the contents of said instrument, on an "exam- 
ina(ibn separate and apart from her said husband, acknowledged that she exe- 
cuted the same and relinquished dower in all the property therein mentioned, 
freely and without compulsion, or undue influence of her said husband. 

In testimony whereof I have hereunto set my hand and seal of office, the day 
and year first above written. (Signature.) 

Married women can hold property, both real and personal, free from the debts 
of her husband, but a schedule, under oath, and verified by the oath of some 
other reputable person must be made by the husband and wife, and filed i]> the 
recorder's office of the County where the property is, and of the County where 
they reside. A widow shall be endowed of the third part of the property where- 
of her husband was seized of an estate of inheritance at any time during the 
marriage, unless the same was relinquished in legal form. 

A Chattel mortgage is of no avail as a lieu unless recorded in the County 
where the property is. 

Wills shouJA be executed as shown in Business Form No. 45, on pp. 815-816, 
and established by the disinterested evidence of at least three unimpeachable 
witnesses to the handwriting and signature of the testator- 



BPECIAL LAWS OF CALIFORNIA. 838 

SPECIAL LAWS OF CALIFORNIA. 

Exemptions Fuom Forced Sale— -House worth $5,000 and personal property. 
Necessary household and kitchen furniture, one sewing machine and one piano 
in actual use ; wearing apparel and one month's provisions for the family. 
Farming utensils ; also 2 oxen, or 2 horses, or 2 mules, and their harness, one 
cart or wagon, and food for such oxen, horses or mules for one month ; also 
seed to §200 in value. Tools or implements of an artisan necessary to carry on liis 
trade; the seal of a notary ; the instruments of a physician, dentist and surveyor 
.necessary to the exercise of their profession, with their professional libraries, 
and the professional libraries and furniture of lawyers, judges and ministers of 
the gospel. The cabin of a miner, not exceeding in value the sum of $500, also 
his appliances for mining, not to exceed in the aggregate the sum of $500, and 2 
horses, mules or oxen, with their harness, and food for such oxen, horses or mules 
for one month. Four cows Avith their sucking calves, and 4 liog-s with their suck- 
ing pigs ; poultry not exceeding in value $50. The earnings of the judgment 
debtor for his personal services rendered at any time within ,'J0 days next preced- 
ing the levy. The shares held by a member of a homestead association, not ex- 
ceeding in value $1,000, if the person liolding the shares is not the owner of a 
homestead under the laws of this State. All moneys, benefits or annuities grow- 
ing out of any life insurance on the life of the debtor, in any company corporated 
under the laws of the State, if the annual premiums paid do not exceed §500. 
Homestead for the head of a family, not to exceed $5,000 in value. 

Mechanics' Liex. — ]Mechanics and material men have a lien for labor and 
materials on the land and improvements to the extent of their claims. The orig- 
inal contractor must file his claim Avithin GO days, an.d the laborers within 30 
days, after the debt accrued. This lien attaches from the commencement of the 
work, and lias precedure over any subsequent or previous unrecorded encum- 
brance. 

Collection of Debts. — Attachment may ispue on affidavit and undertaking 
with tw.o sureties, in a sum not less than $300, or greater than the amount 
claimed, in action upon a contract, express or implied, for the direct payment <Jf 
money, where the contract is made or is payable in this State and is not secured, 
or the security becomes valueless ; and in an action upon a contract, express or 
implied, against a defendant not residing in this State. Every species of property 
not exempt is subject to attachment- 
Arrests in civil actions are not allowable in this State except as follows : — 1. 
In an action for the recovery of money or damages on a cause of action arising 
upon a contract, express or implied, when the defendant is about to depart from 
the State with intent to defraud his creditors. 2. In an action for a tine or pen- 
alty, or for money or property embezzled, or fraudulently misapplied, or con- 
verted to his own use by a public otiicer, or an officer of a corporation, or an at- 
torney, or factor, bi-oker, agent or clerk, in the course of his employment as sudi, 
or by any other person in a fiduciary capacity, or for misconduct or neglect in 
office or in a professional employment, or for a willful violation of duty. 3. In 
an action to recover possession of personal property unjustly detained, when the 
property or any part thereof has been concealed, removed or disposed of, to pi-c- 
vent its being jfound or taken by the sheriff. 4. When defendant has been guilty 
of fraud in contracting the debt or incurring the obligation for which the action 
is brought, or in concealing or disposing of the property, for the taking, conceal- 
ing or conversion of which the action is brought. 5. When the defendant lias re- 
moved or disposed o41iis property, or is about to do so, Avith intent to defraud hi.s 
creditors. No female can be arrested in any action. 

Garnishment maybe made under execution or attachment against any bailee of 
the debtor, and when the debtor's interest or right is acknowledged in a specified 
sura or article, the said sum or article may be paid over to the Sheriff under an 
order of court. 

Judgments in all courts of record and in the justices' court, when filed in the 
county court, are liens from the time they are docketed, Avhich must be within 24 
hours after their rendition, on all real estate owned by the defendant Jiot exempt 
and situated in the county where the judgment was rendered, for a period of -2- 
years, unless the defendant stay execution by an appeal bond, in Avliich case the 
lien ceases. By recording a transcript of the docket in any other county the lien 
attaches to all defendant's real estate situated therein not exempt. No lien is 
credited by judgment on personal property. 

Executions may be issued at any time within 5 years after entry of judgment, 
and do not affect property until there is a lew. OVit of justices' coxirts, as c-ourta 



834 SPECIAL LAWS OF CALIFORNIA. 

of record, Ihcy niuy be levied on personal or real property. Real estate f^old 
under execution is subject to redemption within six months. Judgment debtors 
or their bailees, after the return of execution not satisfied, may be examined 
under oath concerning their property. 

Assignments in trust for the beiietit of creditors, are null, as against any credi- 
tor not assenting thereto. The deed of assignment must be in writing, acknowl- 
edged a]id recorded like a conveyance of real estate. Made to secure indcnsers 
or sureties are valid. Notes, bills, bonds, accounts and almost every species of 
contract, is assignable. The party in interest must sue on an assigned contract. 

Boi'.s and A'cssels navigating the waters of this State, arc lial)le for debts con- 
tracted by the master, owner, agent, or consignee thereof, for work done or sup- 
plies furnished, or for fitting out, repairing, or equipping such boats or vessels, 
or for all sums due for anchorage or wharfage, or for all injuries done to persons 
or property by such boat or vessel, provided the wages of mariners, boatmen, and 
others employed in the service of such boats or vessels, shall have the preference, 
and be first paid. Vessels are also liable for damages accruing from the non- 
performance or mal-;)erformance of contract touching the transportation of per- 
sons or property. All actioiis against boat: or vessels must be commenced within 
15 days after cause of action accrues. 

Damages are allowed on bills of exchange protested fornon-acceptance or non- 
payment in favor of holders for value only, as follows : 1. If drawn upon any 
person in this State, §2 on each $100 of the principal sum specified in the bill. 2. 
If drawn upon any person out of this State, but in any of the other States or ter- 
ritory Avest of the Rocky IMowitains, $5 on each $100 of the principal sum speci- 
fied in the bill. 3. If drawn upon any person in the United States east of the 
Rocky Mountains, $10 on each $100 specified in the bill. 4. If drawn upon any 
person in any place in a foreign country, $15 on each $100 of the principal sum 
specified in the bill, and from the time of notice of dishonor and demand of pay- 
ment, lawful interest must be allowed upon the aggregate amount of -the princi- 
pal sum and damages- Notarial protest is evidence of demand and refusal of 
payment at the time and in the manner stated in the protest. 

'deeds. Mortgages, and Chattel, Mortgages, Rights of Married 
"Women, Wills, &c. — Deeds are not required to be under seal, as all private 
Seals are abolished in this State. Must be acknowledged within the State, before 
a justice or clerk of the supreme court ; or a judge or a clerk of a court of record ; 
or a mayor or recorder of a city ; or a court commissioner ; or a county reconler ; 
or a notary public ; or a justice of the peace. Without this State and in the United 
States, before a justice of the peace or clerk of any court of record of the United 
States; or a justice, judge or clerk of any court of record of any St;ite ; 
or a commissioner appointed by the Governor of this State for that piir- 
pose ; or a notary public or any other officer of the State where the acknowledg- 
ment is made, .luthorized by its laws to take such acknowledgment. Without the 
United States, before a minister, commissioner or charge d'affaires of the United 
States, resident and accredited in the country where such acknowledgment is 
made ; or a judge of a court of record of the country where the acknowledgment 
is made, or a commission appointed for that purpose by the Governor of tho 
State pursuant to special statutes ; or a notary public. The husband or wife, 
can each, without the consent or assistance of the other, convey his or her separ- 
ate property. They must join in a conveyance of their community property. 

The following is the general form of the certificate of acknowledgment : 

State of California, \ 
County of Amador, j 
On this day of , in the year of ^ , before me, John 

Simpson, notary public, personally appeared, , known to me (or 

proved to me on the oath of ) to be the person whose name is sub- 

ecribed to the within instrument, and acknowledged to me that he (or they) exe- 
cuted the same. 

John Simpson, Notary Public. 

The form of certificate when grantor is a married woman must be substantially 
as follows ; 

State OF California, ) 
County of Nevada, j **' 
On this day of , In tho year of , before me, John 

Johnston, notary public, personally appeared , known to me (or 

proved to be on the oath of ) to be the person whoso name is subscrib- 

ed to the within instrument, described as a married ^Yoman, and upon an examin- 



SPECIAL LAWS OF COLORADO. 8S5 

atioii, williout the hearing of her husband, I made her acrjuainted with the con- 
tents of the instruments, and thereupon she acknowledged to me that she exe- 
cuted the same, and that she does not wish to retract such execution. 

John Johxstox, Notary Public. 

Property of every description acquired by the wife before marriage, and that 
acquired afterward by gift, bequest, devise, or descent, shall be her separate 
property, and will in no case be liable for the debts of her husband. The hus- 
band's property of every kind similarly acquired, will be his separate property, 
and not liable for debts due by his wife previous to marriage. The property of 
each shall be liable only for the debts of the owner. All property acquired sub- 
sequent to marriage, aside from that acquired by gift, bequest, devise, or descent, 
shall be common property, but under the husband's entire control. Such com- 
mon property cannot be sold unless by an instrument in writing, signed by both 
husband and wife, and acknowledged by her upon an examination separate and 
apart from her husband, before a justice of the supreme court, judge of the dis- 
trict court, county judge or notary public, or if without the State, there to ac- 
knowledge before some judge of a court of record, or a commissioner appointed by 
authority of the State to take acknowledgement of deeds. 

A full and complete inventory of the wife's separate property shall be made 
out and signed by the wife, and proved in the maimer required by law for proof 
of a conveyance of land ; the filing of this inventory in the recorder's office in the 
county where such property is situated, shall be notice of the wife's title, and all 
s-iid property shall be exempt from seizure for her husbands debts. 

Upon the death of either husband or wife, one-half of the common property 
shall go to the survivor, and the other half to the descendants, of the deceased 
husband or wife, subject to the payments of the debts of the deceased. If there 
be no descendants of the deceased husband or wife, the whole shall go to the sur- 
vivor, subject to such payment. 

As to dower, no estate shall be allowed to the husband as tenant by courtesy 
upon the decease of his wife, nor any estate in dower be allowed to the wife upon 
the death of her husband. 

Chattel mortgages are void as to third parties, unless possession of chattels 
passes from mortgagor, albeit the mortgage may be recorded. 

Any married woman may dispose of all her estate by will, and may alter and 
revoke such will, but the consent of the husband, in writing, must be annexed to 
every such instrument, and it must be subscribed, attested, proven, and recorded 
in like manner as a will is required to be witnessed, proven, and recorded, unless 
the wife has power to make a will, conferred by marriage contract, signed by her 
husband before marriage. 

No wills, except noncupative wills, shall be valid, unless in writing, and 
signed by the testator or by some person in his presence, and by his express 
direction, and attested by two or more competent witnesses subscribing their 
names to the will, in the presence of the testator. 

No noncupative will bequeathing an estate over $500, shall be valid, unless 
proved by two witnesses, who were present at the making thereof ; nor unless it 
be proved that the testator, at the time of pronouncing the same, did bid some 
one present to bear witness that such was his Avill, or "to that effect ; nor unless 
such noncupative will was made at the time of the last sickness, and at the dwell- 
ing-house of the deceased, or where he or she had been residing for the space of 
10 days or more, except when such person was taken sick from home, and died 
before his or her return. 



SPECIAL LAWS OF COLORADO. 

Exemptions from Forced Sale— 7/o)??e morth 82000 and Personal Proper:;/. 
Every person being a householder and head of a family, is entitled to a home- 
stead not exceeding in value §2000. To entitle such person to this exempiion, 
lie must enter the word " Homestead " on the margin of his recorded title. The 
following property, when owned by any person being head of a family, shall be 
exempt : Family pictures, school books and library, pew in church, burial sites, 
all wearing apparel of family, all beds, bedsteads, stoves and cooking uten- 
sils, kept for use of debtor and family, and other household furniture not ex- 
ceeding §100 in value, provision and fuel necessary to the family for 6 months, 
tools, etc., of any mechanic not exceeding §300 in value, library and implements 
of any professional man not exceeding §300, draft animals to the value of §200, 1 
row and calf. 10 sheep and the necessary food for them for 6 months, 1 farm 
V agon, cart, etc., 1 plough, 1 harrow and other farming implements not exceeding 



836 SPECIAL LAWS OF COLOEADO. 

$50, in value. Persons not at the head of a family, only entitled to wearing 
apparel and property to the value of §300. 

Mechakics' Lien. — Persons who perform work or furnish materials to the 
amount of more than §25 for the construction or repairing of any building, may 
have a lien thereon. Principal contractors must tile their lien in 40, and sub- 
contractors within 20 days after last work done or material furnished. Action 
thereof must be commenced within 6 nionths from date of tiling lien. 

Collection OF Debts. — Plaintitf must file a bond, with security, payable to 
defendant, in double the amount swore to be due, with the customary, condi- 
tions, and then tile an affidavit, alleging positively one or more of the following 
causes before attachment can be issued : 1. That the debtor has departed, or is 
a'.)Out to depart from the State with intent to conceal his eiTects. 2. That he is 
a non-resident, or is a foreign corporation, or conceals himself. .3. Tliat he is 
about to remove or dispose of his property to the injury of his creditors, or that 
he fraudulently contracted the debt, or has removed away any of his property 
with intent to hinder or defraud his creditors. 

In attachment, replevin or meritorious defence may be made, when necessary, 
by the affidavit of the attorney or agent for the plaintiff. 

In assignments a debtor has the right to prefer one or more creditors to the 
exclusion of others, except when the assignment is fraudulent, or where bank- 
ruptcy interposes. 

Bills, notes, bonds, or other written instruments acknowledging indebtedness, 
and made payable to any person or persons, are assignable by endorsement, and 
the assignee may sue in his own name. Assignments are ruled bj" the common laAv. 

Jurisdiction of justices courts extends to §300 for recovery of money or per- 
sonal property, probate courts to §2000, over all cases, both at law and in equity, 
district courts are without limit as to amount or character of claim. 

Summons to justice court must bo issued 5 days, and scr\'ed at least 3 days 
before trial ; in probate and district courts they must be issued and served at 
least 10 days before the return day. 

A judgment of a court of record is a lien on an estate, real or personal, of the 
judgment debtor, owned or afterwards acquired by him, within the jurisdiction 
of such court, for a period of seven years after the last day of the term of court 
at which such judgment was rendered ; provided, execution be issued thereon 
within one year from the time such judgment lien accrued ; judgment before 
justices of the peace may become a lien on real estate by filing a transcript of 
such judgment in the office of the clerk of the district court of the county in 
which such judgment was rendered. 

Execution from justice of the peace can beissiied immediately after judgment 
and is a lien on personal estate of the debtor from the time of the delivery to 
the constable, and can be levied only on personal property. Execution from 
courts of record, bind the property of debtor from time of delivery to sheriff . 
Every species of property, real and personal, and every interest in real estate, 
legal or equitable, is subject to execution. Lands sold on execution may, within 
six months after such sale, be redeemed by the execution debtor. Execution 
creditor shall receive from sheriff a certificate of pui'chase, which should be re- 
corded. After expiration of six, and at any time before the expiration of nine 
months, miy judgment creditor may redeem such land by sueing out execution 
on his judgment and paying to the officer the amount (with ten percent, per 
annum thereto, from date of sale) for which the lands Avere sold. 

The process of garnishment may be exercised either on execution or attach- 
ment. 

Arrest and imprisonment on civil process is prohibited in this State. 

In suits on bills, bonds, notes, and similar instruments, the defendant, before 
lie will be permitted to plead, demur, &c., must file an affidavit of merit that he 
has as he believes, a good and sufficient defence to said suit or some part 
thereof. 

Affidavits of persons without the State may be made before any notary public 
or clerk of any court of record under their respective seals. 

Bills of exchange expressing " Value received," duly presenfed and protested 
for non-acceptance or non-payment, entitle holder to recover from drawer or 
endorser thereof, upon due notice of such protest, the amount of such bill, with 
legal interest from time when same should have been paid, and ten per centum 
damages in addition thereto, and costs and charges of protest. Parties to such 
instruments as endorsers, makers, acceptors, may be sued separately or jointly. 
Becord required to be kept by notaries public, competent evidence to prove time 
and mamjer of service of notice of protest, names of parties, and description and 
amount of instrument. 



SPECIAL LAWS OF COLORADO. 837 

Sheriffs are amenable in treble damacies to aggrieved party, and fine not less 
than S25 nor more than $250 for any malfeasance in oflice. 

Deeds, Mortgages, Chattel Mortgages, Rights of Married Womex, 
Wills. &c.— Conveyances must be under seal ; a scrawl is suJUcient. A con- 
veyance made in compliance with all requisites carries -witli it right to immediate 
possession. All covenants in the deed run with the land conveyed. A power 
of attorney to convey should bounder seal and recorded with the deed made 
thereunder. 

Acknowledgments of deeds written in the State may bo made before any jus- 
tice or judge of the supreme or district courts, or before any clerk or deputy 
clerk of such courts under the seal thereof, or before any probate judge under 
the seal of his court, or before the clerk and recorder of any county or his de- 
puty under the county seal, or before any notary public under his notarial seal, 
or before any justice of the peace. 

"Without the State and within the United States, before the secretary of any 
State or territory, the clerk of any court of record, or conunissioner of deeds 
for this State, or before any officer authorized by the Vxws of the State were 
taken to take acknowledgments. The seal of ar.y of the above oflioers must 
accompany the certificate, and when not taken before the secretary of a 
State or territory, or clerk of a court of record, the certiticate of the clerk of 
some court of Record where the officer taking the ncknowledgement resides 
must accompany such acknowledgement that such officer is the person the 
assumes to be. 

Without the United States before any United States consul, mayor of any 
city under his official seal, any court of record of any foreign state, under the 
certificate of the judge thereof and the seal of such court. 

[Form of Acknowledgment by Unmarried Grantor.] 
State of Colorado, ) 
CouKTV OF Boulder. | ' 

I, (name and style of office) in and for said county, in the State aforesaid, do 
hereby certify that A. B., who is personally known to me to be the same person 
whose name is subscribed to the annexed deed, appeared before me this day in 
person, and acknovvledged that he signed, sealed and delivered the said instru- 
ment of writing as his free dnd voluntary act for the uses and purposes therein 
set forth. 

Given under my hand and (style of seal) this day of , A. 

D. 18 . (Signature.) 

[Official seal.] (Style of office.) 

Form of certificate where the husband and wife join in a conveyance is the 
same as the foregoing form, except that after the name of tlie husband or wife, 
A. B,, is inserted, " and C. D., his wife " (or her husband, as the case may be), 
" who are personally known, etc.," down to the teste, before which is inserted 
the following : 

"And the said C. D., wife of the said A. B., having been first examined by 
me separate and apart from and ovit of the hearing and presence of her said hus- 
band, and the contents, mear.ing and effect of the within deed having been by 
me fully explained to her, acknowledged tome that she executed the same freely 
and A'oluntarily, and without any coercion or compulsion on the part of her said 
husband, and that she does not wish to retract the same." 

Teste as ui foregoing form. Witnesses to deeds are not necessary, but arc de- 
sirable. 

Any married women may bargain, sell and convey her estate, real and per- 
sonal, and make any contract Avith reference thereto, as though a fciume sole. 
, She may also sue and be sued, contract debts in her own name and upon her own 
' credit, execute any instrument of writing, and judgments maybe pronounced 
and enforced against her as though a femme sole. 

A chattel mortgage shall not be valid as against third i)arties, unless there be a 
delivery to the mortgagee of such property, in Avhose possession it shall remain 
until the lien expires; or unless the mortgagor t^hall acknowledge such mort- 
gage before a justice of the peace in the justice's district where such mortgagor 
resides, who shall keep a memorandum of the same. 

If the mortgagor retain possession of the property mortgaged, the mortgage 
must expresslj'' provide for such possession ; otherwise it is void. A mortgage of 
a stock of goods wherein the mortgagor has the right to sell the same is void. 
Chattel mortgages may be acknowledged in any township in which is situated 
the county seat. Where the mortgagor resides in such township, before any jus- 
tice of the peace, notary public, or county clerk. 



838 SPECIAL LAWS OF COXNECTICUT. 



SPECIAL LAWS OF CONNECTICUT. 

Exemptions from Forced Sale.— ^Vo Home exempted.— Vexsonsl property 
as follows, viz. Of the property of any one person, his necessary apparel and 
bedding and household furniture necessary for supporting life ; arms, military 
equipments, uniforms or musical instruments owned by any member of the mili- 
tia for military purposes ; any pension moneys received from the United States 
while in the hands of the pensioner ; implements of the debtor's trade, his li- 
brary, not exceeding §500 in value ; 1 cow, not exceeding §150 in value ; any 
number of sheep not exceeding 10, nor exceeding in all §150 in value ; 2 swine aaid 
the pork produced from 2 swine, or 2 swine and 200 lbs. of pork ; of the property of 
any oiie person having wife or a family, 25 bushels of charcoal, 2 tons of other 
coal, 200 lbs. of wheat flour, 2 cords of wood, 2 tons of hay, 200 lbs. each of beef 
and fish, 5 bushels each of potatoes and turnips, 10 bushels each of Indian corn 
and rye, and the meal or flour manufactured therefrom, 20 lbs. each of wool and 
flax, or the yarn or cloth made therefrom, and 1 stove and the pipe belonging 
thereto ; the' horse of any practicing physician or surgeon of a value not exceeding 
§200, and his saddle, bridle, harness and buggy ; 1 boat owned by one person and 
used by him in the business of planting or taking oysters or clams, or taking 
shad, together with the sails, tackle, rigging and implements used in said busi- 
ness, not exceeding in value §200 ; 1 sewing machine, being the property of any 
one person using it or having a family ; one pew, being the property of any person 
having a family ordinarily occupying it, and lots, in any burjdng ground appro- 
priated by its proprietor for the burial place of any person or family. The hus- 
band's interest in the wife's estate cannot be taken for his debts during the life 
of the wife or any issue of their marriage, except for debts contracted for the 
support of such wife or issue. Any debt that has accrued for personal service not 
exceeding §10, or if the debtor have a wife or family not exceeding §25, and all 
benefits allowed by any association in this State on account of sickness, are ex- 
empt ; irrovided, that in suits brought for a debt accruing for liouse rent, 
provisions, wearing apparel or fuel, furnished to the debtor or for the use of his 
family, only §10 are exempt, and no exemption is allowed for personal board of 
the debtor or his family. 

Mechanics' Liek. — Material men and mechanics have a lien on land and 
buildings for the amount of their claim, provided the same exceeds §25. To 
render the lien valid, the claimant must tile a certificate of the claim, verified 
by oath, with the town clerk within GO days from the time Avhen he commenced 
to furnish materials or render services. SVhere the claimant is a sub-contractor 
he must, unless his contract with the original contractor is in writing, assented 
to by the proprietor, give notice in writing to the proprietor within 60 daj's of 
the time he commences to furnish materials or render services that he intends 
to claim a lien, otherwise he can have none. This lien takes precedence of all 
subsequent incumbrances. 

Collection of Debts. — Attaelmient in civil actions, may be issued and 
levied upon any property of the debtor that is not by statute exempt from attach- 
ment and execution. An attachment may be dissolved by the substitution of a 
bond. No action lies for damages arising from an attachment, unless the suit was 
malicious. Where the amount attached is so great as to be vexatious or oppres- 
sive, the court will order a release of a portion of the property'. An attachment 
remains a lien for sixty days after the rendition of judgment in the case of per- 
sonal property, and four months in the case of real estate. 

The debtor is exempt from arrest in all actions founded on contract, express 
or implied. In actions sounding in tort and for fraud the debtor may be im- 
prisoned, but ca"!! obtain a discharge on taking the " poor debtor's oath." 

Assignments in insolvency are made to a trustee and in use to the benefit of 
all the creditors. A transfer of property made CO days before the assignment is 
good. Conveyances made in the regular eoV.rse of business, or for a present con- 
sideration, are valid in the absence of fraud. Jurisdiction of justice courts ex- 
tends to §100, and either party has the right of appeal in all cases. 

Courts of common pleas and the district coiirt have original jurisdiction of all 
causes in equity where the matter in demand does not exceed §500 and causes in 
law where the demand exceeds §100 and does not exceed §500, and appellate jur- 
isdiction in cases brought by appeal from justices. 

The superior court has originally jurisdiction in law and equity of all cases 
where the demand exceeds §500, and appellate jurisdiction where there is no 
common pleas or district court in the county. Tide supreme court of pi-ror.^ has 



SPECIAL LAWS OF CONNECTICUT. 839 

final ftiul conclusive jurisdiction in- all matters. In determining the amount of 
the demand, interest to the commencement of tlie suit is included, but not costs. 
. Any debt owing to the defendant, or any goods or estate in the hands of a 
third party may be taken by process of garnishment. 

Execution may be taken out any time during the lives of the parties. If 
either be dead, scire facias on the judgment must be brought. A judgment that 
has lain dormant for 20 years is presumed to be satisfied. The judgment itself 
creates no lien, but any property that has been attached in the suit in held to 
respond to the judgment. 

A negotiable note must be for the payment of money only, payable to some 
person or his order or bearer. A negotiable promissory note on demand is con- 
sidered over-due and dishonored after four months. Days of grace are not al- 
lowedon sight or demand notes, or on bank checks. Protests of inland bills of 
exchange aiid promissory notes, protested without this State, are ^mwa ./inc-ie 
evidence of the facts therein stated. When a bill of exchange, drawn or iiego- 
tiated in this State upon any person in any other, State, territory or district of 
the United States, shall be returned unpaid and duly protested, the person to 
whom the same is payable is entitled to recover the damages, according to the 
place where payable, over and above the principal sum, together with the law- 
ful interest on the aggregate amount of such principal sum and damages from 
the time at which notice of such protest shall have been given, and pajment of 
said principal sum and damages demanded. 

Sheriffs refusing to pay over money collected, wlien demanded, are liable to 
pay two per cent, a month on the amount received from time of demand ; fail- 
ing to execute process or making false or illegal returns, are liable to pay all 
damages. Any officer, indorsing, demanding or receiving more than legal fees 
on any civil process, is liable to pay to the person against whom the charge was 
made threefold the amount charged. 

No person is disqualified as a witness in a civil action by reason of any inter- 
est in the case or conviction of any crime, but the fact may be shown to discredit 
his testimony. 

Deeds, Mortgages, Chattel Mortgages, Eights of married women, &c. 
Conveyances of real estate must be in writing, sealed by the grantor and sub- 
scribed by him or his attorney duly authorized, attested by two witnesses, with 
their own hands, and acknowledged by the grantor as his free act and deed. A 
scrawl enclosing the letters L. S. (L. S.) is equivalent to a seal. The acknowl- 
edgment, if in this State, is made before a judge of a court of record of this State 
or of the United States, justice of the peace, commissioner of the school fund, 
commissioner of the superior court, notary public, town clerk or assistant town 
clerk ; if in any other State or territory of the United States, before a commis- 
sioner appointed by the Governor of this State and residing therein, or any offi- 
cer authorized to take the acknowledgment of deeds in such State or territory ; 
and if in a foreign country, before any consul of the United States, or notary 
public or justice of the peace in such foreign country. 

Conveyances of real estate situated in this State and powers of attorney 
therefor, executed and acknowledged in any other State or territory in conform- 
ity to its laws relative to the conveyance of lands therein situated, are valid. The 
wife need not be privately examined apart from her husband. 

The husband joins with the wife in the conveyance of her real estate, but con- 
veys his own without her signature. Dower attaches only to the real estate be- 
longing to the husband at his decease. 

The following form of acknowledgment is used in all cases : 
State of Connecticut, i „ . t^ iq 

County of . ) ' 

Personally appeared , signer and sealer of the foregoing instru- 

ment, and acknowledged the same to be his free act and deed before me. 

- (Signature.) 

Married woman may hold real estate to their separate use in their own name. 
In all conveyances of the same the husband must join. The husband is trustee 
of the wife's personal estate, and accountable to her for the avails. He may be 
removed for cause, and another trustee appointed. She may be sued for her 
contracts and acts ; her husband is not liable upon any of such causes of action. 
She may also enter into a contract jointly with her husband for the benefit of her 
Bole estate, or their joint estate, and be sued on the same. She may also carry on 
business, and if any right of action accrues to her therefrom, may sue upon the 
same as if she were unmarried. The widow shall have the right of dower in one 
third of the real estate of which her husband died possessed in his own right, to 
be to her during her natural life. 



840 SPECIAL LAWS OF DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 

A chattel mortgage of property not perishable in its nature is good, altbougli 
the grantor retains possession, but the deed must be executed with all the form- 
alities required in town records, as in the case of real estate. Property exempt 
from execution is also a proper subject for a chattel mortgage. Conveyances of 
other species of personal property, unaccompanied by possession, are void as 
against creditors. Wills must be in writing, subscribed by the testator, and at- 
tested by the witnesses, all of them subscribing in his presence. 



SPECIAL LAWS OF DISTRICT OF COLUM- 
BIA. 

Exemptions from Fokced Sale. — A'o Home exempied. Personal Property 
ofthefollotclng value is exempt from distraint, attachment, or sale on execution, 
except for servants or laborers wages due : Wearing apparel, household furni- 
ture to the amount of S^SOO ; provisions and fuel for 3 months, mechanics tools 
or implements of any trade, to the value of ^200, with stock to the same amount ; 
the library and implements of a professional man or artist, to the value of $300 ; 
a farmer's team and other utensils, to the value of $100, family pictures and 
library to value of $400. 

Mechanics' Liens.— Any person who, by virtue of any contract with owner 
of any building or his agent, performs labor or furnishes materials for construc- 
tion or repair of such building, shall, upon tiling in ofiice of clerk of the supreme 
court of the District, at any time after commencement of the building, aiid with- 
in three months after completion of such building or repairs, a notice of his inten- 
tion to hold a lieu upon the property for the amount due or to become due to 
him, specitically setting forth the amount claimed, have a lien upon such build- 
ing and lot of ground upon which the same is situated, for such labor done or 
materials furnished, when amount exceeds .$20- Any sub-contractor, journey- 
man or laborer employed in construction or repair of any building, or in f urnisii- 
ing any materials or machiiiery for same, may give, at any time, owner thereof 
notice in writing, particularly setting forth amount of his claim and services 
rendered for which his employer is indebted to him, and that he holds the owner 
responsible, and the owner of the building shall be liable for the claims but not 
to exceed the amount due from him to employer at time of notice, or subsequently, 
which may De recovered in an action. 

Collection of Debts. — A writ of attachment and garnishment may be 
issued whenever plaintiff, his agent or attorney shall file in clerk's office, at 
commencement or during pendency of suit, an affidavit (supported by testimony 
of one or more witnesses,) showing grounds upon which he bases action, and 
setting forth plaintiff has just right to recover against defendant ; and also 
stating either that defendant is a non-resident of district, or evad-os service of 
ordinary process by concealing himself or withdrawing from district temporally, 
or has removed or is about to remove some of his property from district to defeat 
just demands. Plaintiff must also file his undertiiking, with suffi^clent surety, to 
be approved by clerk, to make good all costs and damages by reason of wrongful 
suing out of attachment. 

Arrest in civil actions is unknown here. 

Assignments are regulated by the principles of common law. 

Justices of peace have jurisdiction in all civil cases where amount claimed 
to be due for debt or damages arising out of contracts, express or implied, or 
damages for wrongs, or injuries to persons or property, does not exceed $100, ex- 
cept in cases involving title to real estate, actions to recover damages for assault, 
or assault and battery, or for malicious prosecution or actions against justices of 
peace or other officers for misconduct in office, or in actions for slander, verbal 
or written. Supreme court of District of Columbia possesses same powers and 
exercises same jurisdiction as circuit courts of United States. Any one of 
justices of said court may hold a special term with same powers and jurisdiction 
possessed by United States district courts. Any one of said justices may hold a 
criminal court for trial of all crimes and offences arising in the District. Su- 
preme court of District has jurisdiction of cases arising under copy-right and 
patent laws ; and of all applications for divorce ; and also has jurisdiction as a 
probate court- 



SPECIAL LAWS OF DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 841 

Judgments are lien on real estate from date of rendition and on personal 
property when execution is issued and in marshal's liands. Execution may issue 
the day judgment is rendered. There is no redemption after execution sale. 

Deeds, Mortgages, Kights of Married Womex, etc. — Acknowledgments 
of deeds may be made before any of the following named officers of State, (listrict, 
county or territory within L'nited States, in which person making deed may 
be living, namely : Before any judge of court of record and of law ; any clian- 
<-ellor of State ; any judge of supreme, circuit, district or territorial courts of the 
LTaited States ; any justice of the peace ; any notary public ; any commissioner 
of circuit court of district appointed for that purpose. The officer taking ac- 
knowledgment must annex to the deed a certificate under his hand and seal, to 
following effect : 

Corl-TY "^ ! } <0r city, etc.), to-wit : 

J, Joseph Mercer, a notary public, (or other prescribed officer, giving Ids 
title) in and for the county (or city, or parish, or district) aforesaid, in the State 
(or territory, or district) of , do hereby certify that A. B., a party (or A. B. 

and C. D., parties) to a certain deed bearing date on the day of , 

and hereto annexed, personally appeared before me in the county (or city, etc.), 
aforesaid, the said A. B. (or A. B. and C. D., etc..) being personally Avell "known 
to me as (or proved by the oaths of credible witnesses before me to be) the person 
(or persons) who executed the said deed, and acknowledged the same to be his 
(her or their) act and deed. 

Given under my hand and seal this day of , A.D, 18 . 

[Seal.] JOSEPH MEKCEK. 

The following is the form where husband and wife join in the deed, the latter 
relinquishing dower, or when she is a party with her husband tp any deed : 

CotxTY^ :} (Or City, etc.), to-wit: 

I, Joseph Mercer, a notary public in and for the county aforesaid, do hereby 
certify that A. B. and C. D., his wife, parties to a certain deed bearing date on the 
day of , A, D. 18 , and hereto annexed, personally appeared 

before me, in the cotinty aforesaid; the said A. B. and C. D-, his wife, being 
personally well known to me as (or proved by the oaths of credible witnesses be- 
fore me to be) the persons who executed the said deed, and acknowleged the same 
to be their act and deed ; and the said C. D., wife of said A. B., being by me ex- 
amined privily and apart from her said husband, and having the deed aforesaid 
freely explained to her, acknowledged the same to be her act and deed, and de- 
clared that she had ^villingiy signed, sealed and delivered the same, and that she 
wished not to retract it. 

Given tinder my hand and seal this day of , A.D. 18 . 

JOSEPH MERCER. 

''i\Taen acknowledgments are made beyond limits of District, within United 
States, the certificate of the same must be accompanied by a certiticate of the 
register clerk or other public officer having cognizance of the fact under his offi- 
cial seal, that, at the date of the acknowledgment, the officer taking the same 
was, in fact, the officer he purported to be. Deeds made in a foreign cotuitry 
may be executed and acknowledged before any judge or chancellor of any court, 
master or master extraordinary in chancery, or notary public, or before any 
secretary of legation or consular officer of the I7nited States. 

Chattel Mortgages — Must be recorded within twenty days after execution. 
Xo bill of sale, deed of trust or mortgage for property exempt by law from 
execution is binding, ttnless signed by wife of debtor. The right of any married 
woman to property, personal or real, belonging to her at time of marriage or ac- 
quired duiing marriage in any other way than by gift or conveyance from her 
husband, are as absolute as if she were unmarried and are not subject to disposal 
of her husband nor liable for his debts. Any married woman may cojivey, devise 
and bequeath her property or any interest therein in the same manner and with 
like effect as if she were unmarried. Any married woman may contract and sue 
and be sued in lier own name, in all matters having relation to her sole and 
separate propertj', in the same manner as if she were unmarried. Neither the 
husband nor his property is bound by any such contract made by a married 
woman, nor liable for any recovery against her in any sucli suit, but judgnjent 
may be enforced by execution against lier sole and separate estate in same man* 
ner as if she were unmarried. 



842 SPECIAL LAWS OF DELAWARE. 



DAKOTA, HOMESTEAD LAW. 

Exemption from Forced SAhY,.— Home of 80 Acres toith buildinrjs, or House, 
and one-half acre in a Village or t'ilij, and Personal Property. The householder 
is entitled to a homestead consisting of not more than 80 acres of land with build- 
ings and appurtenances thereon, aii^d personal property aggregating in value not 
to exceed §1500, which personal projjerty is defined by statute. 



SPECIAL LAWS OF DELAWARE. 

Exemptions from Forced Sai,e.— ^Yo Home Exempted, Personal Property, 
$275. — Family library, school books, family Bible, family pictures, seat or pcV 
in church, lot in burial ground, all wearing apparel of debtor and family ; and 
in addition to above, tools, implements and fixtures necessaiy to carry on trade 
or basiness, not exceeding $75. Head of family, in addition to above, or other 
personal i^roperty not excee ling $200. And in Newcastle county, Avages for labor 
and service are exempt from execution attachment. 

Mechanics Liex — Mechanics, builders, artizans, laborers or other persons, 
having performed or furnished work and labor or materials or both, to an 
amovmt exceeding $25, in or for the erectioji, alteration or repair of any house, 
building or structure, in persuance of any contract, express or implied, with the 
owner or agent of such building or structure, may at any time within six months 
from the completion of said work and labor, or the furnishing of such materials, 
file in the office of the prothonotary of the county in which said building ifj 
situate a bill of particulars of his cLaim, with an aftidavit setting forth that the 
defendant is justly indebted to the plaintiff in a sum of $25, and has refused or 
neglected to pay or secured to be paid to the said plaintiff the amount due on his 
claim. The atlidavit must identify the property and give the names of the parties 
claimant, and the owner or reputed owner of said building. Judgment obtained 
shall be a lien on said building or structure and the real estate attached thereto 
upon which the same is erected, and shall relate back to the day upon -which the 
work or laborer furnishing of materials Avas commenced, and shall take priority 
according. Where several contractors are employed, in pursuance of any con- 
tract with the owner or agent, there shall be no priority of lien, but all be paid pro 
rata. 

Coll,ectio:n' of Debts. — What is known as a " domestic attachment,'" may be 
i.:=sued against any inhabitant of this State after a return to a summons or capias 
issued and delivered to the sheriff or a coroner ten days before the return 
thereof, showing that the defendant cannot be found, and proof satisfactory to 
the court of the cause of action : or iipon atiidaA'it made by the plaintiff or some 
other credible person, and filed with the prothonotary "that the defendant is 
justly indebted to the plaintitf in a sum exceeding $50, and has absconded from 
the place of his usual abode, or gone out of the State with intent to defraud his 
creditors or to elude process, as is believed," All creditors share in proceeds of 
sale of property, 

A foreign attachment may be issued against a person not an inhabitant of this 
State, after a return to a summons or capias, issued and delivered to the sheriff 
or coroner 10 days before the return thereof, showing that the defendant 
cannot be found, and proof, satisfactory to the court, of the cause of action ; or 
upon aftidavit made by the plaintiff or some other credible person, and filed with 
the prothonotary, " that the defendant resides out of the State, and is justly in- 
debted to the said plaintiff in a sum exceeding $50." 

No capias shall be issued on any judgment in a civil action (against any free 
white person) until the return of execution determines that the defendant has 
not sufficient real or personal property within the county to satisfy the debt or 
damage therein expressed ; or until the plaintiff in such judgment, or some 
credible person for him, sh 11 make a written affidavit, to be filed in prothonotaiy's 
office before the issuing of the writ, to the same effect ; nor then unless the plain- 
tiff in said judgment (or decree), or some credible person for him, shall, in addi- 
tion to the above requirement, make a written affidavit, to be filed in the protho- 
notary's office ( r register in chancery) before the issuing of the process statiiig 
" that the defendant in such judgment (or decree) is justly indebted to the said 
plalTitiff in a sum exceeding $50, and that he verily believes the said defendant 
liaa secreted, conveyed away, assigned, settled or disposed of either money, 



SPECIAL LAWS OF DELAWAKE. 843 

goods, chattels, stocks, securities for money, or other real or poi-sonal estate of 
the value of more than S50, with intent to defraud his creditors, and shall, more- 
over, in such atlidavit, specify and set forth the supposed fraudulent traui^ac- 
tions." 

As to remedy, the party arrested may have a hearing before any judge, upon 
the specilication of fraud,' upon petition and reasonable notice to the oUier side. 

As to assignments, all bonds, specialties, and notes in writing, payable to 
.iny person, or order, or assigns, maybe assigned, and the assignees, or indorsees, 
or "their executors or administrators, may in their own name sue for and recover 
the money due thereon ; provided, that all such assignments of bonds and special- 
ties shall be under liand and seal, and before at least two credible witnesses. 

In assignments for the benefit of creditors, the assignee, within 30 days after 
the execution of said assignment, shall file in office of the register of chancery of 
the county in which the real and personal estate of the assignor is situate, an in- 
ventory or schedule of the <estate or effects so assigned, together with the affidavit 
of said assignee that the same is a full and complete inventoi-j* of all such estate 
and effects, so far as the same has come to his knowledge. The chancellor shall 
appoint two appraisers, who shall appraise the same and make return thereof under 
oath. The assignee shall give bond, with at least two sufficient sureties, to be ap- 
proved by the chancellor, iji double the amount of the appraised value of the es- 
tate so assigned. The assignee to render annual accounts of his trusteeship until 
his final account is rendered and approved. Exceptions may be filed to the ac- 
count of said assignee, and a hearing be had npon the same and proceedings be 
had iipon said bonds for the protection of interested parties. 

As to garnishment, in Aviits of attachment, domestic or foreign, to comijel ap- 
pearance of defendant, there is a clause commanding the sheriff, " That he sum- 
mon the defendant's garnishees to appear at the next superior court, to declare 
what goods, chattels, rights, credits, money or effects of the defendant they have 
in their hands respectively." The Avilt is "tlissolved at any time before judgment, 
by the defendant giving special bail to the action, and the garnishees arc dis- 
charged. If a garnishee, duly summoned, does not appear as required, he may 
be compelled by attachment to appear and answer or plead, and he shall be to 
compelled withiii two terms, or the attachment, as to him, shall bo dissolved. If 
he appear, and at the request of the plaintiff, answers under oath that lie had no 
money, goods, chattels, rights, credits or effects of the defendant liable to attach- 
ment, in his hands or possession, at the time he was notified of the attach- 
ment, orat any time after, he shall be discharged. But if the plaintiff shall re- 
quire him to plead, he shall plead nulla bona, on which the plaintiff may take 
issue and go to trial ; and if it be found that the garnishee had, at the time he 
was notified of the attachment, or at any time after and before his plea pleaded, 
any money, goods, ch.attels, or effects of the defendant in his hands or possession, 
the jury shall render aA'erdict for the plaintiff and assess damages to the value of 
Buch property, and judgment shall be entered against such garnishee therefor, 
with costs ; such judgment shall be pleadable by the garnishee in bar to any 
action at the suit of the defendant. 

Judgments of courts are liens from the time of entering iipon the real estate 
of defendant within the county in which they are rendered ; after the lapse of 20 
years they are presumed to bo paid, but this presumption maj- be rebutted. Upon 
a return of nulla bona, on execution issued by a justice of the peace, or when the 
defendant pleads liis freehold, a transcript of said judgment may be tiled in the 
superior court of the county, and the judgment made alien upon land, and exe- 
cution then issues out of said superior court. 

Executions may issue to any county : personal preperty must be first ex- 
hausted before real estate can be levied upon. Personal property is boitnd from 
the time the writ comes into the hands of the sheriff, if an act\ial levy be made 
•within 60 days thereafter. The lien of such a levy remaii^ in full force for 3 
years, as against a subsequent execution levied upon the same goods. Sale at 
bxpiration of 30 days after levy. Notice by advertisement, posted at least 10<lays 
in five or more public places in the county', two of which shall be in the hundred 
of defendant's residence. C4oods and chattels of a tenant are liable to one year's 
rent inarrear or growing due, In preference to execution. 

After exhausting personalty, inquisition is held on lands, upon 10 days' no- 
tice. If the rents and profits for seven years are sufficient to satisfy the debt and 
costs, a writ of elefjit may issue, tinder "which the lands are delivered to the plain- 
tiff, to be held until the debt is satisfied. If not sufficient, a writ of venditioni 
exponas issues and the land is sold, upon 10 days' notice by advertisements and 
publication. "When the sale is confirmed by the court tho officer makes a deed to 
purchaser, capias ad satisfaciendum. 



841 SPECIAL LAWS OF DKLAAVARE. 

Property of the debtor in the hands of tliird persons can be reached cither be 
fore or after tinal judgment, and under attachment by i)roces3 of garnishment, 
upon an affidavit being made by the plaintiff, liis agent or attorney, that lie does 
not believe the debtor will have in his possession visible loroperty in this State 
of sufficient value to satisfy his demand. 

Damages for non-payment or non-acceptance of foreign bills, bills of exchange 
are at the rate of 5 per cent, on the hundred of the principal sum. Notes and 
bills in this State are assignable as at common law. 

Jurisdiction of justice courts extends to §50, county courts to §300, besides 
probate powers, and final jurisdiction where amount in controversy does not ex- 
ceed §100. Circuit courts have general jurisdiction in both law and equity cases, 
with appellate jurisdiction from cases arising in the county courts, and final 
jurisdiction in such cases. The supreme court has appellate jurisdiction ii all 
cases in equity, and all cases at law where the amount in controversy exceeds 
§300, 

Judgments obtained in courts of record are liens on all the estate of the defend- 
ant in the county where the judgment was obtained, from its date. If obtained 
in any other county in the State than where the land lies, becomes a lien on the 
land of the defendant from the time it is recorded in said county. Judgments 
obtained before a justice of the peace can be made a lien on the real estate of the 
defendant, if it is recorded within ten days after it is obtained, in the county 
clerk's office. Judgments from other States can be used only as evidence in a 
suit brought on them in this State. 

All the lands, goods and chattels of the defendant may be levied on and sold 
under execution, and is a lien on the personal property of the defendant f.om 
the time it comes to the hands of the sheritf. There is no stay of execution and 
no redemption of property told under execution. 

Dkeds, Mortgages, Ivighxs of Married "Womex, &c.— Deeds must be in 
writing, sealed and delivered in the presence of not less than two witnesses — a 
scrawl, with the word seal written in it, is suflicient seal. If a deed is executed 
in this State it must be before two witnesses, and the grantor may acknowledge 
the execution of the same before any judge, clerk of the circuit court, notaiy 
public or justice of the peace within the State, If executed out of the State 
and in any other State or territory, the deed may be executed according to the 
laws of the State or territory where executed and the execution thereof acknowl- 
edged before any judge or clerk of a court of record, notary public, justice of the 
peace or other officer authorized by the laws of such State or tei-ritory to takethe 
acknowledgment of deeds, or before any commissioner of the State of Florida. 
If executed in any foreign country, it may be executed according to the laws of 
such country, and acknowledged before any notary public, or any minister pleni- 
potentiary, extra^>rdinary, minister resident, charge d'affaires, commissioner or 
consul of the United States — should the deed be acknowledged in any other State 
or countrj% before any officer not having a seal of office, he should have attached 
thereto a ce/tifioate of the clerk of a court of recoi-d, a certificate of the secretary 
of state, minister plenipotentiary, extraordinary, minister resident, charge 
d'affaires, commissioner or consul (as the case may be), that the person whose 
nam3 is subscribed to the certificate of acknowledgment was, at the date thereof, 
such officer as he is therein represented to be, that be believes the signature of 
such persons subscribed thereto to be genuine, and that the deed is executed 
and acknowledged according to the laws of such State, territory or foreign 
country. 

The' following is the form used where the acknowledgment Is taken out of the 
State : 

State OP ,) 

COUXTY OP . j **' 

Be it remembered that on this day of 187 , personally ap- 

peared before me, a notary public, duly appointed and authorized by the executive 
authority of the State of , under the laws of said State, to take within 

said State proof and acknowledgments of deeds (or other officer as the case may 
be), to be used and recorded In such State, A. B., to me well known to be the 
per.^on who exec\ited the foregoing (and annexed) deed by him sealed, subscribed, 
and the said A. B. acknowleged the execution thereof to be his free act and deed, 
for the iises and purposes therein mentioned. 

In witness whereof, I have hereunto set nay hanU and affixed my official seal, 
tlie day and year fir^t above written. 

J, Hill, Notary Public, 



SPECIAL LAWS OF FLOKIDA. 845 

They take priority according to date of recording in proper office, and are liens 
only from such date. The lien of a purchase money mortgage reccfrded wilhin 
sixty davs after it is made has preference to any judgment against the mortgagor, 
or other'lien of a date prior to the mortgage chattel, unknown. 

The real and personal property of any married woman, acquired prior to 
March 17, 1875, or which she then held, or which she may acquire after that date, 
in any maimer whatever, from any person other than her husband, .shall be her 
sole and separate property ; and the rents, issues and profits thereof shall not be 
subject to the disposal of her husband nor liable for his debts. Married women, 
purchasers of real estate, may secure purchase money, or part of it, by recogniz- 
ance, bond, mortgage or otherwise, as single women niay ; her husband need not 
be a party or consent to such act of giving security, and is not liable unless he is 
a party thereto. May give bond with or without warrant of attorney. Married 
women may receive wages for her personal labor and maintain an action therefor, 
may deposit same or other moneys belonging to her in bank, etc., free from her 
hJiBband's control. May prosecute and defend suits at law, or in equity, for pres- 
ervation and protection of her property ; make contracts in respect to her prop- 
erty, upon which suits may be brought as though she Vi-aa/emme sole, whether 
the contracts were made before or after marriage, and her property shall be 
charged therewith. 

Wills must be in writing, and signed by the testator, or by some other person 
subscribing the testator's name, iu his i)re"sencc and by his express direction, and 
attested and subscribed by two competent witnesses, in the presence of the tes- 
tator. 



SPECIAL LAWS OF FLORIDA. 

Exemptions From Forced Sale. — Home. Faiin, or House and Lot, and Per- 
sonal Property. — A homestead to the extent of IGO jicres of land, or the hali of one 
acre within the limits of any incorporated city or town, owned by the head of a 
family residing iu this State, together with §1,000 worth of personal property, 
and the improvements on the real estate, shall be exempted from forced sale 
under any process of law, and the real estate, shall not be alienable without the 
joint consent of husband and wife, when that relation exists. " But no property 
shall be exempt from sale for taxes, or for the payment of obligations contracted 
for the purchase of said premises, or for the erection of improvements thereon, 
or for house, field or other labor performed on t)ie same. The exemption herein 
provided for, in a city or town, shall not extend to more improvements or build- 
ings than the residence or business house of the owner." 

Mecha^tics' Liex. — Mechanics and other persons performing labor or furnish- 
ing materials for the construction or repair of any building, or who may have 
furnished any engine or other machinery for any mill, distillery or manufactoiy, 
may have a lien on such building, mill or distillery, etc., for the same to the ex- 
tent of 'the interest of the tenant or contractor. Sub-contractors, journeymen and 
laborers have also lien, upon their giving notice in writing to the owner that they 
hold him responsible for whatever may be due them, 

CoLLECTiox OF DEBTS.— There is no imprisonment for debt in this State. 
Attachment may be had of the debtor's property upon affidavit made by the 
plaintiff, or his agent, or attorney, that the defendant is removing his property 
out of the State, or about to remove it, or is a non-resident of the State, or is re- 
moving or about to remove beyond the limits of the State, or absconds or secretes 
himself, or is fraudulently disposing of his property, or is concealing the same, 
or is removing same out of the judicial district where defendant resides. Before 
the attachment can issue the plaintiff must enter into a bond with sufficient 
securities in an amount double the sum claimed by him. An attachment will 
also be issued against the property of the defendant on a debt that is not due ; 
pro ided, it falls due in nine months from the time it is asked for — upon an af- 
fid£,' it by the plaintiff or his agent, setting forth the facts of the case ; and, also, 
thau the defendant is actually removing his property from out the State, or is 
fraudulently concealing or disposing of the same for the purpose of evading his 
just debts, 'a bond shall also be given, as in the case where the debt is actually 
due. 

Assignments, unless fraudulent, are good in this State, though preference be 
given to creditors ; and even assignments made in another State, conveying prop-, 
erty situated in this State, are held good against an attaching creditor. 



846 SPECIAL LAAVS OF FLORIDA. 

Stay of execution on judgment, for v/ant of affidavit of defense ; G montlis, if 
security b(i given 20 days after judgment. On judgmeiits before justice of the 
peace 6 months' stay ondef endant pleading his freehold, and 9 months' stay on his 
giving security. 

All checks, notes, drafts or hills, inland or foreign, payable without time or at 
sight, are due and payable on presentment, without grace ; days of grace shall be 
allowed on all checks, drafts or bills, foreign or inland, paj^ablc at a future or 
diHerent time from that in which they are dated, or which are made payable on 
a particular day after date. 

The damages on bills of exchange drawn npon any person beyond the seas, 
and returned with legal protest, shall as to the drawer, indorser and all con- 
cerned, be at the rate of 20 per centum on the contents of such bills in addition 
thereto. Notes, checks and other negotiable instruments, becoming payable on 
Christmas day, fourth day of July, Thanksgiving day, first day of January-, and 
twenty-second day of Februarj% shall be deemed to become due on the secular day 
next preceding the aforementioned days respectively. 

Summons may be served on defendant by stating the substance of it to him 
personally, or by leaving a copy at his usual place of abode, in the presence of a 
white adult person, 6 days before the return thereof. And whenever suit is 
brought against persons not residing in this State but doing business here, either by 
branch establishment or agency, it shall be sufficient service of writ of summons to 
leave a copy thereof with any agent, or at the usual place of business of such 
person or persons, or his, her or their agent, 10 days before the return thereof. 

Deeds, Rights of Maekied Womex, Wilxs, &c. — Acknowledgments may 
be taken out of the State before any consul-general, consul or commercial agent 
of the United States, duly appointed in any foreign country, at the places of their 
respective oflicial residences, or before any judge of the district or circuit court 
of the L^nited States, or the chancellor or any judge of a court of record, or the 
mayor or chief officer of any city or borough, and certified under the hand of tuch 
chancellor, judge, mayor or officer and the seal of his office, court, city or borough; 
or in open court, certified under the hand of the clerk, and the seal of the court; 
or before a commissioner of deeds, aijpointed by the Governor (whose seal shall 
be so engraved as to make an impression that will shoAv distinctly the name, 
official title, date of appointment and term of office of such commissioner). Only 
one witness is ivecessary to a deed. A scrawl is regarded as a seal. 

The certificate of acknowledgment innst show the wife relinquishes her 
dower, and the private examination should be certified in the Avords stated in the 
following form : 

[Form by Man and'SVife.] 
State of Delaware, ) 

COlT>fTY OF . ( ^^• 

Be it remembered, that on the day of , in the year of our 

Lord one thousand eight hundred and , personally came befoi e the 

subscriber (name and title), John Wilson and Maiy Wilson, his wife, parties to 
this indenture, known to me personally (or proved on oath of Richard Roe) to be 
such, and severally acknowledged said indenture to be their act and deed re- 
spectively, and the said Mary Wilson being at the same time privately examined 
by me, apart from her liusband, acknowledged that she erecuted the said inden- 
ture willingly, without compulsion, or threats or fear of her husband's dis- 
pleasure. 

Given under my hand and official seal the daj' and year aforesaid. 

(Signature and title.) 
[Form of Certificate where Grantor is Unmarried.] 
State of Delaware, ) 
CouxTY of . I **• 

Be it remembered, that on the day of , in the year of our 

Lord one thousand eight hundred and , personally came before the 

subscriber (name and "title), John Wilson, party to this indenture, knowji to me 
personally (or proved on oath of Peter Smith), to be such, and acknowledged said 
indenture to be his act and deed. 

Given under my hand and oflicial seal the day and year aforesaid. 

(Signature and title.) 

There is no statutory provision for proof of deed by subscribing witness out of 
the State. Deeds must be recorded within one year after the sealing and delivery 
of the instrument. 

Mortgages are executed and acknowledged in the same manner as deeds, and are 
foreclosed by proceedings in the superior court by ■writ of scire facias, aixd after 
judgment, sale of the premises is made by writ of levari facias. 



SPECIAL LAWS OF GEORGIA. 847 

The wife must join with the husband in the execution of deeds to relinquish 
her dower, and the following should be in the certificate of acknowledgment : 

'* Personally came C D., wife of the said A. B., to me well known, etc., and 
acknowledged she made herself a party to and executed the same for the purpose 
of relinquishing her dower, in and to the lands and tenements therein described ; 
and the said C. 1)., on a private examination taken and made before me, separately 
and apart from her said husband, acknowledges and says that the said relin- 
quishment and renunciation of dower was and is made freely and voluntarily, and 
without any compulsion or constraint, apprehension or fear from her said hus- 
band, the said A. B., to which acknowledgment the said C. D. has in my presence 
and this day set her handand seal." (Signature and title.) 

All peraonal and real property owned by the wife before her marriage, or to 
which she shall become entitled by inheritance, gift, purchase or devise during 
marriage, shall be and remain her sole and separate property, and free from the 
debts of the husband. But, in order that it shall be free from his debts, an inven - 
tory of the same must be made out in six months after marriage, or after the same 
shall be acquired by her, and recorded in the circuit court clerk's office in the 
county in which it is situated. A married woman can sell and convey all real 
estate inherited by her in the same way as she could if slie were sole ; but in all 
conveyances of any of her real estate her husband must join in the execution and 
acknowledgment. She is also entitled to dower in one-third of all the real estate 
seized by her husband at the time of his death, or at any time during his life, 
unless she has relinquished the same ; and she is also entitled to one-third of his 
personalty. 

No mortgage of personal property shall be effectual or valid to any purpose 
whatever, unless such mortgage shall be recorded in the office of record for the 
county in which the mortgaged property shall be at the time of the execution of 
the mortgage, and unless the mortgaged property be delivered at the time of 
execution of the mortgage, or within twenty days thereafter, to the mortgagee, 
and shall continue to remain truly and bona fide in his possession. Mortgages of 
personal property shall be admitted to record upon the same proof as real prop- 
erty, or by proof being made upon oath by at least one credible person, before the 
recording officer, of the hand-writing of the mortgagor, in cases in which there 
shall be no attesting witnesses to the mortgage. 

Wills must be in writing, signed by the testator or by some other person in 
his presence, and by his express directions, and shall be attested and subscribed 
in the presence of the testator by three or more witnesses. 



SPECIAL LAWS OF GEORGIA. 

ExEMPTioxs FKOM FORCED SALE.— ^ Home worth 352000, and personal Prop- 
erty ioor!'/t 31000. Each head of a family, or guardian or trustee of a family, of 
minor children, shall be entitled to a homestead or realty to the value of .f 2,000 
in specie, and personal property to the value of §1,000 in specie, both to be valued 
at the time they are set apart. And no court or ministerial officer in this State 
shall ever have jurisdiction or authority to enforce any judgment, decree or 
execution against said property so set apart — including "such improvements as 
may be made thereon from time to time — except for taxes, money borrowed and 
expended in the improvement of the homestead, or for the purchase money of 
the same, and for labor done thereon, or material furnished therefor, or removal 
of incumbrances thereon. And it shall be the duty of the General Assembly as 
early as practicable, to provide, by law, for the setting apart and valuation of said 
property, and to enact laws for the full and complete protection and security of 
the same to the sole use and benefit of said families as aforesaid. 

Mechanics' Lien. — Laborers shall have a general lien upon the property of 
their employers liable to levy and sale for their labor, which is superior to all 
other liens, except liens for taxes, the special liens of landlords on yearly crops, 
and such other liens as are declared by law superior to them. Laborers shall 
also have a special lien on the products of their labor superior to all other liens, 
except liens for taxes, and special liens of landlords on yearly crops, to which 
they shall be inferior. All mechanics of every sort, who have taken no personal 
security therefor, shall, for work done and material furnished in building, re- 
pairing or improving any real estate of their employers, all contractors, tnaterial 
men and persons furnishing material for the improveiiient of real estate, all con- 
tractors for building factories, furnishing material for the saino or furnishing 



848 SPECIAL LAWS OF GEORGIA. 

machinery for the same, and all machinists and manufacturers of machinery in- 
cluding corporations engaged in such business, who may furnish or put up iu any 
county of this State any steam mills or other machinery, or who may repair tlie 
Game, and all contractors to build railroads shall each have a special lieu on such 
real estate, factories and railroads. 

CoLLECTio>^ OF ACCOUNTS. — Attachment may issue where the debtor resides 
out of the State ; when he is actually removing or about to remove wiihout tho 
limits of the county ; when he absconds ; when he conceals himself ; when he 
resists a legal arrest ; when he is causing his property to be removed beyond the 
limits of the State ; when the debt is created by the purchase of property, upon 
such debt becoming due ; when the debtor who created such debt is in the pos- 
session of the property for the purchase of which the debt was created ; when a 
debtor shall sell or convey or conceal his property liable for the payment of his 
debts, for the purpose of avoiding the payment of the same, or whenever a debtor 
,6hall threaten or prepare so to do. Attachment bonds must be in double the 
amount of the debt, and conditioned to pay the defendant all damages sustained 
in consequence of the attachment, in the event the plaintiff shall fail to recover. 

Arrest and imprisonment for debt is unknown in this State. 

An assignment or transfer by a debtor, insolvent at the time, of real or person- 
al property, or choses in action of any description, to any person, either in trust 
or for the benefit of or in behalf of creditors, when any trust or benefit is reserved 
to the assignor, or any person for him, is fratadulent in law against creditors, and 
as to them null and void. A debtor may prefer one creditor to another, and to 
that end he maj' 6o?ia /f?e give a lien by mortgage, or other legal means, or he 
may sell in payment of the debt, or he may transfer negotiable papers as col- 
laterial security, the surplus in such cases not being reserved for his own benefit, 
or that of any other favored creditor, to the exclusion of other creditors. All 
choses in action arising upon contract may be assigned so as to vest the title in 
the assignee, but he takes it, except negotiable securities, subject to the equities 
existing between the assignor and debtor at the time of the assignment and until 
notice of the assignment is given to the person liable. 

In cases where suit is pending, or where judgment has been obtained, the 
plaintiff shall be entitled to the process of garnishment under the following reg- 
ulations. The plaintiff, his agent or attorn ey-at-law, shall make an aflidavit 
before some officer authorized to issue an attachment by this code, stating the 
iimount claimed to be due in such action, or on such judgment, and that he has 
reason to apprehend the loss of the same, or some part thereof, unless the process 
of garnishment do issue, and shall give bond, with good security, in a siun at 
least equal to double the amount sworn to be due, payable to the defendant in 
the suit or judgment, as the case may be, conditioned to pay said defendant all 
costs and damages that he may sustain in consequence of suing out said garnish- 
ment, in the event that the plaintiff fails to recover in the suit pending, or it 
should appear that the amount sworn to be due on such judgment was not due. 

If any bill of exchange, draft or order, is made payable at anj' place out of this 
State and within the United States, and the same is returned under protest for 
non-acceptance or non-paj-ment, the holder thereof shall be entitled to recover 
of the drawer and endorsers in the first case, and the acceptor also in the latter 
case, in addition to the principal, interest and protest fees, five per cent, on the 
principal as damages for non-acceptance or non-payment. If such bill, draft 
or order is payable at a place without the limits of the United States, the holder 
may recover ten per cent, damages as right for non-acceptance or non-pay- 
ment. 

The superior courts are the highest cotirts of general original jurisdiction. 
They have exclusive jurisdiction of divorce suits, cases respecting titles to land 
and equity cases. The powers of a cotxrt of ordinaiy and probate are vested in 
an ordinary for each county. Justices of tlie peace have jurisdiction in all 
civil cases where the principal sum claimed does not exceed §100, except 
where jurisdiction is exclusively vested in other courts. 

"Writs to the superior courts must be filed twenty days, and served fifteeen 
days before the first day of the term to Avhich they are returnable. Actions are 
triable only at the second term, except suits torrent, which arc triable at the 
first term. In justices' courts, summonses shall bear date 15 days before the 
time of trial, if the amotint is under 950, and shall bear date 20 days before the 
time of trial when the amount is over §50, and shall be served at least 10 days 
before the time of trial. 

All judgments obtained in the superior, inferior, justices' or other courts of 
this State shall be of equal dignity and shall bind all the jiroperty of the de- 
fendant, bo'h real and personal, from the date of such judgment, except as 



SPECIAL LAWS OF GEORGIA AND IDAHO. 849 

otherwise provided in tliis code. "VTlien any person has honafule and for a val- 
uable consideration purchased real or personal property, and has been in pos- 
session of such real property for four years, or of such personal property two 
years, the same shall be discharged from the lieu of any judgment against the 
person from "svhom he has purchased. "When a judgment lien has attached on 
personal property which is removed to another State and sold, if brought hack 
agaia to this State it will be subject to the judgment lien. No judgment here- 
after obtained in the courts of this State shall be enforced after the expiration 
of seven years from the time of its rendition, when no execution has been issued 
upon it ; or when execution has been issued, and seven years shall liave expired 
from the time of the entry upon tlie execution, made by an officer authorized to 
execute and return the same ; such judgments may be revived by scire facias, or 
h^^ su d on. within three years from the time they become domiant. Execution 
may issue immediately upon the rendition of judgment. 

i)EEDS, INIORTGAGES. KlGHTS OF MARRIED \Vo:HEX, WILLS, &C., A deed tO 

lands in this State must be in writing, under seal, signed by the maker, attested* 
by at least two witnesses and delivered to the purchaser, or some one for him, 
and be made on a valuable or good consideration. No prescribed fonn is essential 
to the validity of a deed to lands or personalty. If sufKcient in itself to make 
known the transaction between the parties, no want or form will invalidate it. 
A deed to personalty needs no attesting witness to make it valid ; in other re- 
snects, the principles applicable to deeds to lands are applicable to it. Gener- 
ally a deed is not necessary to convey title to personalty. Every deed conveying 
lands shall be recorded in the office of the clerk of the superior court of the 
county where the land lies within one year from the date of such deed ; on fail- 
ure to record in this time, the record may be made at any time thereafter ; but 
such deed loses its priority over a subsequent deed from the same vendor re- 
corded in time and taken without notice of the existence of the first. To au- 
thorize the record of a deed to realty or personalty, it must be attested, if execu- 
ted out of this State, by a commissioner of deeds for the State of Georgia, or a 
consul or vice-consul of the United States (the certificates of these officers under 
llieir seals being evidence of the fact), or by a judge of a court of record in the 
Stae where executed, with the certificate of the clerk, under the se&l of such 
court, of the genuineness of the signature, of such judge. If executed in this 
State, it must be attested by a judge of a court of record of this State', or a justice 
of the peace, or notarj' public, or clerk of the superior court in the county in 
which the last three mentioned officers respectively hold their appointments ; 
or if subsequently to its execution the deed is acknowledged in presence of 
either of the above-named officers that fact certified on the deed by such officer 
shall entitle it to be recorded. If a deed is neither attested by nor acknowledged 
before either of the officers aforesaid, it maj^ be admitted to record upon 'the 
affidavit of a subscribing witness before either of the above-named officers tes- 
tifying to the execution of the deed and its attestation according to law. 

All property of the wife at the time of her marriage, whether real or personal 
or choses in action, shall be and remain the separate property of the Avife, and 
all property given to, inherited or acquired by the wife during coverture, shall 
shall vest in and belong to the wife, and shall not be liable for the payment of 
any debt, default or conti'act of the husband. The wife is a,/emme sole as to her 
separate estate, unless controlled by the settlement. EA'ery restriction upon 
her power in it must be complied with ; but while the wife may contract, she 
cannot bind her separate estate by any contract of suretyship, nor by any as- 
Mimption of the debts of her husband, and any sale of her 'separate estate, made 
to a creditor of her husband in extinguishment of his debts, shall be absolutely 
\oid. 

Wills must be in writing, signed by the testator or some person in his presence 
and by his express direction, and attested and subscribed, in the presence of 
the testator, by three competent witnesses if to pass real estate, and two if per- 
sonal property. 



SPECIAL LAWS OF IDAHO. 

ExEMPTTOxs FROM FORCED SALE.— ZTcTOe worth 92000, and Personal Property 
vorih .§300. The head of a family, being a householder, either liusband or wife, may 
select a homestead not exceeiling in value !i?2000 ; while furniture, teams, tools, 
stock, and other petsonal property enumerated by statute, to the value of S300 or 
more, according to valuation, shall be exempt from execution, except upon a 
judgment recovered for its price, or upon a mortgage thereon. 

54 



850 SPECIAL LAAVS OF ILLINOIS. 

SPECIAL LAWS OF ILLINOIS. 

ExEMPTlO>"S FROM FORCED SALE.— JTbmeu'or/Zi §1000, and Personal Proper ti/. 
Exemptions arc as follows, except for wages of any laborer or servant : An 
estate of homestead to the extent in A'alue of Spl,Ot)0, and proceeds of the sale 
thereof to that amount for one year after such sale. Insurance on homestead is 
exempt where a loss occurs thereon to the extent* property insured would have 
been if not destroyed. Personal property is exempt as follows : 1. The necessary 
wearing apparel of every person, 2. One sewing machine. 3, The furniture, 
tools and implements of any person necessary to carry on his or her trade or 
business, not exceeding in value $100. 4. Materials and stock designed and 
procured by him or her and necessary for carrying on his or her trade and business, 
and intended to be used or wrought therein, not exceeding § 100 in value. 5. The 
implements or library of any professional person, not exceeding $100 in value. 
• And in addition to the above property, when the debtor is the head of a fam- 
ily and resides with the same, the following : 1. Necessary beds, bedsteads and 
bedding, two stoves and pipe. 2. Necessary household furniture, not exceeding 
in value, $200. 3. One cow and calf, and two swine. 4. One yoke of oxen, or 
two horses in lieu thereof, used by the debtor in obtaining the support of his 
family, jiot exceeding in value §200, and the harness thereof, not exceeding in 
value'$40. 5. Necessary provisions and fuel for the use of the family, for three 
months, and necessary food for the stock hereinbefore exempted for the same 
time. G. The bibles, school books and family pictures. 7. The family library. 
8. Cemetery lots or rights of burial, and tombs for repositories, for the dead. 9. 
$100 worth of other property suited to his or her condition in life, selected by the 
debtor. 

AVhen the head of a family dies, deserts, or does not reside with same, such 
family is entitled to the benefit of exemptions just mentioned. The wages and 
services of a defendant, being the head of a family and residing with the same, 
to an amount not exceeding $25, are exempt from garnishment. 

MECHA^'ICS' LiEX. — Any person, by contract, express or implied, or both, 
with the owner of any lot or piece of ground, furnishing labor or materials in 
building, altering, repairing or ornamenting any house or building on such lot 
has a lien upon such lot or building for the amount due him for such labor or 
material. To the extent that the furnishing such labor or materials has increased 
the A^alue of such property,such lien takes precedence over prior incmn- 
brances. Proceedings to enforce a mechanics' lien must be commenced by 
the original contractor within six months from the time when the last pay- 
ment for labor, or materials becomes due, in order to enforce such lien against 
other creditors or incumbrances 

CoLiiECTiojf OF Debts. — Arrests in civil actions, maybe made under a Statute 
which provides that when any person shall be about to commence a suit in any 
court of record in this State founded upon contrjjct, if he shall file an affidavit 
setting forth the cause of action, the amount due the plaintiff, and facts showing 
that defendant fraudulently contracted the debt, or that he has concealed, 
assigned, removed or disposed of his property with intent to defraud such plain- 
tiff ; and shall present such affidavit to a judge of a court of record, or it' there be 
no such judge in the county at the time, then to a master in chancery ; and if 
sufficient cause be shown, bail may be given. The judge or officer ordering the 
issuing of such capias must require bond from the plaintiff, Avith security to bo 
approved by the clerk issuing the writ, in double the amount sued for, con- 
ditioned for the effectual prosecution of the eapiashy plaintiff and payment of all 
ilamages defendant by him sustained, on account of the wrongful suing out of 
writ. 

Writs of attachment may issue for the following causes : 1. Where the credi- 
tor is a non-resident. 2, When the debtor conceals himself or stands in de- 
fiance of an officer so that process cannot be served on him. 3- Where the 
debtor has departed from the State with the intention of haA'ing his effects re- 
moved therefrom, 4. Where the debtor is about to remove his property from 
this State to the injury of creditor seeking to attach, 5. Wliero the debtor has 
within two years preceding the filing of the affidavit required in this proceeding 
to bo filed by attaching creditor, fraudulently conveyed or assigned his effects, 
or a part thereof, so as to hinder or delay his creditors. G. Where the debtor 
ha.-*, within two years prior to the filing of such affidavit, fraudulently concealed 
or disposed of his property so as to hinder or delay his creditors. 7. When the 
debtor i^ about fraudulently to conceal, assign or otherwise dispose of liis prop- 
erty or effects so as to hinder or delay his creditors. 8. AVhen the debt sued 



SPECIAL LAWS OP ILLINOIS. 851 

for was fraudulently contracted on the part of the debtor ; provided, the 
statemeaits of the debtor, his agent or attorney, -svhich constitute the fraud, shall 
have been reduced to writing and his signature attached thereto by himself, his 
agent or attorney. 

To entitle a creditor to sue out an attachment, the claim which he seeks to 
make the basis of this proceeding must exceed $20 in a court of record. Plain- 
tiff, i]i attachment before issuance of Avrit, is required to file with the clerk 
issuing same a bond to the defendant Avith suflicient surety in double the sum 
sworn to be due to him, conditioned for the payment of all damages and costs re- 
covered against him for wrongfully suing out such attachment. Attachments 
may be issued by justices of the peace where the amount claimed is within their 
jurisdiction for the same causes Avhch authorize their issue from courts of record 
and under substantially the same restrictions. 

Assignments for the benefit of creditors may be made so as to prefer one or 
more, or a certain class of creditors. 

If no preference is made by the debtor the creditors have an equitable lien for 
their ^;?-o rata proportions. If the assignment is made with the intent of delay- 
ing or defrauding creditors, it is void — not necessarily so, if its effect is to delay 
creditors. 

One partner can assign all the partnership assets for the payment of firm 
debts. Chnses in action, except negotiable instruments, can jiot be assigned 
here so as to give assignee a right of action on them in his own name. 

Garnishee process may issue both from justices courts and courts of record, 
either 0:1 attachment or after judgment and execution returned nulla bona 
against any person owing debtor or having money, property or effects belonging 
to the debtor in his possession. 

The acceptance of a bill need not be in writing. "\\^iere foreign bills, drawn 
within this State and payable out of the United States, arc duly protested for 
non-payment or no)i-acceptauce, the holder is entitled to ten per cent, damages, 
in addition to the costs of protest, from the drawer or indorser. On bills diawn 
in this State and payable out of the State, but Avithin the United States, duly 
protested as aforesaid, to five per cent, damages. Any note, bond, bill or in- 
strument in writing, made payable in money or articles of personal property to 
any person named as payee therein, is assignable by indorsement luider the 
hand of such person, in the same manner as all bills of exchange. Every assignor 
or indorser of such instrument is liable to the action of any subsequent assignee 
thereof, if such assignee has used due diligence by the institution and prosecu- 
tion of a suit againsli the maker thereof for the recoverj' of the money or proper- 
ty due thereon, or damages in lieu thereof, and has obtained judgment, but by 
the use of due diligence iias been unable to obtain satisfaction thereof. A note, 
bond, bill or other instrument in writing, payable to bearer, is transferable by 
delivery, and every indorser thereof is a guarantor, unless otherwise exjiressed in 
his indorsement. 

Justices of the peace have jurisdiction in their respective counties, where the 
amount claimed, including interest, does not exceed §200. 1. In all actions 
arising on contract for the recovery of money only. 2. In actions for damages 
for injury to real property, or for taking, detaining or injuring personal property. 
3. In actions for rent and distress for rent. 4. In actions against railway com- 
panies and those operating railways for killing or injuring horses or other stock ; 
for loss or injury to baggage or freight ; aiul forlnjuiy or damage to real or personal 
property, caused by setting lire to the same by their engines or otherwise. 5. In 
replevin when the Value of the property claimed does not exceed §200. 6. In 
actions for damages for fraud in the sale, purchase or exchange of personal 
property, and in all cases where the action of debt or assumpsit will lie. 

Circuit courts have, by the Constitution, original jurisdiction of all causes at 
law and in equity, and such appellate jurisdiction as may be provided for by 
law. Appeals lie' from justices' courts directly to these courts, defendant to 
plead at said term. Before justices, summons must bo served three days before 
returned. 

Judgments from courts of record are a lien on the real estate of the 
judgment debtor, situated in the county wherein judgment la obtiiwied 
from the time same are obtained, are revived for the period of ' 7 't'c^Ts. 
"When execution is not issued on a judgment within one year from the tiinc the 
same becomes a lien, it shall thereafter cease to be a lien; but executio]i may 
issue on such judgment at any time within said 7 years, and it becomes a lien 
on such real estatefrom the time of the delivery of such writ to the officer for 
eervice. Such judgments may be sued upon or revived within 20 years after the 
date thereof and not after, JiiUgmeuts rendered by justicea of the peace juay 



852 SPECIAL LAWS OF ILLINOIS. 

bo made a lien on real estate by filing a transcript thereof in the office of the 
olerk of the circuit court for the county in Avhicli judgment avus rendered. Sudi 
transcripts can only be filed when it aiipears by return of execution on judg- 
ment that defendant has not personal property in the county where same was 
obtained to satisfy such judgment and costs. 

Executions issue from courts of record immediately after rendition of judg- 
ment and at any time thereafter for seven years, and to any county in the State. 
They are a lien upon the personal property of the judgment debtor from the 
time of delivery to the ofiicer. Real estate sold under execution may be redeemed 
in twelve months. Executions from justices' courts cannot be levied on real es- 
tate, and do not issue until twenty days after judgment, unlef-s the judgment 
creditor or his agent make oath that the benefit of the judgment is in danger of 
being lost unless execution issue immediately. Executions from justices' courts 
are also a lien upon the personal property of the defendant from the time of their 
delivery to the constable. There is no way of staying executions in this State ex- 
cept by appeal. 

Deeds, Mortgages, Ki.iHTS of Married Womex, Wills, &c. Deeds 
and other conveyances of real estivte, must be under seal ; any scrawl intended 
for a seal is, however, suflicient. No subscribing witness is necessary, either to 
the validity of the instrument or to entitle the same to record. Such instruments 
may be acknowledged within this State before a master in chancery, a notaiy 
public, a United States commissioner, circuit or county clerk, justice of the peace, 
or any court of record having a seal, or any judge, justice or clerk of such court. 
Such acknowledgment must be attested when taken before a notary public or 
United States commissioner by his oihcial seal. When taken before a court or 
clerk thereof, by the seal of such court ; and when taken before a justice of the 
peace residing out of the county where the land conveyed is situated, a certificate 
of the county clerk of the county w"herein such justice I'esides, must be added, 
under his seal of office, to the effect that the person taking such acknowledg- 
ment or proof was a justice of the peace in said county at the date thereof. 
AVhen acknowledged Avithout the State, but within the United States, such 
acknowledgment may be taken before a justice of the peace, a notary public, 
United States commissioner, commissioner to take acknowledgments of deeds, 
mayor of a city, clerk of a county, or before any judge, justice or clerk of the 
supreme court, or any circuit or district court of the United States, or any judge, 
justice or clerk of the supreme, circuit, superior, district, county or common 
pleas court of any of the United States or their territories. When such acknow 1- 
edgment is made before any notary public. United States commissioner, com- 
missioner of deeds or clerk, it shall be certified by such officer under his ofiicial 
seal ; if before the mayor of a city, under the seal of the city ; if before a justice 
of the peace, a certificate must be added as in case of pre of or acknowledgment 
within the State before a justice of the peace residing without the county Avhero 
the land conveyed is situated. Acknowledgments may be made in accordance 
with the laws of the State, territory or district where made, and the certificate of 
a clerk of a court of record in stich jurisdiction to that effect, under his h.and 
and the seal of said court, is evidence that such acknowledgment was so made. 

When acknowledged without the United States, such acknowledgment may, 
betaken before any court of any republic, State, kingdom or empire having a 
seal, or any mayor or chief officer of any city or town having a seal, or before 
any minister or secretary of legation, or consul of the United States in any 
foreign country, attested by his official seal, or before any officer authorized by 
the laws of such foreign country to take acknowledgments of conveyances of 
real estate, if he have a seal ; sucli acknowledgment, in all cases, must be at- 
tested by the official seal of such court or officer ; and in case such acknowledg- 
ment or proof is taken other than before a court of record, or mayor, or chief 
officer of a town having a seal, proof that the ofiicer taking the same was duly 
authorized by the laws of his country so to do must accompany the certificate of 
such acknowledgment. 

The following in the statutory form of certificate. It is the same, substan- 
tiaUy, (Whether grantor is unmarried or deed executed by husband and wife : 

S«»E OS ILLIXOIS, 1 

CoikxaFY OF Sangamon. ) • 

I, (name of officer and title\ do hereby certify that (grantor and if wife join 
her name ''his wife "), personall J' known to me to be the same person whose 
name is subscribed to the foregoing instrument, appeared before me this day v» 
person and acknowledged that he signed, sealed and delivered the said instrti- 
meuft as his free and volujvtary act, for the uses and purposes therein set forth. 



SPECIAL LAWS OF INDIANA. 853 

Given under my hand and (private or official as the case maybe) seal, this (day 
of month) day of (month), A . 1). (year). 

[Seal.] (Signature of officer.) 

No deed or other instrument can he construed as releasing or waiving the 
right of homestead, unless tlie same shall contain a clause expressly releasing or 
waiving such right ; .and in such case, the certilieate of acknowledgment must 
contain a clause substantially as follows : " including the release and waiver of 
the right of homestead." 

No chattel mortgage or trust deed is valid as against the rights of third per.«;ons. 
unless possession thereof shall be delivered to ami remain with the grantee, or the 
instrument shall provide for the possessioii of the property with the grantor, and 
be properly acknowledged and recorded. Such instruments may be ackowledgcd 
as deeds. They are valid for any period not exceeding two years. After the ex- 
piration of the time provided in the mortgage for the possession of the mort- 
gaged property by the mortgagor, such possession, if continued, renders llie 
mortgage fraudulent and void as to third parties with or without notice, actual 
or constructive, of such mortgage. 

Married women may own in "their own right real and personal property, and 
manage, sell and convey the same to the same extent, and in the same manner 
that a married man can, properly belonging to him. They may sue and be sued 
without joining their husbands, to the same extent as if unmarried. A marrie<l 
woman may make contracts and incur liabilities which may be enforced against 
her to the same extent as if she were sole, but she cannot enter into or carry on 
any partnership business without her husband's consent, unless ho has abandoned 
or deserted lier, is idiotic or insane, or is confmed in the penitentiary. The es- 
tate of courtesy is abolished, and the surviving husband or wife is endowed of 
one-third part of all lands whereof the deceased husband or wife was seized of 
an estate of inheritance at any time during the marriage, unless the same has 
been relinquished in legal form. Dower may be barred by release thereof in due 
form of law, and by jointure or devise, accept in lieu thereof. 

Wills must be in writing, signed by the testator, or by some one in his presence 
and by his direction, and attested by "two credible witnesses. 



SPECIAL LAWS OF INDIANA. 

Exemptions from Forced Sale. — Home and Personal Property/ of the fol- 
loioing value. — Any resident householder has an exemption from levy and sale 
under execution, of real and personal property, or both, as he may select, to the 
value of $<300. The law further pi-ovides that no property shall be' sold by virtue 
of an execution for less than tico thirds of its appraised cash value, The pro- 
visions of this law can be waived in contracts. To do this, the note or contract 
should read : " Payable without any relief whatever from valuation or apprais- 
mentlaws." 

Mechaxics' Liex. — Material men and mechanics have lien for labor ami 
material on the land and improvements to the extent of their claims. The ori- 
ginal contractor must file his claim within two months, laborers within 60 
days, and all other persons claiming a lien within two months after the debt 
accrued. This lien has precedence over all other liens c;^i- encumbrances placed 
on the property subsequent to the commencement of the building or improve- 
meiJts. ]Must be foreclosed in 12 months. 

Collection of Df-bts,— No persons can be arrested here except fn eases 
of fraud, actual. 

Writs of attachment, which may be obtained by any creditor, can only be Issued 
on the following grounds : — 1. Non-residence of any of defeiulanls. 2. Where 
any of defendants is secretly leaving the State, or has left the State with intent 
to defraud his creditors. 3. Or conceals himself that summons cannot be served 
upon him. 4. Or is removing, or about to remove, his property subject to execu- 
tion, or part thereof, out of the State, not leaving enough to satisfyplaintiflf's claim. 
.'>. Or has sold, conveyed or otherwise disposed of his property subject to execu- 
tion, or hns suffered or permitted it to be sold with the fraudulent intent to 
cheat, hinder or delay his creditors. 6. Or is .about to sell, convey or dispose of 
same with such intent. A statutory undertaking in all cases In .attachment must 
be executed, the measure of damages in an action on wliich U in the discretion 
of the jury. 



'854 



SPECIAL LAWS OF INDIANA. 



In attachments levied on real estate, the levy and dls pnndens sivc notice for 
all purposes. In attachments, except on ground of non-residence, caution should 
be used. 

An assignment in trust, for the benefit of creditors, inure for the benefit of all 
creditors of the grantor, whether named in the deed of assigment or not ; tlie 
deed of assignment must be acknowledged and recorded like other deeds. One 
partner cannot assign all the partnership assets for the payment of partner- 
ship debts, but only his own share of them. Assignments made to secure 
sureties or endorsers prior to any payment by them, are valid. Notes, bills, ac- 
counts and every species of contractor claim are assignable, and the assignee can 
sue on it in his own name. 

In notes and bills, acceptors ai-e chargeable only when their acceptance is in 
writing on the bill : or, if on a seperate piece of paper, when the pai'ty who gave 
the credit saw the seperate paper ; or if a promise is made in writing to accept 
a draft before it is drawn, and the draft is in the hands of any person who gave 
credit on the strength of of this writing. 

All parties to notes or bills, whether indoisers, makers or acceptors, or pai-ties 
in any manner, can be sued jointly or separately in the same or in several ac- 
tions. Drafts, orders or bills of exchange, payable at sight or on demand, arc 
deemed due the day they are presented for payment, and if unpaid, may be pro- 
tested. Notarial protest" is evidence of demand and refusal of payment, at the 
time and in the manner stated in the jjrotest. 

A bill in the State, payable out of the State, protested, if payable in the United 
States, is entitled to eight per cent, damages ; if payable out of the United 
States, ten per cent, damages. Sheriff's are liable to pay ten per cent, damages 
on failure to pay over anytnoney collected by them. 

Justice Courts have exclusive jurisdiction of all sums under 850, and 
concurrent jurisdiction with the circuit courts to $200. Service of summons 
must be made in circuit courts 10 days before the tiret day of term, and in justice 
courts 3 days before trial. 

Judgments in courts of record are liens on real estate for a peiiod of ten 
years ; the judgment may then be revived for ten years longer ; judgments are 
no liens on personal property. Transcripts of judgment before justice, if filed 
in the circuit court, are liens on real estate. 

Executions issue, on plaintiff's order, the day after judgment, and are a lien 
on personal property, vi'hen issuing out of a justice's court, from the time they 
are delivered to the'officer ; when issviing from courts of record, from the lime 
they are issued. Executions from a justice cannot be levied on real estate. Every 
species of property, real or personal, books of account, debts and judgments, 
whether the interest in real estate be a legal or equitable title, is subject to 
execution and sale at law. Redemption after execution sale is permitted. If 
an execution from a court of record is returned unsatisfied, the debtors can be 
sunnnoned and required to state under oath what properly or interests they h.ave 
or own Avliich may be reached by execution. 

Dkeds, Rights of Married Women, Wilt.s, Szc. — ^Deeds, must l)e under 
seal, a scrawl, however, is regarded as a seal. The acknowledgment, if made in 
this State, may be made before a justice of ihe peace of the county where the 
land lies, before a judge or before a notary public ; if out of the State, before a 
commissioner of this State, notary public, or before the chief officer or mayor of 
a town or city who has a seal, or before a consul or minister of the United 
States who has a seal. The seal must be attached, and the deed recorded in the 
county where the land lies. 

The following is the fornr of certificate where the grantor is unmarried : 

[Form.] 
State of In'diaxa, 1 
County of Stark, j 

Befox-e me, ,a in and for said county, this day of , 

187 , personally appeared the within-named, and acknowledged the execution 
of the within and foregoing deed of conveyance. 

Witness my hand and official seal. (Signature and title.) 

Mari'ied women can hold real or personal property to their seperate use. A 
note or endorsement by a married woman will not bind her seperate estate : it 
Avill be a nullity. The widow is endowed with one full and equal third part of all 
the lands, the legal title to which was in her husband during coverture, uidess 
Buch right of dower was legally barred. 

A chattel mortgage of perishable articles which are left in the hands of the 
grantor, with right to use the same, is void ; so is a mortgage of a stock of good?;, 
the grantor having a right to sell ; to is any mortgage, if unregistered and the 



SPECIAL LAWS OF IOWA. 855 

chattels left with the grantor ; a chattel mortgage unrecoraea more man ten 
clavs Is A'oid, except between the parties ; so is also a recorded mortgage, if the 
goods are left unreasonably long Avith the grantor after default is made in pay- 
ment. 

Wills must be in writing, and signed by the testator, or by some person in his 
presence and by his express direction, and attested and subscribed in the pre- 
sence of the testator by two or more competent witnesses. 



SPECIAL LAWS OF IOWA. 

ExEMPTlOKS FROM FORCED SALE. — Farm of 40 Acres or House and Lot in City 
and Personal Property. — The homestead must embrace the house used as a home by 
the owner thereof, and if he has two or more houses thus used by him, at differ- 
ent times and places, he may select which he w ill retain as a homestead. If with- 
in a town plat it niust not exceed y^ ^^re in extent, if not in a town plat it must 
not embrace in the aggregate more than 40 acres. But if when thus limited, in 
either case its value is less than §500, it may be enlarged until its value reaches 
that amount. 

Wearinw apparel kept for actual use; trunks to contain same; 1 gun ; private li- 
braries and family portraits ; musical instruments not kept for sale; 2 cows ; 1 
horse ; 50 sheep ; 5 hogs ; 6 hives of bees ; 1 bed and bedding for every two in the 
family ; household and kitchen furniture not exceeding ^200 ; spinning-wheel, loom 
and sewing machine ; provisions and fuel for 6 months ; the tools, instruments or 
books of debtor, if a farmer, mechanic, surveyor, lawyer, clergyman, physician, 
teacher or professor. If a printer, printing-press, and types, etc., for the use of 
such newspaper office, not exceeding S1200. The personal earnings of the debtor 
and his family for the 90 days precedinri the execution. To an unmarried person, 
a person not the head of a family, ordinary wearing apparel and trunks to con- 
tain the same are exempt. If a debtor absconds and leaves his family, such pro- 
perty allowed to the head of a family shall be exempt in hands of his wife and 
children, or either. A single man, not the head of a family, non-residents, and 
those who have started to leave the State are excluded from the above exemp- 
tions ; their property is liable to execution, with the exception of ordinary wear- 
ing apparel, and trunks to contain the same; value not to exceed §75. 

K o exemption shall protect property against execution for the purchase money 
thereof. 

Mecha>:ics' Liex. — Every mechanic or other person doing any labor, or fur- 
nishing any material, machinery or lixtures for the erection or improvement of 
any building, by virtue of any contract w itli the owner, agent, trustee, contrac- 
tor or sub-contractor, shall have a mechanics' lien on the buildings, fixtures and 
real estate. Railways are liable in the same way as other property for construc- 
tion and improvements. No person who takes collateral security on the same 
ctMitract is entitled to a lien. The lien must be filed in ninety days after the la- 
bor to affect purchasers or incumbrances without notice ; as between the ori- 
ginal parties, it can be filed any time in five years. 

Collection of Debts. — Arrest in civil action is unauthorized by law in this 
State, 

Writs of attachment may issue, by sworn petition, on one or more of the 
following grounds : 1. That defendant is a foreign corporation or acting as such. 
2. That iieis a non-resident of the State. 3. That he is about to remove his prop- 
erty out of the State, without leaviiig sufficient remaining for the payment of 
debts. 4. That he has, or is about to dispose of his property, in whole or in 
part, with intent to defraud creditors. 5. Tl)at he has absconded, so that ordin- 
ary process cannot be serA'ed upon him. G. That he is about to remove perma- 
nently from the State and refuses to secure the debt. 7. That he is about to 
convert property into money for purpose of placing it beyond the reach of credit- 
ors. 8. He has property and rights which he cojiceals. 9. That the debt is for 
property obtained under false pretenses. In No. 4, (>, and 9, attachment may be 
commenced before the debt is due. Bond must be three times the amount 
claimed, and "sheriff may attach fifty per cent, in value more than amount 
claimed. Attachment can only be levied on proi^erty not exempt from execution. 
Assignments for the benefit of creditors must be niade for the benefit 
of all creditors pro rata. An inventory of assets and liabilities must be 
sworn to by the insolvent, with a list of the creditors and their respec- 
tive demajidg. Assignments must be duly acknowledged as traiiefers of 



856 SPECIAL LAWS OF IOWA. 

real estate, aiid^ecorded in the county where the insolvent resides, or where the 
bu iiiess in respect of which the same is made has been conducted. The ass,ignee 
t^liall lile the assignment and inventory with the clerk of the district court, and 
shall give bond for the performance of his duty in double the amount of the invent- 
ory and valuation. No dividend can be declared in less than three months. 
Creditors may accept their j9rci rata of assets, and take judgment for the remain- 
der if they choose. 

Garnishment can be issued either on execution or attachment against any 
pei-son owing the debtor or having his property in possession. The garnishee is 
entitled to compensation for his trouble and expense ; this is payable out of the 
fund, if any is found in his hands, or if nothing is due from the garnishee, then 
the plaintiff is bound to pay this sum. 

Acceptors of notes and bills are liable only when their acceptance is in- 
dorsed in writing ; or, if on seperate piece of paper, when the party who gave 
the credit saw the seperate paper ; or if a promise is made in writing, to accept 
a draft before it is drawn, and the draft is in the hands of any person who gave 
credit on the strength of this writing. The rate of damages to be allowed and 
paid on the non-acceptance or non-payment of bills of exchange drawn or en- 
dorsed in this State is as follows : If bill be drawn upon a person at a place out 
of the United States, or in California, Oregon, Neveda. or any of the territories, 
five per cent, upon principal specified in the bill, and interest on the same from 
the time of protest. If drawn upon a person at any other place in the United 
States, other than in this State, three per cent, with interest. All parties to 
notes and bills, whether endorsers, acceptors or makers, can be sued jointly or 
seperatelv. Notarial protest is evidence of demand and refusal of payment as 
stated therein. 

Jurisdiction of Justices of the peace, S^lOO, but by agreement of parties may 
be extended to i^SOO. 

Circuit court has exclusive jurisdiction of probate business and appeals from 
justices of peace. District court has exclusive criminal jurisdiction. The two 
courts have concurrent jurisdiction in civil cases, except such as are special to 
circuit court as above. Service of summons must be ten clear days in district 
and circuit, and five in justice courts. 

Judgments in courts of record are a lien from their rendition and for 10 years 
thereafter, on all real estate owned by the defendant, or subsequently acquired 
hy him, and situated in the county Aviiere the judgment is rendered. The judg- 
ment can be revived at the end of that time. No execution can issue on a judg- 
ment in a court of record older than ten years ; new suit has to be brought on the 
same. Judgments in courts of record create no lieii on personal property. No 
execution can issue on a justice's judgment five years after its rendition, without 
I'evivor. Judgments before justice can be made to create lien on real estate by 
filing a transcript of the judgment in the circuit court. 

Execution may issue as soon as judgment is obtained, but one can be out at 
the same time. Execution from a court of record, may issue to any county in the 
State. From a justice, can be levied on personal property only. Keal estate 
may be redeemed within a year after sale ; but if defendant files stay bond, or 
appeals to supreme court, his equity of redemption is cxtt off. If the defendant 
fails to redeem in six months, any creditor of the defendant, whose demand is a 
lien on the real estate sold, may redeem within nine months from date of sale. 

Dkeds, Rights of Married Womex, Wills, &c.— Acknowledgment of 
deeds, made in the State, must be before a judge of any court of record, clerk of 
supreme, district and circuit courts, or their deputies, county auditor or his 
deputy, each notary public and justice of the peace in his own eounty. Acknow- 
ledgments out of State must be before some court of record, before some com- 
missioner for the State of Iowa, or before a notary public or justice of the peace. 
If before a justice of the peace the certificate of clerk of the district court of the 
county as to his official character must be attached. 

Chattel mortgages must be acknowledged as other conveyances and recorded 
in the county where property is situate. Foreclosures can "be made by sheriff 
without action in court. The mortgaged property is left in possession of mort- 
gagor, unless otherwise provided. Sales under chattel mortgage foreclosures 
shall be in the same manner as other sheriff's sales. 

Married women can hold property the same as any other person, and are lia- 
l)le on all contracts made by them, but her own property is in no case liable for 
her husband's debts. The common law riglit of dower exists in this State, and 
in executing deeds, she must ncknowledge separate and jipart from her husband, 
that she was made acquainted witli ibe contents of such com'ey.ince, and I'eliU' 
quislied her dower freely and w ithout compulsion from her husband. 



SPECIAL LAWS OF KANSAS. 857 

All Wills, except noncupative, must be in writing, signed by the testator, or 
by some person in his presence and by his express direction, and attested and sub- 
scribed in his presence by two or more competent witnesses. Subsequent incom- 
petency of the witness will not invalidate the will. Noncupative wills, proved 
by two' competent witnesses, when the value of the estate does not exceed $300, 
are valid. 



SPECIAL LAWS OF KANSAS. 

Exemptions from Forced Sale. — Home r)/'160 Acres of Farm Land, or House 
and One Acre in a VlLlage or Citi/, and Personal Property . A homestead to the 
extent of 163 acres of farming land, or of one acre within the limits of an incor- 
porated town or city, occupied as a residence by the family of the owner, to- 
gether with all improvements on the same, of whatever value is exempt. Exemp- 
tions of personal property allowed a resident, being the head of a family, are : 
the family library, bible and school books ; family pictures and musical instru- 
ments in use ; a pew in a church and lot in a burial ground ; all the wearing ap- 
parel and all beds, bedsteads and bedding used by the family ; cooking-stove, 
appendages and cooking utensils, and other stoves and appendages necessary 
for the use of the family , a sewing machine ; all spinning wheels and looms, 
and other implements of industry and other household furniture not abve enu- 
merated, not to exceed §.500 in value ; 2 cows, 10 hogs, 1 yoke of oxen, and 1 
horse or mule, or, in lieu of the yoke of oxen and horse or mule, a span of horses 
or mules ; 20 sheep and wool from same, either raw or manufactured ; the neces- 
sary food for the stock mentioned above for one year ; 1 wagon, cart or dray ; 
2 plows, one drag and other farming utensils not exceeding ISOO in value ; pro- 
visions and fuel on hand sufficient for a year ; the necessary tools and imple- 
ments of any mechanic, miner or other person, used and kept for the purpose of 
can-ying on "his trade and business, together with stock in trade not exceeding 
^400 in value ; the library, implements and ofhce furniture of any professional 
man. Exemptions of personal property allowed a resi<lent of this State, not the 
head of the family, are : wearing apparel ; pew in a church and lot in a burial 
ground ; necessary tools and instruments of any mechanic, miner or other per- 
son, used and kept for the purpose of carrying on his tiade or business, together 
with stock in trade as above. The earnings of a debtor also, for personal ser- 
vices rendered within 3 months next preceding the issuing of an execution, are 
exempt, if it appear they are aiecessary, in whole or in part for the support of his 
family. No personal property is exempt from attachment or execution for the 
wages of any clerk, mechanic, laborer or servant. 

Mechanics' Lien. — Material men and mechanics have lien for labor and 
material on the land and improvements to the extent of their claims. The 
original contractor must tile his claim within four nVonths ; all other persons 
claiming a lien, within two months after the debt accrued. This lien has prece- 
dence over all other liens or encumbrances placed on the property subsequent to 
the commmencement of the building or improvements. 

Collection of Debts.— Arrest and bail, in civil actions, are provided for by 
the laws of this Slate. 

The order of arrest is issued by the clerk, or by the justi", only upon positive 
aflBdavit showing one or more of the statutory' grounds therefor ,similar to those 
on which writs of attachment issue. (See Attachments.) Before the order 
Issues, the plaintiff must also file an undertaking, with sufficient surety, con- 
ditioned for the payment of damages occasioned by the arrest, if wrongful. In 
practice, this remedy is seldom resorted to in Kansas. 

Attachment, against the .property of defendant may issue in civil cases, when 
the defendant, or one of several defendants, is a foreign corporation or non-resi- 
dent (but not in either of these instances for any claim other than a debt or de- 
mand arising on contract, judgment or decree, unless the cause of action arose 
wholly within the limits of this State. It may also issue when the defendant or 
one of several defendants has absconded with fraudulent intent, or has left the 
county of his residence to avoid summons, or concealed himself to avoid sum- 
mons, or is about to remove his property, or a part thereof, out of the jurisdiction 
of the court with fraudulent intent ; or is about to convert it into money to put 
it beyond reach of creditors ; or has property which he conceals, or has assigned, 
removed or disposed of his property ; or is about to do so, with intent to defraud, 
liinder or- delay creditors ; or fraudulently contracted or incurred the debt, 
liability or obligation ; or where the action is brought for damages arising from 



858 SPECIAL LAWS OF KANSAS. 

the conimission of an3' crime, or for seduction, or where the debtor fails to pay 
on delivery where, by the contract, he was to pay on deliver}'. The older is 
issued (as in case of arrest and bail, supra), only upon affidavit and undertaking. 
But, where the defendant is a foreign corporation, or where the defendant or de- 
fendants are all non-residents of the State, the undertaking is not required. 

Garnishee proceps, in attachment proceedings, is also provided for against any 
person or corporation having possession of property or being indebted to the de- 
fendant. 

Assignments ill trust, for the benefit of creditors, inure for the benefit of all 
creditors of the grantor, whether named in the deed of assignment or not ; the 
deed of assignment must be acknowledged and recorded like other deeds. 
Assignments made to secure sureties or indorsers, prior to any payment by them, 
are valid here. Assignmeiit of every species of contract or claim may be made in 
this State, and the assignee may sue thereon in his own name. 

Acceptors of notes and bills are chargeable only when their acceptance is in 
writing on the bill ; or, if on separate piece of paper, when the party who gave 
the credit saw the separate paper ; or if a promise is made in writing to accept a 
draft before it is drawn, and the draft is in the hands of any person who gave 
credit on the strength of this writing. (Bills of exchange and notes duly pro- 
tested for non-payment or non-acceptance, entitle the liolder to re.cover damages 
as follows : if drawn on or made by a persoji outside the State, six per cent. ; if 
outside any of the United States or territories, ten per ceiit. damages on the 
principal sum). All parties to notes or bills, whether endorsers, makers or ac- 
ceptors, or parties in any manner, caai be sued jointly or separately in the same 
or in several actions. 

Justices of the peace have jurisdiction in actions on contract on account, bill, 
note or bond where the amount claimed or balances due does not exceed SSOO, in 
actions on undertakings given in civil proceedings before them where the sum 
due or demanded does not exceed $500 ; in replevin where the value of the 
property does not exceed §100. District courts have general original jurisdiction 
in all cases, and appellate jurisdiction from inferior courts. Upon default, judg- 
ments may be obtained before justices after three days' service of summons, but 
in contested cases, a delay of thirty days may be readily obtained before judg- 
ment, and afterward by a stay of execution as above stated. (See Executions.) 
Jn the district court, if in session, judgment may be taken upoii default after 
forty days' service of summons, but in contested cases, issues must be made up 
for trial ten days prior to the term. Terms of the several district courts of the 
State are held as often as every six months. 

Judgments are a lien upon the real estate of the debtor in the county where 
rendered, for the period of five years, and may be made a lien upon real estate in 
other counties by filing in the clerk's office therein an attested copy of the jour- 
nal entry of the judgment. Justices' judgments may be made a lien upon real 
estate in same manner. But if execution be not taken out and levied within one 
year after rendition of judgmant, the lien becomes inoperative as against other 
judgment creditors. Judgments which have become dormant may be revived 
by the court ui)on motion of the judgment creditor and notice to the pai-ties in- 
terested. 

Executions may issue the day judgment is rendered. — Exceptions.— It the 
word '•' appraisement waived," or words of similar import, be inserted in any 
mortgage, bond, notp, bill or written contract, judgment shall be rendered ac- 
cordingly, and execution shall not issue thereon for G days. If upon the docket, 
in cases of judgment rendered by justices of the peace, any person, resident of 
the county, being good and sufficient security, shall, within 10 days, undertake 
that the judgment shall be duly paid, execution shall be stayed for periods 
ranging from 30 to 120 days, according to the amount of the judgment. 

Executions are a lien on personal property only from the time they are 
actually levied. Executions from a justice cannot be levied on real estate. 
Bedemption, after execution sale, is unknown. If an execution (from a court 
of record) is returned unsatisfied, the debtors can be summoned and required 
to state under oath what property or interest they have or own, which may be 
reached by execution. 

Deeds, Eights of Makkied ■WoME^-, «&c.— Deeds in this State need not be 
under seal. When acknowledged within this State, it must be before some court 
having a seal, or some judge, justice or clerk thereof, or some justice of the 
peace, notary public, county clerk or register of deeds, or mayor or clerk of an 
incorporated city. When acknowledged without this State, it must be before 
some court of record, or clerk or officer holding the seal thereof, or before some 
notary public or justice of the peace, or commissioner to take acknowledgments 



SPECIAL LAWS OF KENTUCKY. 859 

appointed by the Governor of this State, or before any consul of the United 
States, resident in a foreign port or country. If taken before a justice of the 
peace, the acknowledgment must be accompained by a certificate of his otiicial 
character, under the hand of some court of record, to which the seal of said 
court shall be affixed. 

The following is the form of acknowledgment required : 
State of ,\ 

couxty of . i . , , 

On this day of , A. D. 187 , before me, a in and for 

said , personally came . to me personally known to be the same pei- 

son whose name attixed to the foregoing conveyance as grantor and 

duly acknowledged the execution of the same. 

In testimojiy whereof, 1 have hereunto subscribed my name and affixed my 
seal, tlic day and year last above written. 

(Husband and wife should alAvays join in conveyances.) No separate ac- 
knowledgment is required on the part of the wife. 

Married women can hold real or personal property, to their separate use, 
the same as unmarrried. A note or endorsement made by ,a married woman 
will bind her property the same as if she were unmarried. 

Chattel mortgages of perishable articles, which are left in the hands of the 
mortgagor, with the right to use the same ; or of a stock of merchandise whicli 
is left in the hands of the mortjiagor with privilege to sell in due course of his 
business, or in any manner for his own benefit ; or of any chattels wliich are left 
in the possession of the mortgagor, the mortgage not being duly registered, are 
void as to the creditors of the mortgagor, unless they have notice of the same. 



SPECIAL LAWS OF KENTUCKY. 

ExEMPTlo>'S FKOM FORCED SALE.— /Tome u'orth SI, 000, and Personal Prop- 
erty. To bona fide housekeeper with a family, resident in the State : 2 work 
beasts, or 1 work beast and 1 yoke of oxen ; 2 plows and gear ; 1 wagon and a set 
of gear, or 1 cart or dray ; 2 cows and calves ; 10 head of sheep ; provisions suf- 
ficient to sustain the family one year, and provender sufficient to support the 
stock one year; 1 sewing machine ; the usual household and kitchen furniture 
of limited value, etc.; the tools of a mechanic not exceeding $100 in value ; the 
libraries of ministers of the gospel, physicians and attorn eys-at-law not to ex- 
ceed in value .§500, but the last is not in addition to the two work beasts, 
wagon, cart or dray. In addition to the personal property exempt from execu- 
tion on all debts or liabilities created after the 1st of June, 1866, so much land, 
including the dwelling-house and appurtenances owned by the debtor as shall 
not exceed §1,000, shall also be exempt to the bona fide housekeeper with a fam- 
ily- 

MECHA^'^ICS' Liens. — There is a general law for the State (not applying to 
Jeiferson county, which has a special act in some respects different) giving 
mechanics and material men liens upon the improvements and- interest of the 
employer in the land for work done and material furnished. Sub-contractors 
and laborers may acquire a lien, by giving the employer written notice of their 
claim, and that they look to the land and improvements for compensatioit. Liens 
mast be filed in sixty days and suit brought in six months, to enforce claims, or 
they are lost. 

CoiXEOTiox OF Debts. — A defendant in a civil action may be arrested when 
an affidavit is filed and bond given, for causes for which an attachment will 
Ho. 

The defendant may give bail, or in lieu of bail, deposit in the hands of the 
sheriff, or in court, the amount of money mentioned in the order of arrest. In 
default of both, he will be committed to jail, there to remain until he pays the 
debt, gives bail or take the insolvent debtor's oath. 

Attachment, in a civil action for the recovery of money, may issue against the 
property of the defendant, or a garnishee where the action is against : 1. A de- 
fendant, or several defendants, who, or some one of whom, is a foreign corpora- 
tion or a non-resident of the State. 2. "Who has been absent therefrom four 
months. 3. Has departed from the State with intent to defraud his creditors. 4. 
Who has left the county of his residence to avoid the service of a summons. 5, 



860. SPECIAL LAWS OF KENTUCKY. 

So conceals himself that a Bununons cannot be served on him. G. Is about to 
remove, or has removed his property, or a material part thereof , out of this State, 
not leaving enough therein to satisfy the plaintiff's claim or the claim of said 
defendant's creditors. 7. Has sold, conveyed or otherwise disposed of his property, 
or suffered or permitted it to be sold, with the fraudulent intent to cheat, hinder 
or delay his creditors. 8. Is aboiit to sell, convey or otherwise dispose of his 
property with such intent. An attachment shall not be granted on the ground 
that the defendant, or defendants, or any of them, is a foreign corporation, or a 
non-resident of this State, for any claim other than a debt or demand arising on 
contract. To obtain an attachment, the plaintiff must file an affidavit, showing : 
1. The nature of his claim. 2. That it is just. 3. The amount which the affiant 
believes the plaintiff ought to recover. 4. The existence in the action of some 
one of the grounds above enumerated. No attachment will issue until bond and 
security in double the amount of the debt is given. 

A defendant may be arrested in a civil action for causes for which an attach- 
ment may issue, on filing affidavit and giving bond. 

Assignments, sales, mortgages, judgments suffered in contemplation of ir sol- 
vency and with a design to prefer one or more creditors to the exclu^ion in whole 
or ill part of others, shall operate as an assignment and transfer of all the prop- 
erty and effects of the grantor, and shall enure to the benefit of all his credit- 
ors. 

Garnishee may be summoned on attachment. He shall not be subject to 
costs bej'ond those caused by his resistance of the claim against him. After re- 
turn of execution, endorsed "no property found," an equitable action may be 
brought for the discovery by the defendant of money, choses in action, equitable 
and legal interests, etc. In such an action, any one indebted to the defendant or 
holding money or property belonging to him may be made defendant. Attach- 
ments may issue without affidavit or bond. The court shall enforce the surren- 
der of money, property, etc., and may commit to jail any defendant or garnishee 
refusing to make such surrender. 

All bills, bonds or notes, for money or property shall be assignable so as to 
vest in the assignee the right of action. Three days of grace are allowed on bills 
of exchange. The endorser on a note, unless put on the footing of a foreign bill, 
is discharged, unless the holder brings suit against the maker, if note remains 
unpaid, at the first court held after its maturity, and prosecutes the maker to in- 
solvency. Promissory notes, payable and negotiable at a bank in this State, 
which shall be endorsed and discounted by said bank, or by any other bank, shall 
and are placed on the same footing as foreign bills of exchange. 

Justice courts have jurisdiction exclusive of the Circuit Court, but concurrent 
with the quarterly court, of all actions and proceedings for the recovery of money 
or personal property, where the matter in controversy, exclusive of interest and 
costs, does not exceed .§50 in value, and in other cases specially provided by stat 
ute. Justices of the peace in Jefferson county and a few other counties have 
jurisdiction to the extent of §100, exclusive of interest and costs. 

The Court of Appeal s has general appellate jurisdiction over all courts, except 
where the judgment grants a divorce, or is rendered hy a quarterly, countj^ police, 
citjs mayor's or justice's court. Circuit Courts have general original jurisdic- 
tion of all actions and proceedings for the enforcementof civil rights and redress 
of civil wrongs, except when exclusive jurisdiction is given to other courts. 
(Civil Code, § 18.) They have appellate jurisdiction of the judgments of quarterly 
courts when the amount in controversy exceeds .f20. Quarterly Courts have 
jurisdiction of actions to recover viouen or per^sonal property not exceeding in 
value $100. They have appellate jurisdiction from judgments of justices of the 
peace for $5 and oyer. 

Summons must be issued and served 10 days before return day thereof. In 
equitable proceedings the summons is returnable in twenty days. In justices' 
courts, on sums less than $50, it is returnable in five days, and on sums greater 
than $50, in ten days. 

Executions issue, from magistrates courts for sums less than $50, in 5 dayB, 
for sums over $50, in 10 days ; from the Jefferson court of common pleas, quar- 
terly courts and circuit courts, in ten days ; from the Louisville Chancery court 
in 15 days after judgment rendered ; is returnable to some rule day of the court, 
not under 30 nor over 70 days from the test, and binds the real estate but not the 
personal estate (until levied) of the defendant only from the time the same is de- 
livered to the proper officer to execute. For cause shown, the court may order 
immediate execution. 

A judgment is not a lien on the property of the defendant. A judgment may be 
enforced by issuing execution at any time within 15 years from its rendition. 



SPECIAL LAAVS OF KEXTL'CKY. 861 

Each renewal of execution revives the judgment for 15 years from the date of 
such renewal. Foreign judgments must be proven by certiticate of judge and 
clerk. 

Writs of provisional seizure may also issue, without the plaintiff giving bond, 

A defendant may replevy for 3 months a judgment or execution against him, 
at any time before a sale of property under the same, by giving to the officer an 
obligation, payable to the jjlaintifl with good security for the amount thereof, in- 
cluding interest, costs and lialf commissions up to that time. 

If land sold under execution does not bring two-thirds of its value, the defend- 
ant or his representatives shall have the right to redeem the same within a 
year. 

Deeds, Rights of Married Womex, "Wills, &c. — Deeds need not be nn- 
d^rscal. Deeds executed in this State by persons other than married women, 
may be admitted to record : first, on the acknowledgment before the clerk of a 
county court by th.e party making the deed ; or second, by th*^ proof of two sub- 
Bcribing witnesses, or by'the proof of their signatures. Deeds executed out of 
the State, and within the United States, by persons other than married women, 
may be admitted to record when the same shall be certified under his seal of 
office by the clerk of a court or his deputy, or by a notary public, mayor of a city 
or secretary of si-Ate, or commissioner to take the acknowledgment of deeds, or 
by a judge Under the seal of his court to have been acknowledged or proved be- 
fore him in the manner hereby required. Deeds executed out of the United 
States by persons other than married women, may be admitted to record when 
the same shall be certified by any foreign minister or consul, secretary of lega- 
tion of the United States, or by the secretary of foreign affairs, certified under 
his seal of office or the judge of a superior court of the nation where the deed 
shall be executed, to have been acknowledged or proved before him in the man- 
ner prescribed by law. 

A deed of a married woman, to be effectual, shall be acknowledged before 
some of the officers named in the preceding sections, and lodged in the proper 
o.'iice for record. Previous to such acknowledgment, it shall be the duty of the 
officer to explain to her the conte'nts and effect of the deed separately and apart 
from her husband, and thereupon, if she freely and voluntarily acknowledge the 
same, and is willing for it to be recorded, the officer shall certify the same- 
(Privy examination need not be stated in certificate.) When the acknowledg- 
ment shall be taken by an officer out of this State, the same shall be acknowl- 
edged and certified to the effect following : 
State of Kentucky, ) 
County of Mercer. ) 
(or town, city, department or parish of .) 

I, A. B. (here give his title), do certify that this instrument of writing from 
C. D. and wife (E. F., or from E. F., wife of C. D.), was this day produced to me 
by the parties, and which was acknowledged by the said C. D. to be his act and 
deed, and the contents and the effect of the instrument being explained to the 
said E. F. by me separately and apart from her husband, she thereupon declared 
that she did'f reely and voluntarily execute and deliver the same, to be her act 
and deed, and consented that the same might be recorded. 

Given under my hand and seal of office. 
[seal.] a. B. (signature and title.) 

Proof by subscribing witness. 
State of Kentucky, ) 
County of Mercer, j **' 

I, A. B. (here give the title), do certify that this day came before me G. H. and 
I. J. the subscribing witnesses to the foregoing deed (or other instrument) by C- D. 
to L. M., which witnesses are personally known to me to be the same whose names 
are so written as witnesses, and being solemnly sworn by me in due manner, did 
severally declare, on their oaths, that the said C. D. did acknowledge this instru- 
ment to be his act and deed, and that the signature thereto was made by him ; 
that they know him to be the same person who is named as the grantor therein, 
and that they did subscribe said deed as witnesses by his request. 

Given under my hand and seal this day of , 18 . 

[SEAL.] (Signature and title.) 

Deeds made by residents of the State, must be legally lodged for record with- 
in sixty days from the date thereof. By non-residents, and in the United States, 
within four months ; if out of the United States, withinlwelve months. Deeds are 
not legally recorded until the clerk's tax is paid. The county clerk is the re- 
corder of deeds. Deeds must be recorded in the county where the land lies, and 
take effect in the order in which they are recordsd. 



862 SPECIAL LAWS OF LOUISIANA 

ChaUel mortgages must be duly acknowledged and recorded. Tlie posses- 
sion of the jiroperty mortgaged may remain in tlic mortgagor. Five years' pos- 
session operates as a bar to the mortgagee. A mortgage on a stock'of goods is 
only valid as to the goods in store at the time it is given, and is not good as 
to after-acquired stock. 

The real estate of a married woman owned before, or acquired after marriage, 
shall not be liable for the debts of her husband, but arc liable for debtii of her 
and her husband jointly created, in writing, for necessaries furnished her or aijy 
member of her family. The property of the husband shall not be subject to the 
payment of any of the wife's debts incurred previous to marriage. 

Wills must be in writing, signed by the testator or by some other person in his 
presence and by his direction ; and If not written wholly by himself, must bo at- 
tested by two or more competent witnesses, subscribing their names in his 
presence. 



SPECIAL LAWS OF LOUISIANA. 

Exemptions from Forced Sale.— ^o???e rf IGO Acres of Land, and Personal 
Property, in all tvorth $2,000. — 160 acres of land, "with buildii'igs and improvements 
thereon, occupied as a residence, and bona fide owned by the debtor, having a 
family, a person or persons dependant upon him for support ; together with 
personal property, making in all a value not exceeding §2,000. Tools of trade, 
salaries, wages, and personal services, all wearing apparel, all agricultural im- 
plements, working cattle, and provisions and supplies necessary for carrying on 
the plantation for the coming year. No home exempted in the city or villages, 
and in any case only for benefit of persons having a family. 

Mechanics' Lien — The contractor has a lien for the payment of his labor on 
the building or other work which he may have constructed. Workmen em- 
ployed immediately by the owner in the construction or repair of any biulding 
have the same privilege. If the contractor be paid by the employer, actions for 
work and supplies furnished the former wdll not lie against the latter, hut- 
moneys due the contractor by the employer may be seized and applied towards 
payment. No agreement for work exceeding f 500, unless reduced to writing 
and registered with the recorder of mortgages, shall be privileged as above. For 
amounts less than §500, this formality is dispensed with, but the privilege is 
limited to 6 months from the time of completed work. Workmen employed on 
vessels or boats have a lien on the same, and are not, in any case, bound to re- 
duce their contracts to writing, but their privileges closes if they allow the ves- 
sels to depart without exercising their right. 

Collection of Debts. — Arrest, in civil action, may be made of a debtor 
who is about to leave the State without leaving sufficient property to satisfy the 
judgment sought to be obtained by the creditor, and held until security is given 
that he will not depart from the State without leave of court ; ^^royifZcf/, that 
no citizen of another State shall be arrested at suit of resident or non-resident 
creditor, except upon oath that the debtor has absconded from his residence. Ar- 
rest or attachment may be made whether the debt is due or not, and agent or 
attorney may swear to the best of his knowledge and belief. 

Writ of attachment may issue against a defendant for the following causes : 

1. Where the defendant is a non-resident. 2. Where he is about to leave the 
State permanently. 3- Where he conceals himself to avoid bei)"g cited. •'. A^liero 
he has mortgaged, assigned or disposed of his property, or is about to do so, with 
intent to give an unfair preference to some of his creditors, or place his property 
or evidence of debt beyond the reach of his creditors. In every case Avhere an 
attachment is sought, the petitioning creditor must give a bond,, payable to the 
clerk of the court for an amount cne-half over the claim demanded, with surety 
residing within the jurisdiction of the court. Writs of sequestration may issue in 
this State upon an affidavit made by party, or agent, or attorney in his absence, 
showing one of the following grounds, after executing a bond with one good resi- 
dent surety in an amount to'be determined by the judge ; 1, Where the plaintiff, 
who has had possession of the property for one year, has been ejected by force. 

2. Where the plaintiff seeks the possession of movable property, and fears the 
party having possession of the same may impair its value, may remove it beyond 
the jurisdiction of the court, or may conceal or dispose of it during the continu- 
ance of the suit. 3. Where a wife sues for separation from bed and board, or for 
separation from property alone, and has reason that her husband may injure her 
dotal property or waste the fi'uits and rcA^enues produced by the same during the 
pendency of the suit. 4. Where the defendant has asked for a stay of proceeed* 



SPECIAL LAAVS OF LOUISIANA. 863 

iiigs against him, and at a meeting of his creditors they should fear he will avail 
himself of such stay of proceedings to dispose of the ^hole or part of his property. 
5, Where the plainlilf has a lien or privilege on property. 

AVrits of se(iuestration may also issue, Avithout the plaintiff giving bond, ir 
oases where he seeks to enforce a landlord's, seaman's, mechanic's or laborer s 
lien. 

The assignment of notes, bills, accounts, or claims of any kind is valid, and 
the assignee may sue in his own name, but the assignment of a debt must be no- 
tified to the debtor. Garnishment can issue on an execution or attachment 
against any person owing the debtor, or having his property in possession. 

Justice of the ]jeace liar, jurisdiction up to $100, including parish courts, origi- 
nal jurisdiction, from $100 to 8500. District courts on all amounts over $500. 
Apdeals from justices, when over $10, returnable to the parish courts, except in 
the parish of Orleans, where returnable to tliird district court when over .$10. 
Appeals lie from parish court on sums over $100. From district court to supreme 
court over $500. Service of citation must be made for ten days before any action 
can be taken. 

Judgments, to operate as a lien, must be recorded in the mortgage book of 
the parish recorder. It then becomes a judicial mortgage on all tlic real estate of 
the debtor where recorded. 

There is no stay of execution, and it can issue at any time after judgment. 
No redemption of property sold under execution or mortgage. 

Deeds, Eights of Makried Womex, Wills.— Deeds arc valid without 
scrawl or seal. They must be acknowledged in the State before a notary public 
or recorder, or in presence of two witnesses, who may prove tbe signature. If 
acknowledged out of the State, before a commissioner of Louisiana, or in confor- 
mity to the laws of the State where acknowledged, and in the latter case the 
otlicial character of the ofii( er before whom the acknowledgment is taken mu.st be 
properly verified. The husband must join in the execution of a deed made by the 
wife conveying her real estate, and authorize her. 

When the husband sells his own real estate, the wife must join him and re- 
nounce all her rights, and she must be examined apart from her husband and 
duly informed of the nature of the act. No particular form of words is necessary, 
except the above must be shown. This form is used : 
State of , ) 

(JOI-XTYOF .P*- 

Be it remembered that on this day came before me, John Hampden, a notary 
public within and for the county aforesaid, duly commissioned and acting as such, 
A, B. and his wife, C- D., to meknown personally (or proved such by two cre<lible 
witnesses) to be the persons whose names are subscribed to the foregoing deed ; 
and the said A. B. acknowledged that he had executed the said conveyance, for 
the consideration and purposes therein mentioned and set forth ; and the t;aid 
C. D., being by me first made acquainted with the contents of said instrument, 
in an examination apart from her husband, and fully advised of the nature of 
her rights upon his property, acknowledged that she executed the same freely, 
and without compulsion or undue iiLfluence of her said husband. 

Witness my hand and seal of office, on this dav of , 187 . 

JOHN HAMPDEN, Notary Public. 

The estate of a married woman, whether acquired before or after marriage, 
remains her separate estate, and cannot be sold by her husband. All properly 
acquired during marriage from the joint or separate earnings of husband and 
wife, and the revenues of the separate property of each, is equally divided be- 
tween them. A married woman has no dower in her husband's estate, but it is 
best for her to join in any conveyance made by him, in order to renounce any 
claims she may have on his estate. (She has no claim unless her lien or mort- 
gage i3 recorded.) The husband must join his wife in any conveyance of her 
separate estate. 

There is no chattel mortgage in this State, but the law creates certain privi- 
leges upon movables, which are as follows : 1. The vendors privilege on the 
movables not paid for ; 2- For debts due for necessaiy supplies furnished to 
any farm or plantation and for money actually advanced for the supplies and 
necessary expenses for any farm of plantation on the crops of the year or 
the proceeds thereof ; 3. The lessor's privilege on the crops and movables 
on the property leased ; 4. Architects, undertakers, furnishers of material, etc., 
on the edifices or other woi'ks built or repaired. 

These privileges are, however, preserved, andean be acquired only by having 
recorded in the parish where the property is the account containing the state- 
ment of indebtedness in detail, and the balance due, under the oath of the party 



8G4 SPECIAL LAWS OF MAIXE. 

doing 01' luiviiig the work done, .and this to be recorded the day the contract Avas 
entered into, to have effect against third parties. 

The estate of a married woman, whether acquired before or after marriage, 
remains her separate estate, and cannot be sold by the husband. All propeity 
acquired during marriage from the joint or separate earnings of husband nnd 
wife, and the revenues of the separate property of each, is equally divided be- 
tween them. A married woman has no dower in her husband's estate, but it is 
best for her to join in any conveyance made by him, in order to renonnce any 
claims she may have on his estate. (She has no claim unless her lien or mort- 
gage is recorded.") The husband must join his wife in any conveyance of her 
separate estate. The wife may make her last will without the authority of her 
husband. 



SPECIAL LAWS OF MAINE. 

Exemptions from Forced Sale. — Home toorth ^500 and Personal Property. 
Homestead to the value of $500, or lot purchased from the State, for a homestead. 
After the death of the debtor, his widow and minor children are entitled to tho 
same exemption. A lot in a burying-ground ; wearing apparel ; necessary house- 
hold furniture not exceeding $50 ; 1 bed, bedstead and bedding for every two in 
the family ; all family portraits ; bibles and school-books in use ; copy of the 
statutes, and a library not exceeding §150; one cooking-stove, 12 cords wood, 5 
tons anthracite coal and 50 bushels bituminous coal ; ^10 worth of lumber, wood 
or bark ; all produce until harvested ; 1 barrel of flour ; 30 bushels corn and 
grain ; all potatoes ; all flax raised on 1 acre of land and all articles manufactured 
therefrom for the family ; tools in trade ; 1 sewing machine worth $100 ; 1 
pair working cattle or mules ; 1 or 2 horses, not exceeding in value $300, and hay 
to keep them through the winter ; one cow and heifer ; 10 sheep, and the lambs 
and wool raised from them, and hay to keep them during the winter ; 1 plow ; 
a cart or truck wagon ; harrow ; yoke with bows, ring and staple ; 2 chains ; a 
mowing machine, and one boat of 2 tons. 

Mechanics' Lien. — Mechanics have a lien ou buildings for labor and mate- 
rials furnished for erecting or repairing same, which may be enforced by attach- 
ment in ninety days after same are furnished or labor done, and against 
vessels for four days after same is launched. 

Collection of Debts. — Arrests in civil actions can be made. In actions of 
tort, the body is committed, unless bail is given. In actions on contract over 
ten dollars, and the debtor is about to depart from the State to reside beyond the 
limits of the State, and carries with him property more than sufiicient for his 
support, he can be arrested. 

Every assignment made by a debtor for the benefit of creditors shall provide 
for a proportional distribution of all Ms real and personal estate, except Avhat is 
by law exempt from attachment, among alibis creditors, becoming partiea 
thereto, and in whatever form made shall have the effect aforesaid, and be ako 
construed to pass all such estate, whether specified therein or not. A release may 
be inserted in the deed of assignment, which shall forever discharge the ast^ignor 
from the claims of such creditors as become parties thereto. The assignor shall 
make oath as to the truth of the assignment. The assignee must, within fourteen 
days after the assignment is made, give public notice of his appointment iji 
some newspaper printed in the county where the assignor lives, such notice lo 
by continued three weeks successively. Three months from such assignment is 
allowed creditors to become parties thereto. If the assignment is not swo: n 
to and notice not given, then the same is void against attaching creditors. All 
properly conveyed by the assignor previous to and in contemplation of the 
assignment, with the design to delay, hinder or defraud creditors, or to give 
preference to one creditor over another, shall pass to the assignee notwithstand- 
ing such transfer. 

Writ of attachment may be issued in any civil action and can be levied on all 
property not exempt, which creates a lien that continues for 30 days after exe- 
cution issues. 

Negotiable notes, bills, and bonds are assignable, so that assignees may sue in 
their own name. Any person who holds any goods, effects or credits belonging 
to a debtor may be required, under the " trustee process," to deliver up the same 
for the credtitor to reach, except $20 due the debtor for wages, and even then 
when the debt is for necessaries. 

As to notes and bills, on any promissory note, inland bill of exchange, draft 



SPECIAL LAWS OF MAINE. 865 

or order for payment of money, payable in this State at a future day, or at sight, 
and not on demand, a grace of three days shall be allowed. In an action on a 
promissory note, payable at a certain place, either on demand or on demand at 
or after a time specified therein, the plaintitf shall not recover unless he proves 
a demand made at the place of payment prior to the commencement of the suit. 
Ko person shall be charged as an acceptor of a bill of exchange, draft or written 
order, unless his acceptance shall be in writing, signed by him or his lawful 
agent ; and no waiver of demand and notice by an indorser of any promissory 
note or bill of exchange shall be valid unless it is in writing and signed in like 
manner. Ko action can be maintained upon any note or other security given for 
intoxicating liquors, sold in violation of the act relating to sales of intoxicating 
liquors, unless the security is negotiable paper in the hands of an innocent 
holder, and for value. Ko agreement that personal property, bargained and de- 
livered to another, for which a note is given, shall remain the property of the 
paj'ee till the note is paid, is valid, unless it is made and signed as a part of the 
note ; nor when it is so signed in a note for more than $30, unless it is recorded like 
mortgages of personal property. Damages on protest of bills of exchange, of 
§100 or more, payable by the acceptor, drawer or indorser of one, in this State 
are, if payable at a place* 75 miles distant, one per cent. _; if payable in the State 
of Kew York, or in any State northerly of it, and not in this' State, three per 
cent. ; if payable in any Atlantic State or territoiy southerly of Kew York and 
northerly of Florida, six per cent. ; and in any other State or territory, nine per 
cent. 

The jurisdiction of justice courts extends to $20, supreme judicial court, of 
all civil and criminal matters, and, except in county of Cumberland, exclusive 
of all sums over §20 ; in county of Cumberland over .§500, concurrent jurisdiction. 

Service must be had, in cases before justice of the peace, 7 days before the re- 
turn day. In the courts of record, on individuals, 14 days, and on corporations, 
30 days,' before the return day. 

Judgments are liens for 30 days where it is created by attachment, but not 
otherwise. Execution can issue on judgments after term of the court expires at 
which judgment was obtained for 3 years, and for the same length of time after 
the last execution. Judgments can be sued on for 20 years. The execution < an- 
not be stayed unless it is issued wrongfully, and then only upon giving bond to 
the judgment creditor. 

Deeds, Rights of Makried Womex, Wills, &c. — Deeds must be under seal ; 
a scrawl is not sufficient. It is not necessary to have witnesses, but it must be ac- 
knowledged in the State before a justice of the peace. Out of the State, before any 
justice of the peace, magistrate, notary public, commissioner for the State, or by 
any United States minister, consul, or any notary public in any foreign country. 
The wife must join in the deed to relinquish dower, or she may do it by a separate 
deed. When she joins with her husband in the same deed, either can acknowl- 
edge the instrument. Ko separate examination of the wife is necessary-. 

The following is the form of acknowledgment to be used in this State • 
State of Maine, ) 
County of Waldo. ) 

On this day of , 187 , personally appeared the above-named 

grantor, and aknov.ledged the foregoing instrument, by him signed, to be his free 
act and deed. 

Before me, Sam Johxsox, 

Justice cf the Peace. 

If acknowledged out of this State, use this form : 
State of Vermont, ) 
County of Windham. ) 

On this day of , 187 , personally appeared before mo H. 

Anderson, notary public,'tlie above-named , the grantor, and a» - 

knowledged tliis'instrument to be his free act and deed. 

In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and affixed my official soul 
the day and year aforesaid, 

[SEAL.] K. Anderson, Koiaru PnhUc. 

As to property, both real and personal not obtained by theiu from their liiis- 
bands, married women can control, dispose of, and encumber as though they were 
femme sole, and free from the debts of their husbands. They can make contract^ , 
for which they and their property are liable, whether notes or otherwise, and 
their property may be attached and taken on execution to satisfy any judgment 
received against them. They cannot be arrested. A wife must join in" a deed 
from the husband in selling his real estate, to relinquish dower, and ho must 
join with her in felling her real estate only when it comes to her frop liiEi. 

53 



866 SPECIAL LAAVS OF MAEYLAND. 

All chattel mortgages made to secure over $30 are void, unless possession is 
given to the mortgagee, or rather taken out of the possession of the mortgagor, 
and the mortgage recorded in the town ■where the mortgagor lives. 

In this State all wills must be in writing, signed by the testator, or by some 
person in his presence and by his exprcs-; direction, and shall be attested and 
subscribed in his pi'esencc by three credible witnesses. 



SPECIAL LAWS OF MARYLAND. 

Exemptions from Forced Sale — Ko Homestead Exemption, hut Personal 
Property. The property exempted is the personal property actually necessary 
for the sustenance of the family and the implements or tools necessary to earn 
a livlihood, and wearing apparel. The Constitution of the State directs the Leg- 
islature to pass laws exempting from judicial sale property not exceeding 8500. 
§100 is the amount fixed and exempted in pursuance of this constitutional re- 
quirement. The exact language of the law is, "all wearing apparel, books, 
and the tools of mechanics." 

Mechanics' Lien. — Every building erected, and every building repaired, 
rebuilt or improved to the extent of one-fourth of its value, shall be subject to 
a lien for the payment of all debts contracted for work done or material fur- 
nished for or about; the same ; also vessels, boats or machines constructed or 
repaired within this State are subject to mechanics' lien. The lien must be filed 
in the record office within six months after the work has been finished or mate- 
rials furnished. If the contract shall have been made with an architect or 
builder, or any person other than the owner of the ground on which the building 
is erected, or his agent, notice of intention to claim a lien must be given to the 
owner within sixty days. The mechanics' lien has priority over all other liens or 
incumbrances placed on the property after the commencement of the building, 
and over mortgages to secure future advances, where the loan or advance is not 
actually made until after the commencement of the building. 

Collection of Debts — Ko person can be arrested in civil action here. 
Writs of attachment may be obtained on the following grounds: Non-residence 
of the defendant, absconding or secretly removing from his place of abode, with 
intention to evade payment of his debts. When tv.o summons have been re- 
turned Qion est in any action. No bond is required before i-suingin the foref::oing 
cases. Attachment may be had on any debt duo l)y a married woman trading as 
iifemine sole- Upon aftidavit and approved bond in double the debt clr.inied, 
attachment for fraud will be issued where debtor is about to abscond from the 
State ; or has, or is about to assign, dispose of, or conceal his property, or some 
part thereof, or to remove the same with intent to defraud his creditors ; or has 
fraudulently contracted the debt. In these cases caution should be used not to 
resort to attachment unless the proof of the alleged fraud is such as would satisfy 
a. jury upon trial. 

Every species of property, or legal, or equitable interest in property, is sub- 
ject to attachment and execution at law. 

Assignments, in trust, for the benefit of creditors, are not regulated by any- 
special enactments and are common in use. The debtor, so far as the State huvs 
are concerned, may prefer any creditor or class of creditors, or may exact releases, 
if he assigns all his property. Any chose in action, judgment, boiid, legacy or 
distributive share of an estate maybe assigned in writing, signed by the person 
authorized to assign the same, and the assignee may sue in his own name. 

As to garnishment, attachments, either on judgment or on original process, in 
those cases where attachments are authorized, niay be laid in the hands of any 
person or corporation who may then be made to disclose under oath whether 
they owe or are indebted to the defendant or have any property of his in their 
possession. ^100 of the wages due to any laborer, or employee is exempt from 
attachment or garnishment. 

As to notes and bills, a protest made by a notary public for non-payment or 
non-acceptance, is 7;ri??2a/acie evidence of the presentment and non-payment or 
non-acceptance at the time and in the manner stated in the protest, and that voiices 
thereof have been sent or delivered in the manner therein stated. The holder 
of a protested bill of exchange, drawn in this State on a foreign country, t^tall 
recover so much current money as will purchase a good bill on the same country, 
and fiften per cent, damages, and costs and legal interest. If the bill is drawn 
upon any person in any other State, district or territory of the United States, 



SPECIAL LAWS OF MARYLAND. 867 

tho holder shall recover so much current money as will produce a good bill on 
the same place and eight per cent, damages, and costs and legal iiiterest. 

Justices of the peace have jurisdiction in cases where the debt or damage 
claimed does not exceed one hundred dollars, and in all cases of greater amount 
the circuit courts of the several counties have jurisdiction, and in Baltimore city 
either the superior court, court of common pleas, or city court. 

An execution or attachment may issue at any time within 12 years from tho 
date of such judgment, or, if there be a stay thereon, at any time within 12 years 
after the expiration of such stay, where there has been no change of parties to 
such judgment. In the city of Baltimore, execution can issue un the day judg- 
ment is rendered. In some of the counties, when judgment is rendered at the 
lirst trial term, there is a stay, by rule of court, until the next term. Every 
kind of xn'operty can be readied either by execution or attachment. Redemp- 
tion after sale upon execution is not allowed. Execution may be stayed for six 
months by superseding the judgment within sixty days after it is entered, by 
giving two securities who must confess judgment. 

Judgments are a lien upon the real estate of the defendant from the date of 
the judgment, and upon all leasehold interests and terms for years, except 
leases for not more than live years and not renewable. But a judgment is not 
a lien upon personal i^roperty until execution is put into the hands of the sheriff. 
Execution may issue at any time within twelve years, but after twelve years 
the judgement is barred by limitations, tinless previously renewed by scire fcicias. 
Judgments of justices of the peace can be made a lien on real estate by being 
recorded. 

Deeds, Rights of Married "Women, Wills, &c. — The form of convey- 
ances have been simplified by the code. No words of inheritance .are neces- 
sary. A fee simple estate passes, unless a contrary intention shall appear by 
express terms or be necessarily implied. Deeds must be under seal (a scrawl 
is sufficient), and the signature must be attested by at least one witness. A con- 
sideration must be stated. In deeds of fee simple property, the wife niust join 
to release her right of dower. No special form of acknowledgment or separate 
examination is necessary for a married woman. 

The following is the forna of certificate. 
State of Maryla>"d, ) 
vJouxTY OF Carrol. ) 

I hereby certify that, on this day , in the year , before the 

subscriber (here insert the official style of the officer taking the acknowledgment), 
personally appeard (here insert the name of person or persons making the ac- 
knowledgment), and acknowledged the aforegoing deed to be his act (or did each 
acknowledge the aforegoing deed to be their respective act). 

[Seal.] ' (Signature.) 

In testimony whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and affixed my official seal 
the day and year aforesaid. 

The acknowledgment, if made within the State, may be made before a justice 
of the peace for any county or city, or a judge of a court of a county or city 
having a seal. If acknowledged before a justice of the peace within the State, 
but out of the county or city in which the real estate lies, the official character of 
the justice of the peace must be certified by the clerk of the circuit court or 
superior court under his official seal. 

If acknowledged without the State, but within the United States, the acknowl- 
edgmciit may be made before : First, a notary public (who must affix his notarial 
seal) ; second, a judge of any court of the United States ; third, a judge of -any 
court of any State or territory having a seal ; fourth, a commissioner of Mary- 
land to take acknowledgment of deeds. 

If acknowledged without the United States, the acknowledgmejit may be 
made before : First, any minister or consul of the United States ; second, a notary 
public ; third, a commissioner of Maryland to take acknowledgments. To every 
certificate before a judge the seal of the court must be affixed. 

Married women hold their real and personal property for their own separate 
use and entirely protected from the debts of the husband, and there is no neces- 
sity for a trustee. They may devise the same as fully as a fevime sole, or may 
convey the same by a joint deed with the husband. If the wife die intestate, 
leaving children, her husband has a life estate in her property ; if she die in- 
testate leaving no children, her husband has a life estate in her real estate and 
her personal property vests in him absolutely. A married woman may be sued 
jointly with her husband on any note, contract, or agreement which she has ex- 
ecuted jointly with him, and the judgments recovered in such cases are liens on 
the property of both, and may be collected in the same manner as i£ the defend- 



868 SPECIAL LAWS OF MASSACHUSETTS. 

ants were not husband and wife. A woman becomes of legal age to convey real 
estate at twenty-one, but may receive her property and release her guardian at 
eighteen, or upon marriage. 

Bills of sale or chattel mortgages aie valid, although the vendor or mortgagor 
of the chattels remains in possession ; provided, they are properly acknowledged 
and recorded, and the vendee or mortgagee shall make oath at the time of ex- 
ecution before some person authorized to take the acknowledgment, that the 
consideration stated in the bill of sale or mortgage is true and bona fide. They 
may be acknowledged out of the State before any person autliorized to take ac- 
knowledgment of deeds, and must be recorded in the county or city where the 
vendor resides, within twenty days from date. If acknowledged within the State, 
it must be before a justice of the peace or judge of the orphans' court of the city 
or county where the vendor resides . 

Wills should be in writing, and signed by the party making them, or by some 
other person in his presence and by his express directions, and shall be attested 
and subscribed in the presence of the testator, by three or four credible wit- 
nesses. A wife may make a will and give all her property, or any part thereof 
to her husband, or any one other person, with the consent of the husband sub- 
scribed to said will. Provided the wife shall have been privately examined by 
witnesses to said ^vill, apart out of the presence and hearing of her husband, &c. 
(in the same manner as provided for in deeds), and provided also said will be 
made 60 days before death of the testatrix. 



SPECIAL LAWS OF MASSACHUSETTS. 

ExEMPTiOKS FROM FoBCED SAiiE. — Hometcorth $800, and Personal Property. 
Every householder having a family shall be entitled to an estate of homestead 
to the extent in value of ^800, in the farm or lot of land and buildings thereon 
owned or rightly possessed by lease or otherwise and occupied by him as a resi- 
dence, and such homestead and all right and title therein shall be exempt from 
attachment, levy or execution, sale for the payment of his debts or other pur- 
poses. To constitute such estate of homestead and to entitle property to such 
exemption, it shall be set forth in the deed of conveyance by which the property 
is acquired that it is designed to be held as a homestead, or after the title has 
been acquired such design shall be declared by a writing dulj' signed, sealed, 
acknowledged and recorded on the registry of deeds for the county or district 
where the property is situated. Personal property is exempt as follows : The 
necessary wearing apparel of the debtor and his family ; 1 bedstead, bed, and the 
necessary bedding for every two persons of the family ; stove and fuel not 
exceeding §50 in value ; other necessaiy household furniture not exceeding 
in value §300 ; the family library not exceeding §50 in value ; 1 cow, 6 sheep, 
1 swine and 2 tons of hay ; tools, implements and fixtures for carrying on trade 
or business not exceeding §100 in value ; materials and stock designed for his 
trade or business not exceeding §100 in value ; necessary provisions not exceed- 
ing §50 in value ; the boat, fishing tackle and nets of fishermen, actually in use 
in their business, not exceeding §100 in value ; the unifonn, arms and accoutre- 
ments required by law to be kept by the citizens ; 1 sewing machine to the 
value of §100, and the wages for personal labor ax'e exempt from attachment to 
the extent of §20 for, a debt or demand other than for necessaries furnished to the 
debtor or his family. 

Mechanics' Lien. — Any person furnishing labor and materials for the erec- 
tion, alteration or repairs of any building, shall have a lien on the same, but no 
lieu for the materials shall attach unless he shall notify the owner, in case he is 
not the purchaser, in writing, that he intends to claim a lien for the same before 
ihey are furnished. AYhere the contract f-or furnishing labor and materials is for 
an entire sum, a lien will attach for the labor, if its value can be ascertained 
separate from the materials, but not beyond such entire sum. Notice in writing 
from the owner of such building, that he will not be responsible for the labor 
and materials to be furnished to the party furnishing or performing the same, 
\\-\\\ prevent the lien from attaching. 

Collection of Debts. — "When an arrest of the defendant in a civil action, 
on mesne process, in an action of contract, is desired by the plaintiff, the plain- 
tiff, or some person in his behalf, m.akes affidavit, and proves to the satisfaction 
of some justice of a court of record, police court, judge of a probate court, master 
i'.\ chancery, commissioner of insolvency, and, except in the county of Suffolk, 
ivial justice or of any justice of the peace, — 1. That he has a good cause of action, 
and reasonable expectation of recovering a sum amounting to §20, cxcluvsivc of all 



SPECIAL LAWS OF MASSACHUSETTS. 869 

costs which have accrued in any former action. 2- That he believes, and has 
reason to believe, the defendant has property not exempt from being taken on 
execution, which he does not intend to ai)ply to payment of the plantitf's claim ; 
and, 3, That h6 believes, and has reason to believe, that the defendant intends 
to leave the State, so that execution, if obtained, cannot be served upon him ; 
or (instead of the second or third), that the defendant is an attorney-at-law ; 
that the debt sought to be recovered is for money collected by the defendant for 
the plaintiff, and that the defendant unreasonably neglects to pay the same to 
the plaintiff. And such affidavit, and the certilioate of the magistrate that he is 
8;iListied the same is true, shall be annexed to the writ. 

In actions of tort, the arrest of the defendant may be procured when the 
plaintiff, or some one in his behalf, makes oath, to the satisfaction of any one of 
sakl magistrates, that he believes, and has reason to believe, that he has a good 
cause of action against the defendant ; that he has reasonable expectation of 
recovering a sum equal, at least, to one-third the damages claimed in the writ ; 
and that he believes, and has reason to believe, that the defendant intends to 
leave the State, so that if execution be obtained it cannot be served on him. An 
order for arrest on an execution issued on a judgment for debt or damages in a 
civil action, except in actions of tort, may be obtained when the plaintift, or some 
one in his behalf, makes affidavit and proves to the satisfaction of any one of said 
magistrates : 1. That he believes, and has good reason to believe, that the debtor 
has property not exempt from being taken on execution, wiiich he does not intend to 
apply to the payment of the plaintiff's claim ; or, 2. That since the debt was con- 
tracted, or the cause of action accrued, the debtor has fraudulently conveyed, con- 
cealed, or otherwise disposed of some part of his estate, with a design to secure 
the same to his own use and defraud his creditors ; or, 3. That since the debt 
was contracted, or cause of action accrued, the debtor has hazarded and paid 
money or other property to the value of SlOO or more in some kind of gaming 
prohibited by the laws of this State ; or, 4. That since the debt was contracted 
the debtor has wilfully expended and misused his goods ami estate, or some part 
thereof, for the purpose of enabling himself to swear that he has not any estate to 
the amount of $20, except such as is exempt from being taken on execution ; 
or, 5. (If the action was founded on contract.) That the debtor contracted the 
debt with an Intention not to pay the same ; or, 6. That the debtor is an attornej'- 
at-law ; that the debt upon which the judgment on which the execution issued 
was for money collected by the debtor for the creditor, an.', that said attorney 
unreasonably neglects to pay the same. And such affidavit and the certilicate of 
the magistrate that he is satisfied there is reasonable cause to believe the charges 
therein contained, or some one of them, are true, shall be annexed to the execu- 
tion. 

No woman shall be arrested on any civil process except for tort. But Avhen- 
ever any person shall obtain a judgment against any woman, whether married 
or unmarried, for the sum of $2{) and ujjwards, exclusive of all costs, which make 
a part of said judgment, and while so much as that amount remains uiicoUected, 
and shall take any execution upon the same, he may demand payment of the 
same, and upon failure to satisfy said execution, the judgment creditor may cite 
the judgment debtor to appear before the court and submit to an examination 
touching her estate and the disposition of the same. 

When a person is arrested on jJiesHC^jrocess in actions of contract, as above 
described, he may obtain his release by proving, to the satisfaction of any one of 
said magistrates, that he does not intend to leaA'e the State, so that execution, if 
obtained, cannot be serA-ed on him, or by taking the oath for the relief of poor 
debtors, or by giving bail either to pay the judgment or to answer to the execu- 
tion. When a person is arrested on mesne 2}rocess in an action of tort, he may 
obtain his release by giving bail. When arrested on execution, the defendant 
may obtain his discharge by taking the oath for the relief of poor debtors, before 
any one of said magistrates, and satisfying said magistrates of its truth. The oath 
is as follows : " I," A. B., " do solemnly swear that I have not any estate, real 
or personal, to the amount of thirty dollars, except the estate, goods and 
chattels which are by law exempt from being taken on execution, and that I 
have not any other estate now conveyed, concealed, or in any way disposed of 
with the design to secure the same to hiy own use or to defraud my creditors." 

AVhen any of the charges of fraud aforesaid are proved, the debtor shall have 
no benefit from the proA-isiojis for the relief of i)Oor debtors, and may be sentenced 
to confinement at hard labor in the house of correction. If the debtor is dis- 
cliarged on execution by taking the poor debtors' oath, the judgment remains in 
full force against his goods and estate, but he is not liable to a second arrest of 
the body. 



870 SPECIAL LAWS OF MASSACHUSETTS. 

All attachment of the property of defendant is permitted in all cases in mesne 
pmccs.s : either by direct attachment or by trustee or garnishee process. And 
wh ju the property of the defendant cannot be reached, so as to be attached in a 
snib at law, it may be reached in equity. In cases of doubt as to the ownership 
of the property to be attached, the offtcer requires a bond of indemnity. 

Besides the courts of minor jurisdiction, as of a justice of the peace outside 
Ol Suffolk county having a jurisdiction not exceeding SlOO, and of police, dis- 
trict, and municipal courts having jurisdiction not exceeding $300, and establish- 
ed in the larger towns and cities of the State, there are two courts established 
having jurisdiction throughout the State. First — The superior court holds terms 
ill most of the counties every three months. It has concurrent jurisdiction with 
the first-named courts from 320 to their limit, and exclusive jurisdiction of 
claims exceeding $300 and not exceeding $1000 in all counties except Suffolk 
county. In the latter county, the jurisdiction extends to $4000, and concurrent 
jurisdiction Avith the supreme judicial court of all claims exceeding said sums 
of $1000 and $4000. Service of process must be made in the superior court 14 
days before return day. Second — The supremo judicial court has jurisdiction in 
equity, concurrent jurisdiction with the superior court as above described, ex- 
clusive jurisdiction of libels for divorce, and jurisdiction of questions of law 
brought up from the superior court. 

Judgments are not a lien upon property, but when an attachment has been 
made on mesne j^rocess, the lien holds for 30 days after judgment, in which to 
make a levy on the execution. Xo execution will be issued within 24 hours 
after judgment has been entered, and all original executions must be issued 
Avithin one. year after the party is entitled to sue it out, and no successive execu- 
tion will be issued unless Avithin five years after the return day of the one preced- 
ing it. All executions are returnable in sixty days from their date. 

Deeds, Eights of Married Women, Wills, «S:c.— Conveyances of lands, or 
of any estate or interest therein, may be made by deed executed by any person 
having authority to convey the same, or by his attorney, and acknowledged and 
recorded in the registry of deeds for the county or district where the lands lie, 
without any other act or ceremony. 

A wafer, or other ten-cious substance upon which an impression may be 
made, is a A^alid seal in this State. Tho acknowledgment of deeds shall be by 
the grantors, or one of them, or by tho attorney executing the same, and niay be 
made before any justice of the peace, magistrate or notary iDublic, or commis- 
sioner appointed for that purpose by the Governor of tliis State Avithin the 
United States, or in any foreign country, or before a minister or consul of the 
United States in any forign country. No subscribing Avitness is required 
Avhen the deed is acknowledged by one of the grantors. In case the grantor 
refuses to acknowledge the same, it may be proA'ed before a justice of the peace 
in the county AA'here the land lies, or Avhere the grantor or any subscribing Avit- 
ness to the deed resides, by the testimony of the subscribing AAitness, and he shall 
certify the due execution of same. In signing deeds it is not necessary that the 
Avife be separately examined ; it is suflicientto bar her dower, if she join with 
her husband in the conveyance. 

A married Avoman may hold real and personal property. May convey the 
same, make contracts, sue and be sued in the same manner as if she Avere sole ; 
feuu her separate couA^eyance of her real estate shall be subject to her husband's 
tenancy by the courtesy. ConA'cyances, contracts and suits are not authorized 
between husband and wife. Every Avoman shall be entitled to her dower at 
common law in tho lands of her husband, to be assigned to her after his decease, 
ujiless she is lawfully barred thereof. 

Chattel mortgages of personal property shall be recorded on the records of 
the city or toAvn Avhere the mortgagor resides Avhen the mortgage is made, and on 
the records of the city or town in Avhich he then principally transacts his busi- 
ness, or follows his trade or calling. If the mortgagor resides without the State, 
his mortgage of personal property Avithin the State Avhen the mortgage is 
made, shall bo recorded on the records of the city or town Avhere the property 
then is ; unless a mortgage is so recorded Avithin fifteen days from the date 
thereof, or the property mortgaged is deliA^ered to and retained by the mort- 
gagee, it sh.all not be A'alid against any person other than the parties thereto, 
except in the case of a mortgage, contract of bottomry or respondentia, 
or any transfer, assignment or hypothecation of a ship or A'essel, and also except 
in. case of any transfer or mortgage of goods at sea or abroad, if the mortgagee 
takes i^ossession of such goods as soon as may be after their arrival in this St.ate. 
Wheii it is required that a mortgage of personal property shall be recorded in 
tho records of two municipalities, such mortgage shall be considered as duly 



SPECIAL LAWS OF MICHIGAN. 871 

recorded, v.lien recorded in the record of one of them ; provided, it is recorded in 
the records of tlic other -vvithin ten days from the date of such first record. 

Wills must be in writing, and signed by the testator, or by some other person 
in his presence and by his express "direction, and attested and subscribed in the 
presence of the testator by three or more comiietent witnesses. 



SPECIAL LAWS OF MICHIGAN. 

ExEJiPTioxs FROM FORCED SALE.— i/ome Worth S1500 and Personal Pro- 
perty. A homestead c'onsisting of any quantity of land, not exceeding 40 acres 
and dwelling house thereon and its appurtenances, not included in any recorded 
town plat or city, or village ; or instead thereof, at the option of the owner, one 
lot in a recorded town plat or city, or village, and the dwelling house thereon 
and ils appurtenances. Said property, however, must not exceed 61,500 in 
value ; if so, it may be sold and the excess applied in payment of the judgment. 
Personal property is exempt as follows : All spinning wheels, weaving loom 
with the apparatus, and stoves put up and kept for use in any dwelling house, ix 
seat, pew or slip occupied by a person or family in any place of public worship, all 
cemeteries, tombs and rights of burial, all arms ancl accoutrements required to 
be kept by any person, aH" wearing apparel of every person or family, library 
and school books of every individual and family not exceeding $150 in value, 
and all family pictures. To each householder 10 sheep with their fleeces, and 
the yarn or cfotli manufactured froni the same, 2 cows, 5 S'wine, and provision 
and fuel for six months' use, all household goods, furnitiu'e and utensils not ex- 
ceeding in value $250 ; tools, implement's, materials, stock, apparatus, team, 
vehicle, horses, harness or other things to enable any person to cany on the 
profession or trade, occupation or business in which he is wholly or principally 
engaged, not exceeding in vahxe $250 ; and a sufficient quantity of hay, grain, 
feed and roots for properly keeping for six months the animals hereinbefore 
spceiiied ; 1 sewing machine for family use is" also exempt. No portion of the 
property above specified, however, is exempt from execution upon a judgment 
for the purchase money. 

Mechanics' Liek. — Any person who shall, by contract with the owner, part 
owner or lessee of any piece of land, furnish labor or materials for constructing 
or repairing any building, wharf or appurtenances on such land, has a lien 
therefor upon said building, wharf, machinery, appurtenances, the entire in- 
terest of said owner, part owner or lessee in and to said land not exceeding one 
quarter-section ; or if in the limits of an incorporated village or city, in the lot 
or lots on which said building, wharf, machinery or appurtenances are situated, 
to the extent of his claim. He must file a verified certificate with the register 
of deeds, containing a copy of the contract, if in writing, or if not a statement 
of its terms, with a description of the land, and a statement of the amount due 
and to become due, with all credits to which the owner may be entitled. 

The owner, part owner or lessee must be notified of the filing of the certifi^ 
cate. In order to have the benefit of the lien, proceedings to foreclose must bo 
taken within six months after the last installment shall become due. A sub- 
contractor has a lien to the extent of the interest of the original contractor, 
upon complying with substantially the same provisions as in case of an original 
contractor. JVIechanics, workmen, and other persons, also have a lien in certain 
cases, for performing labor or furnishing materials in building, altering, repair- 
ing, beautifying or ornamenting any house or other building, machinery or 
appurtenances to any house or building. 

Collection of Dedts. — Persons may be arrested by capias ad respondendum, 
in actions arising on contract, to recover damages for breach of promise to 
many, for moneys collected by a public officer, for any misconduct or neglect in 
olfice, or in any professiojial employment, and in other actions than those aris- 
ing upon contract, v/here an order for bail shall be indorsed on the writ by a 
judge of the court, or by a circuit court commissioner. 

Arrests may also be "made in other actions upon contract than those above 
specified, if it be made to appear that the defendant fraudulently contracted the 
debt or incurred the obligation, or that he has property which he has removed, 
or is about to remove, out of the jurisdiction of the court, with intent to defraud 
his creditors, or which he fraudulently conceals, or which he unjustly refuses to 
apply to the payment of any judgment 'which shall have been rendered against 
him. 



872 SPECIAL LAWS OF MICHIGAN. 

Atlachments may issue in favor of any creditor against any debtor having 
property in the county in which the creditor or debtor may reside, subject to the 
attacliment, in the circuit court of said county ; or in case the debtor has no 
property in the county, or is a non-resident of the State, then an attachment may 
issue iji the circuit court of any county where the property of the debtor may bo 
found. 

Tlic following are the principal causes of attachment : 1. That the defend- 
ant has absconded or is about to abscond from tliis State, or that lie is concealed 
therein, to the injury of his creditors. 2. That the defendant has assigned, dis- 
posed of, or concealed, or is about to assign, dispose of, or conceal any of his 
property, with intent to defraud his creditors. 3. That the defendant has rc- 
mioved or is about to remove any of his property out of the State, with intent to 
defraud his creditors. 4. That he has fraudulently contracted the debt or i:> 
curred the obligation respecting which the suit is brought. 5. That he is a nor- 
resident of the State and has not resided therein for three months immediately 
])receding the time of commencing the suit ; or, 6. That the defendant is a 
foreign corporation. 

No bond is required on commencement of suit, but the defendant may re- 
cover the possession of the i)i-operty taken by virtue of the writ by delivering 1o 
the officer a bond conditioned fur the payment of any judgment or the return of 
the property. Unless this is done, the property must remain in the hands of the 
officer. Attachments may be dissoh^ed by a judge of the court, or by a circuit 
court commissioner, upon application of the defendlint, if he shall be satisfied 
that the plaintiff had not a good and legal cause for suing out the writ. 

Assignments of bonds, notes, and other choses in action not negotiable under 
existing laws, are valid, and the assignee may sue for and recover the same in 
his own name. 

A writ of garnishment may issue in a personal action arising upon contract. 

As to notes and bills, no person in this State can be charged as an acceptor 
on a bill of exchange, unless his acceptance is in writing, signed by himself or 
his lawful agent. Bills of exchange, duly protested for non-acceptance or non- 
payment, if drawn or endorsed within this State, payable at any place without 
the State but in the United States, entitle the holder'to recover damages in ad- 
dition to the contents of such bill, with interest and costs, as follows : When 
payable within either of the States of Wisconsin, Illinois, Indiana, Pennsylvania, 
Ohio and New York, three per cent, on the contents of the bill ; when payable 
within either of the States of Missouri, Kentucky, Maine, New Hampshire. Yei- 
mont, Massachusetts, Ehode Island, Connecticut, New Jersey, Delaware, Mary- 
land, Virginia or the District of Columbia, live per cent., and if payable else- 
where within any of the United States or territories thereof, ten per' cent. No 
damages are allowed, if payable within this State. If payable outside of tlie 
United States, five per cent, is allowed, besides the current rate of exchange at 
time of demand. All parties to notes or bills, whether drawers, makers, guaran- 
tors of payment, endorsers or acceptors, may be sued in one action, and judg- 
ment may be rendered and execution issued'in the same manner as though all 
were joint contractors. Any bill of exchange, note, or draft payable on demand, 
and any check, bill of exchange, or draft drawn upon any banker banking insti- 
tution, is deemed to be due on the day mentioned for the payment of the same, 
without any days of grace being allowed. Guarantees of payment or of the col- 
lection are negotiable, and pass to the holder of the note. Notarial protest is 
evidence of non-acceptance or non-payment, at the time and in the manner 
stated in the protest, unless the defendant shall annex to his plea an affidavit 
denying the fact of having received such notice. 

Justices of the peace haA'e jurisdiction in all civil actions wherein the debt or 
damages do not exceed §100, and concurrent jurisdiction with the courts of 
record in all actions upon contract wherein the debt or damages do not exceed 
3300, except actions for a disturbance of a right of way or other easement ; ac- 
tions for libel, slander, or for malicious prosecutions, aiid actions against execu- 
tors or administrators as such, except in cases specially provided by law. Cir- 
cuit courts, in their respective counties, have and exercise original and exclusive 
jurisdiction of all civil actions and remedies of whatever name and description, 
and of all prosecutions for crimes, misdemeanors, offences and penalties, except 
in cases where exclusive or concurrent jurisdiction is given to or possessed by 
some court or tribunal in virtue of some stat;itory provisions, or the principles 
and usages of law. Said court has such appellate jurisdiction and powers as are 
provided by lasv. Service of summons may bo made at any time before return 
day. 

A judgment has no effect upon the property of a judgment debtor, either real 



SPECIAL LAWS OF MICHIGAN. 873 

or persoiifil, until tho issue and le^^^ of an execution. A certified transcript of 
the judgment of a justice of the peace for twenty dollars and over, exclusive of 
costs, on certain conditions, may be filed in the office of the clerk of the circuit 
court of the county in which the judgment shall have been rendered, in which 
case tha judgment shall be of the same effect as a judgment rendered in said cir- 
cuit court. Judgments may be entered in any court upon confession. 

Executions in courts of record may issue upon the rendition of judgment to 
the proper officer of any county in the State, and successive or alias executions 
may issue one aft(Jr another upon the return of any execution unsatisfied in 
v.hole or in part. They are not a lien upon property until a levy is made. Exe- 
cuti')ns in justices' court, except in certain specified cases, may issue at the ex- 
piration of five days from the rendition of judgment, unless the execution be 
stay.id. The defendant in the execution in justices' court may stay the same, 
except in certain specified cases, by filing proper security for the payment of the 
money, with interest and costs for four months from the commencement of suit, 
if the judgment shall not exceed fifty dollars, and for six months if the judgment 
exceeds fifty dollars. 

Land sold under execution may be redeemed within one year from the time 
of sale. Every species of property, real or personal, and the interest of the de- 
fendant in any property, except such as is exempt from execution by statute, is 
subject to execution and sale. 

Deeds, Rights of Married Womex, "Wills, &c — Deeds must be under 
seal, with two witnesses ; a scrawl is regarded as a seal. The execution of deeds 
must be acknowledged before any judge or commissioner of a court of record, or 
before any notary public or justice of the peace within the State. The deed 
must be recoi-ded in the county where the land lies. Deeds executed in any 
other State must be executed according to tho laws of such State, and the execu- 
tion thereof may be acknowledged before any officer authorized by the laws of 
such State to take acknow-ledgments ; or they may be acknowledged before any 
commissioner appointed by the Governor of this State for such purpose. 

If made before any other officer than a commissioner of this State, the deed 
must have attached thereto a certificate of the clerk of a court of record of the 
county or district Avitliin which such acknowledgment was taken under his seal 
of office ; that the person -whose name is subscribed to the certificate of acknowl- 
edgment was, at the date thereof, such officer as he is therein represented to 
be, that he believes the signature of such person subscribed thereto be genuine, 
and that the deed is executed and acknowledged according to the laws of such 
State. 

The acknowledgment of a deed by a married woman, when she joins with her 
husband in a deed of conveyance, must be taken separately and apart from her 
husband, and she must acknowledge that she executes the same freely and with- 
out any fear or compulsion from any one. 

A husband is not required to join in a deed by the wife conveying her prop- 
erty. No particular form of certificate of acknowledgment is required, but it 
should appear from such certificate that the person making the same was legally 
authorized to take such acknowledgment ; that the grantor or grantors Avere 
personally known to him, and that they appeared before him and acknowledged 
the deed to be his or their free act. When executed by a married Avoman, it 
should show that she executed the same freely and without fear or compulsion 
from any one. 

Married women may hold real and personal estate to their separate use, and 
may contract in reference to the same, and in the same manner, and Avith the like 
effect, as if they Avere unmarried. And they may sue and be sued in relation to 
their sole property in the same manner as if they Avere unmarried. Dealings 
directly between husband and wife are permitted- The husband has no interest 
in the property of the wife as tenant hij the courfesJ/, Separate property acquired 
by females before or after marriage is not liable for the husband's debt- The 
Avife is entitled to dower in all lands owned by her husband during coA'erture. 

Wills must be in writing, subscribed by the testator or by some person in his 
presence and by his express direction, attested and subscribed iu the preseaea 
of the testator by two or more comoetent Avituesses. 



874 SPECIAL LAWS OF MINNESOTA 



SPECIAL LAWS OF MINNESOTA. 

Exemptions from Forced Sale.— //ome of FAgMy Acres in Farm Lands, and 
Lot in Villar/e or City, loith Personal Property. Eighty acres of land and dwell- 
ing liousc thereon, or instead thereof, one town or city lot and the dwelling 
houses thereon, regardless of value. Family Bible, books, pictures and musical 
instruments -, church pew and cemetery lot ; wearing apparel of debtor and 
family, also beds, bedsteads and bedding ; stoves and appendages, cooking 
utensils, and furniture not ennmerated not exceeding $500 in value ; 3 cows, 10 
swine, 1 yoke of oxen, and a horse (or a span of horses or mules), 20 sheep ; neces- 
sary food for stock for one year ; 1 wagon, cart or dray, 1 sleigh, 2 ploughs, 
1 drag, and other farming utensils not exceeding 3300 in value ; one sewing 
machine ; seed grain for one year ; one year's provisions for debtor and family ; 
one year's fuel ; tools or instruments used for carrying on trade, and stock 
in trade not exceeding $400 ; library and implements of any professional man ; 
80 acres of land and dwelling house thereon, or instead thereof, one town or citj' 
lot, and the dwelling houses thereon, regardless of value. Also the wages of 
any laboring nian or woman or their minor children, not exceeding $50, due for 
services rendered during the ninety days preceding the issue of the process. 

MECHAifics' LiEK. — Mechanics and material men have a lien for labor done or 
material furnished on land and improvements. Such lien is subject to the rights 
of prior bona fide lien holders. The claim must be filed within one year, and this 
gives a lien for two years. Siib-contractors, laborers and persons furnishing 
materials to the contractors, may acquire a lien on the j?aj/?nerifs due to the orig- 
inal contractor by serving an attested account on the owner. 

CoLLECTioJf of Debts. — Arrest in civil action is unknown here. 

Writs of attachment may issue on the folloAving grounds : Defendant being a 
non-resident or a foreign corporation, or has departed from the State with intent to 
delay or defraud his creditors, or keeps himself concealed with like intent ; that 
the debt was fraudulently contracted ; or that defendant has assigned, 
secreted or disposed of his property with intent to delay or defraud his 
creditors ; or that he is about to do so. Attachments are levied on bulky articles 
of personal property without removal, by filing a copy of the writ with the town 
or city clerk, and on real estate by recording the writ in the offi.ce of the register 
of deeds. 

Assignments for the benefit of creditors are not governed by statute and fol- 
low common law rules. No filing or record is necessary. 

Garnishment may issue at the time of filing the complaint, or issuing 
summons, or at any time thereafter. The indebtedness of the garnishee, or the 
value of property in his hands, as well as the indebtedness of the defendant, 
must not be less than $25, besides costs, to entitle the plaintiff to judgment in the 
district court, and not less than $10 in the justice's court. 

On notes and bills grace is allowed, imless the contrary is expressed, on 
all time paper, and on that payable at sight, hut not on that payable on demand. 
Liability of indorsers is fixed by protest and notice, same as at common law. 
Demand paper must be presented within sixty days from its date to charge the 
indorser. Acceptances must be in writing, and signed by the acceptor or 
his duly authorized agent. 

District Courts and Courts of Common Pleas have original jurisdiction in 
all equitable actions where a justice of the peace has not juiisdiction, regardless 
of amount ; and in all civil actions where the amount exceeds $100, and below 
that sum, with certain provisions as to costs. Justices of the peace have juris- 
diction of all amounts under $100 in civil actions, except cases involving title 
to real estate, false imprisonment, libel, slander, malicious prosecution, crim, 
con., seduction, or promise to marry ; or for an action against an administrator 
or execu.tor. 

Judgments upon being docketed in the ofiBce of the court of record, become a 
lien on all real property of the judgment debtor in the county where docketed, 
for ten years. No lien on personal property is created by a judgment. Justices' 
judgments become liens when a transcript is filed in the district court. 

Executions issue from district courts -sVhen demanded, or any time within ten 
years after judgment is rendered. They are returnable in district courts within 
sixty days ; personal property is first levied tipon, and is sold at ten days' notice ; 
real estate is sold on a notice of six weeks, published in a newspaper of the 
county, and notices posted in three public places for the same time, Beal estate 
fold on execution may be redeemed within one year 



SPECIAL LAWS OF MISSISSIPri. 875 

Deeds, RianTS or Markied "Womex, &c.— Deeds must be signed, sealed (a 
scrawl answering for a seal) and acknowledged by the grantor, attested by two 
witnesses, and recorded in the county where the lands are situated. Acknowl- 
edgments in this State maybe made before a judge of the supreme, district or 
probate court, or a clerk of said courts, notary public, justice of the peace, 
or court commissioner. Out of this State, acknowledgments of deeds to lands in 
this State may be made before a judge of a United States court, judges or justices 
of any State or territorial coiu't of record, clerks of any of said courts, justices of 
the peace, notaries public, or commissioners appointed by the Governor of this 
State for that purpose. Justices of the peace or other officers not using a seal, 
must have their official character certified to by the clerk of a court of record. 
No separate acknowledgment to a deed is required by a wife, but she must join in 
her husband's acknowledgment. 

The following form of acknowledgment is used indifferently for single persons 
and for husbaiul and wife : 
State of Mix^'esota, \ 
County of . | **' 

Be it known that on this day of , A. D. 187 , personally appeared 

before me , to me personally known to be the same person 

described in , and who executed the foregoi)ig instrument and acknowledged 

that executed the same freely and voluntarily, Avithout any fear or com- 

pulsion from any one, for the uses and purposes therein expressed. 

INIarried women may hold property, real or personal, in their own name and 
for their own xisc, whether acquired before or after marriage. She may make 
contracts, and her property is liable for her debts ; but no conveyance of her 
separate real estate is A-alid unless her husband join therein. 

Chattel mortgages are void as against creditors and subsequent mortgagees and 
purchasers in good faith, when the mortgagor retains possession of the property, 
unless duly acknowledged and filed in the office of the toM'u or city clerk, both 
where the' mortgagor resides and where the property is located. They cease to 
be notice after two years from the date of filing. 



SPECIAL LAWS OF MISSISSIPPI. 

Exemptions from Forced Sale.— /7o??ie loorfh §2.000 and Personal Properfif 
On debts cojitracted after Sept. 1, 1870, only 80 acres of land to the head of each 
family, being a housekeeper, to a resident of any incorporated town, being the 
head of a family, and a housekeeper, §2,000 worth of real property, comprising 
the proper homestead. The exempt personality is, 1. The tools of a mechanic 
necessary for carrying on his trade. 2. The agricultural implements of a farmer 
necessary for two male laborers. 3. The implements of a laborer. 4. The books 
of a student required fur the completion of his education. 5. The wearing 
apparel of every i)erson. 6. The libraries of licensed attorneys-at-law, practicing 
physicians and ministers of the gospel, not exceeding in value §250. 7. The arms 
and accoutrements of every person enrolled in the militia of the State. 8. All 
books, globe and maps used by teachers of schools, academies and colleges ; also, 
the following property of each head of a family or housekeeper : one work horse 
or mule, or 1 yoke of oxen, 2 cows and calves, 5 head of stock hogs and 5 sheep, 
50 bushels of corn, 10 bushels of wheat or rice, 200 lbs. of meat, 1 cart or wagon, 
not to exceed in value §100, household and kitchen furniture not to exceed §100 
in value ; and §100 of the wages of laborers is exempt from garnishment, in 
the hands of their employers. 

LiEXS — Judgments, when enrolled, are liens on all property in the county 
where rendered ; may be made liens in any county by having abstract enrolled: 
there. Mortgages and deeds in trust are also liens. They must be acknowl- 
edged and recorded in the same manner as ordinary deeds of conveyance. 
Mechanics have a lieu for labox' done and materials furnished in the erection and 
repair of buildings, but suits to enforce a mechanic's lien must be commenced iu 
six months. 

Collection op Debts.— Xo person can be arrested for debt in this State. 
Writs of attachment may be Issued on one or more of the following grounds : 
1. That the defendant is a foreign corporation, or is a non-resident of this State ; 
or, 2, That he has removed or is about to remove himself or property out of thia 
State; or, 3. That he so absconds or conceals himself that he cannot be served 
with a summons ; or, 4. That he has property or rights in actions which he con- 
ceals, and unjustly refuses to apply to the p.ayment of his debts ; or, 5, That he 



876 SPECIAL LAWS OF MISSISSIPPI. 

has assigned or dispose<l of, or is about to assign or dispose of his property 
or rights in action, or some part thereof, with intent to defraud his creditors, or 
give an unfair preference to some of them ; or, 6. That he has converted <)r 
is about to convert his property into money, or evidences of debt, witli intent to 
place it beyond the reach of his creditors ; or, 7. That he has fraudulently 
contracted the debt, or incurred the obligation for which the suit has been, or is 
about to be brought. 

Before any writ of attachment shall issue, the creditor, his agent or attorney, 
must make an affidavit as to the amount and character of his debt or claim, :vn'(l 
the existence of one or more of said grounds of attachment, and give bond in 
double the amount of the principal of the claim, conditioned to pay all damages 
Avhich the defendant may sustain by reason of the wrongful suing out of the 
attachment. 

Writs of garnishment may issue on suggestion that any party is indebted to or 
has property of the defendant in his hands. 

The assignment of notes, bills, accounts, and other legal or equitable demands 
is valid, and when the assignment is in writing, the assignee may sue in his own 
name. No particular form of words is necessary to constitute a valid assignment. 
The maker of any bill, note, etc., may plead any payment, oflf-set or other equity 
in defense of the same against the assignee, had or possessed by him against the 
assignor preAdous to notice of the assignment. 

Justices' courts have jurisdiction up to $150 ; Circuit courts over that amount. 
Chancery courts have jurisdiction in the administration of estates, all probate 
matters over minors and lunatics, in matters of dower and divorce, and the fore- 
closure of mortgages, and they have nearly all the jurisdiction of English chan- 
cery courts. 

Executions are required to be issued, unless otherwise ordered by the plaintiff, 
within 20 days after the adjournment of the term of court at which the judgment 
is rendered. No stay law for staying executions except in justices' courts, and 
only then upon giving bond. Parties may, by consent, however, have judgment 
entered up, with stay of execution for any specified time. 

Claims against deceased persons must be probated in the office of the cleric of 
the chaiicery court having charge of the estate, within one year from the date of 
the first notice to creditors to present their claims, otherwise they are barred. If 
the evidence of debt is a bond, note or bill, it must be filed, with the affidavit of 
the creditor attached, that no portion of the money intended to be secured by it 
has been received, and no security or satisfaction given for the same except the 
amount credited, if any. If it is an open account, the affidavit must set out that 
the amount stated Is just and true, and that no part of the money stated to 
be due, nor any security or satisfaction for the same has been received except 
what is credited, if Any._ If it is a judgment, a certified transcript must be filed, 
accompanied Avith a similar oath . 

The above affidavits maybe made by non-residents before a commissioner for 
the State of Mississippi, a judge or clerk of any court of record, a notary public, 
or justice of the peace, with the certificate of a judge or clerk of some court of 
record as to his official character. 

Deeds, Rights of Married AVomex, Wills, &c.— Deeds to lands must bo 
recorded in the office of the chancery clerk, in the county where the lands lie. 
Before being recorded they must be acknowledged. The acknowledgment must 
be substantially as follows : 
State of Mississippi, ) 
COUXTY OP Mariox. ) ■ 

Personally appeared before the undersigned (here follows the name and title 
of the officer), John Leslie, who acknowledged that he signed, sealed and deliv- 
ered the foregoing deed of conveyance as his own act and deed, on the day and 
■ year and for the purposes therein mentioned. 

Given under my hand this day of , A. D., 187 , 

(Signature and title of officer,) 

If a married woman is a party to the deed, the following should be added to the 
foregoing form of acknowledgment, immediately after the word " mentioned : " 
Also personally appeared before me, Mary Leslie, wife of the said John Leslie, who, 
on a private examination before me, separate and apart from her said husband, 
acknowledged that she signed, sealed and delivered the foregoing deed of con- 
veyance, as her own voluntary act and deed, freely, withoiit any fear, threats or 
compulsion of her said husband, on the day and year and for the purpose therein 
mentioned. Given nnder my hand, etc, (as above). 

The foregoing acknowledgments may be taken before any judge of the 
euprerae court, or any judge of the circuit court, any chancellor, any clerk of «k 



SPECIAL LAWS OF MISSOURI. 877 

court of record, or any justice of the peace or member of the board of supervi- 
sors, whether the land conveyed lie in or out of his county. 

If ihe party conveying land in this State is a non-resident, his acknowledg- 
ment may be made before any of the judges of the supreme court of the United 
States, or a judge of the district court of the United States, or justice of the su- 
preme court or superior court of any State or territory of tlie Union, or any justice 
of the peace whose official character shall be certified to under the seal of some 
court of lecord in his count}', or before any commissioner residing in such State 
or territory wlio may be appointed by the Governor of this State to take acknowl- 
edgments and proof of deeds and other conveyances. Every deed must be sealed, 
but a mere scrawl answers for a seal. 

Property acquired by married women either before or after marriage, enures 
with the income solely to the wife's benefit. She may sell the same, provided 
her husband joins in the deed of conveyance ; and she may dispose of it by last 
will and testament. She cannot bind her property for her husband's debts 
beyond its income. 

All contracts made by the husband and wife or either of them, for supplies for 
the plantation of the wife, may be enforced and satisfaction had out of her 
separate estate. All contracts made by the Avife, or by the husband with her con- 
sent, for family supplies or necessaries, wearing .apparel of herself and children, 
or for their education, or for materials used or work done for the benefit of her 
separate estate, or for household furniture, are binding on her, and satisfaction 
may be had out of her separate estate. 

A married woman may engage in trade as afemme sole. When she does, she 
is bound as though unmarried for all contracts 'made in the course of her trade. 
She is liable for debts contracted before marriage. The husband is not liable for 
ante-nuptial debts. All other contracts than lliose enumerated, made by a mar- 
ried woman, are absolutely A'oid. 

As to dower the widow is entitled to one-third of all lands of which her hus- 
band died seized and possessed, or which he had conveyed during his lifetime 
otherwise than in good faith or for a valuable consideration, during her life. If 
there are no children, she inherits all of her husband's estate. 

The husband is entitled, in courtesy, to one-half of all his deceased wife's 
lands during his life, dependant, however, upon the common law prerequisites. 

Wills should be in writing, subscribed by the testator, and attested by three 
credible witnesses. If the will is wholly written by the testator, and subscribed 
by him, it need not be attested by any witnesses. 



SPECIAL LAWS OF MISSOURI. 

Exemptions from Forced Sa.j.'e.— Homestead $1500 to S3000, and Personal 
Property. Homestead, if in the country, not to exceed $1500 in value, and in 
cities of over 40,000 inliabitants, not to exceed $3000 in value. Personal prop- 
erty is exempt as follows : For heads of families, all wearing apparel, usual 
household furniture not to exceed $100 in value, provisions in the house and the 
usual tools of trade of a mechanic ; for farmers, working and other kind of 
animals amounting in value to about $300. Persons may claim, in place of the 
aforesaid animals, any kind of property, real or personal. Women, being aban- 
doned by their husbands, and being heads of families, may claim the same ex- 
emptions as the husbands. Persons, other than heads of families, are allowed, 
as exemptions, their wearing apparel and the necessary tools of a mechanical 
trade. The last month's wages, regardless of amount, are exempt from execu- 
tion and attachment. 

Mechanics' Lien". — Material men and mechanics have lien for labor and 
material on the land and improvements to the extent of their claims. The orig- 
inal contractor must file his claim within six months, laborers within thirty 
days, and all other persons claiming a lien within four months after the debt 
accrued. This lien has precedence over all other liens or encumbrances placed 
on the property subsequent to the commencement of the building or improve- 
ments. 

CoLLECTi02sr OF DEBTS. — Arrest for debt is unknown here. Writs of attach- 
ment may be obtained on the following grounds i—Non-residence ; being about 
to remove from the State ; concealment with view to avoid service ; removal of 
properts"- from State, or concealment of the same, with a view to hinder and de- 
lay creditors ; where debt is contracted out of the State, and debtor absconds 



878 SPECIAL LAWS OF MISSOURI, 

from there and secretly removes Lis property into this State ; for debt contracted 
fraudulently or from commission of felony ; or where goods were bought and 
payment is to be made in cash and the same is not done ; bond must be in double 
the debt claimed, with one or more sureties, who must be resident householders 
in the county where suit is brought. Attachments should be resorted to in this 
State Avith great caution, and only where the proof is strong and clear. Every 
species of property, whether it be legal or equitable, is subject to attachment 
and execution at law. When attachment is levied on real estate, notice is to be 
filed at the recorder's office, and this fixes legal notice of the encumbrance. 

Assignments, in trust for the benefit of creditors, inure for the benefit of all 
creditors of the grantor, whether named in the deed of assignment or not ; the 
deed of assignment must be acknowledged and recorded like other deeds. One 
partner cannot assign all the partnership assets for the pajTnent of partnership 
debts, but only his own share of them. A creditor, if he attacks an assignment 
as fraudulent, and is defeated, cannot afterwards claim the benefit of the as- 
signment and be allowed to prove his debt before the assignee. Assignmems, 
made to secure sureties or endorsers, prior to any payment by them, are valid 
here. Notes, bills, accounts and every species of contract or claim is assignable, 
and the assignee can sue on it in his own name. 

Garnishment can be issued, either on execution or attachment, against any 
person owing the debtor or having his property in possession. The garnishee is 
entitled to compensation for his trouble and expen:;e, including attorney's fees ; 
this is payable out of the fund, if any is found in his hands, or if nothing is due 
from the garnishee, then the plaintiff is bound to pay this sum. 

Acceptors of notes and bills are chargeable only when their acceptance is in 
writing on the bill ; or, if on separate piece of paper, when the party who gave 
the credit saw the separate paper ; or if a promise is made in writing to accept a 
draft before it is drawn, and the draft is in the hands of any person who gave 
credit on the strength of this writing. 

Bills of exchange and notes drawn and negotiated in this State or on any 
person within the State, expressing on their face for "value received," and duly 
protested for non-payment or non-acceptance, entitle the holder to recover dam- 
ages as follows : If drawn on a person residing in this State, four per cent. ; if 
outside the State, ten per cent. ; if outside any of the United States or territo- 
ries, twenty per cent, damages on the principal sum. These damages are not 
recoverable if the bill is drawn by and on a person residing in this State, and 
payment of the principal is made within twenty days after dishonor. All parties 
to notes or bills, whether endorsers, makers, or acceptors, or parties in any man- 
ner, can be sued jointly or separately in the same or in several actions. Drafts, 
orders or bills of exchange, payable at sight or on demand, are deemed due the 
day they are presented for payment, and if unijaid, may be protested. Notarial 
protest is evidence of demand and refusal of payment, at the time and in the 
manner stated in the protest. 

Sheriffs are liable, for failure to pay over money, to pay five per cent, dam- 
ages i)er month from the time demand is made of them, in addition to legal in- 
terest. They are also liable for the full value of property in replevin or attach- 
ment suits, Avhen they have taken insufficient bond. 

The jurisdiction of justices' courts, in counties having over 50,000 inhabitants, 
on bonds and notes for the payment of money up to §300, on other contracts up 
to §200, on actions for torts up to $100. In counties having under 50,000 inhab- 
itants, on notes and bonds for payment of money up to 8150, on other contracts 
up to .$90, ajid in torts up to §50. In actions for, recovery of specific personal 
property, up to ^200, in the former, and up to §100 in the latter class of counties. 
All these amounts are exclusive of interest. Circuit courts have concurrent 
jurisdiction with justices' courts as follows, in counties irrespective of popula- 
tion : On written or verbal contracts, in sums over §50, and in the former class 
of counties for torts, in sums over §25, and for recovery of specific personal prop- 
erty up to §200 ; in the latter class of counties for torts, in sums over §25, and 
for recovery of personal property in sums not exceeding §100. 

Service of summons must be made in circuit courts 15 days before return day, 
and all actions are triable, in counties having over 40,000 inhabitants, at the re- 
turn term ; in other counties, actions on notes and bonds are triable at the re- 
turn term, and other actions at the next term. 

Before justices, service must be made 15 days before trial, in cases where they 
have concuiTcnt jurisdiction with circuit courts; in other cases 6 days is suffi- 
cient ; but in St. Louis county 15 days is required in all cases. 

Judgments, in courts of record are a lien from their rendition, and for three 
years thereafter, on all real estate owned by the defendant, or subse(iuently ac- 



SPECIAL LAWS OF MISSOURI. 879 

quired by him, aiul situated in the county. where the .judgment is rendered. The 
judgment can be revived so that the lien can be kept up for ten years after its 
rendition. No execution can issue on a judgment in a court of record older than 
ten years, new suit has to be brouglit on the same. Judgments in courts of rec- 
ord ci'eate no lien on personal property. No execution can issue on a justice's 
judgment three years after its rendition, without revivor. Judgments before 
justice can be made to create lien on real estate by liling a transcript of the 
judgment in the circuit court. 

Execution issues the day judgment is rendered, and are a lien on personal 
property, when issuing out of a justice's court from the time they are delivered 
to the officer ; when issuing from courts of recoid, only from the time they arc 
actually levied. Executions from a justice cannot be levied on real estate. 
Every species of property, real or personal, books of account, debts and judg- 
ments, whether the interest in real estate be a legal or equitable title, is subject 
to execution and sale at law. Kedemption, after execution sale, is unknown 
here. If an execution from a court of record is returned unsatisfied, the debtors 
can be summoned and required to state imder oath what property or interests 
they have or own, which may be reached by execution. 

Deeds, Eights of Married Women, AYills, &c.— Deeds must be under 
seal, a scrawl is regarded as a seal. The acknowledgment, if made in this State, 
may be made before a justice of the peace of the county where the land lies, be- 
fore a court or judge, the court having a seal, or before a notary public ; if out of 
this State, before a commissioner of this State, notary public, or before a court 
or judge or clerk of a court having a seal, or before the chief officer or mayor of 
a town or city who has a seal, or before a consul or minister of the United States 
who has a seal. The seal must be attached, and the deed recorded in the 
county where the land lies. 

The following is the form of certificate where the grantor is unmarried : 

[Form of Acknowledgment.] 
State of Missouri, 1 
County of Pike, j ' 

Be it remembered, that on this day of , A. D. 18 , before the 

undersigned, a , within and for the county of , and State of 

Missouri, personally came , who are personally known to me to be the 

same persons whose names are siibscribed to the foregoing and annexed instru- 
ment of writing as parties thereto, and acknowledged the same to be their act 
and deed for the purposes therein mentioned. 

In testimony whereof, I have hereunto sat my hand, and affixed my official 
seal, at my office in , the day and year first above written. 

[L. S.] (Signature and title.) 

The following is the form where husband and wife join in the deeds, the latter 
releasing dower. Husband and wife always must join in deeds, whether her or 
his real estate are to b^ conveyed : 



State of Missouri, 1 



[Form of Acknowledgment.] 



County of Pike. 

Be it remembered, that on this day of , A. D. 18 , before the 

undersigned, a , within and for the county of , and State of 

Missouri, personally came , who are personally known to me to be the 

same persons whose names are subscribed to the foregoing and annexed instru- 
ment of writing as parties thereto, and acknowledged the same to be their act 
and deed for the purposes therein mentioned. And the said , being by 

me first made acquainted with the contents of said instrument, upon an examin- 
ation separate and aj^art froni husband , acknowledged that ex- 
ecuted the same, and relinquishes dower in the real estate therein men- 
tioned, freely and without fear, compulsion or undue influence of said 
husband. 

In testimony whereof, I have hereunto set my hand, and affixed my official 
seal, at my office in the day and year first above written. 

[SEAL.] (Signature and title.) 

MaiTied women can hold real or personal property to their separate use, 
through a trustee. A note or endorsement made by a married woman will bind 
her separate estate ; it will not, however, bind her general estate, and will be a 
nullity unless she has a separate estate to be bound by the paper. If, however, 
her note is for purchase money of property, then it will bind even her general 
estate. 



880 SPECIAL LAWS OF MONTANA AND XEBIIASKA. 

The wife's separate property, whether acquired before or previous to mar- 
riage, is not liable for her husband's debts. The wife is endowed of one-third of 
all the lands of which hei- husband, or any one to his use, was seized of an estate 
of inheritance, at any time during the marriage ; also, of leasehold estate for 
the term of 20 years or more. 

A chattel mortgage of perishable articles, which are left in the hands of the 
fjrantor, with right to use the same, is void ; so is mortgage of stock of goods, 
The grantor having right to sell ; so is any mortgage, if unregistered and the 
chattel left with the grantor ; so is also a registered mortgage, if the goods are 
left unreasonably long with grantor, after default is maile in payment. 

Wills must be in writing, signed by the testator, or by some person in his 
presence, and at his request, and attested by two competent witnesses, who 
shall subscribe their names as witnesses in the presence of the testator. Wills 
must be recorded 30 days after probate ; if lands in different counties are devised 
:i copy of the Avill will be recorded in the recorder's office in each county, within 
six mbiitlis after probate. 



SPECIAL LAWS OF MONTANA. 

Exemption's from Forced Sale.— -Home loorth $2500, and Personal Prop- 
erty. A homestead not exceeding in value $2500 ; in a city or village not to 
exceed one quarter acre, or farm land not exceeding 80 acres, the debtor taking his 
choice selecting either, with all improvements thereon included in the valuatio]i. 
The lien of a mechanic, laborer, or mortgage lawfully obtained upon the same is 
not affected by such exemption. In addition to the homestead, personal property, 
to the value of §1400, and more, according to value of articles enumerated by 
statute, is allowed to the householder occupying the same. 



SPECIAL LAWS OF NEBRASKA. 

Exemptioxs from Forced Sale.— ^ome worth $500, and Personal Prop- 
erty' A homestead containing any quantity of land not exceeding 160 acres, and 
the dwelling house thereon, and its appurtenances, to be selected by the owner 
thereof, and not included in any incorporated city or village ; or instead thereof, 
at the option of the owner, a quantity of contiguous land, not exceeding two lots 
in any incorporated town, citj^ or village, and according to the recorded plat of 
said incorporated town, city, or village ; or, in lieu of the above, a lot or parcel 
of contiguous land, not exceeding 20 acres, being withiii the limits of an incor- 
porated town, city, or village, the said parcel or lot of land not being laid off into 
streets, blocks, and lots, owned and occupied by any resident of the State, being 
the head of a family, shall not be subject to attachment, levy or sale upon ex- 
ecution, or other process issuing out of any court in this State, so long as the 
same shall be occupied by the debtor as a homestead. All heads of families, 
who have neither lands, town lots, nor houses entitled to exemption as a home- 
stead, under the lav.'S of this State, shall have exemption from forced sale on 
execution the sum of $500 personal property. 

Mechanics' Lien.— Any person who shall have performed any labor, or 
furnished any material or machinery for the erection, reparation or removal of 
any house or other building or purtenances, by virtxie of a contract, expressed or 
implied, with the owner thereof, or his agent, shall have a lien thereon to secure 
the payment for such labor performed or materials furnished. Said lien shall be 
obtained by filing, in the office of the county clerk for record, an account, in 
writing, of the items, and making oath thereto, within four months after furnish- 
ing such materials, or work and labor. The lien shall operate from the date of 
the first item till two years from the date of the last item. 

Collection of Debts, — An order for the arrest of the defendant may be ob- 
tained on affidavit by the plaintiff, his agent, or attorney, that the claim is just, 
and that one or more of the following particulars are true : that the defendant 
has begun to remove any part of his property out of the jurisdiction of the court 
with intent to defraud ; that he has begun to convert the same into money to 
place it beyond the reach of his creditors ; that he has property of rights of action 
which he fraudulently conceals ; that he has assigned, removed or disposed of 
his property or any part thereof with intent to defraud ; that he has fraudulently 
contracted the debt or incurred the obligation on which the action is based. The 



SPECIAL LAAVS OF NEBRASKA. 881 

affidavit must further contain a statement of the facts claimed to justify a belief 
in one or more of the above particulars. Abend must be executed like that in 
cases of attachment. 

The plaintiff in a civil action may obtain a writ of attachment against all the 
lands, tenements, goods, chattels, stocks, or interest in stocks, rights, credits, 
moneys and effects of the defendant in his county, not exempt by law, upon the 
following grounds, in addition to those enumerated in the last above section : ! 
when the defendant, or one of several, is a non-resident or foreign corporation ; 
Avhen he absconds with intent to defraud ; when he has left the county to avoid 
fsorvice, or so conceals himself that summons cannot be served upon him. When ; 
the ground of attachment is that the defendant is a non-resident or foreign cor- 
j>oration, the claim must be a debt or demand arising on contract, judgment or 
decree. A bond, in not more than double the amount claimed, with one or more 
saroties to be approved by the clerk, is required, except when the defendant is a 
non-resident or foreign corporation. 

In cases of attachment, " when the plainLiff, his agent or attorney, shall make 
oath in writing that he has good reason to, and does believe, that any person or 
corporation, to be named and witliin the county where the action is brought, has 
property of the defendant (describing the same) iji his possession," the said prop- 
erty, whether debts, choses inaction, chattels or other property, maybe garnished 
and held the same as property otherwise attached. In all cases where an execu- 
tion shall be returned unsatisfied, and the judgment creditor, his agent or at- 
torney, shall file an affidavit, that any person or corporation (naming the same) 
has property of, and are indebted to the judgment debtor, such person or corpo- 
ration may be summoned as garnishee. 

All bonds, promissory notes, bills of exchange, foreign and inland, drawn for 
any sum or sums of money, ceitain and made payable to any person or order, or 
assigns, shall be negotiable by endorsement ; made payable to bearer, shall be 
transferable by delivery without endorsement. All such negotiable paper shall 
be entitled to three days' grace. January 1st, February 22d, July 4th, December 
25th, and any day appointed or recommended by the governor of this State, or the 
President of the United States, as a day of fast or thanksgiving, are legal holi- 
days for commercial purposes ; when such day comes on Monday, then the day 
after is when the act is to be performed. When any bill of exchange shall be 
drawn for the payment of any such sum of money, and such bill shall be legally 
protested for non-acceptance or non-payment, the drawer or drawers, endorser or 
endorsers, shall be subject to payment of twelve per cent, damages thereon, if 
drawn on any person or persons, or body-corporate, without the jurisdiction of the 
United States, and six per cent, damages thereon if drawn upon persons or body- 
corporate within the jurisdiction of the United States, and without the jurisdic- 
tion of this State. 

Tlie supreme court has appellate jurisdiction only except in cases relating to 
revenue, mandamxis, quo warranto, habeas corpus, and such cases of impeachment 
as may be required to be tried before it ; and both the supreme and district courts 
shall have both chancery and common law jurisdiction. The district court has 
original and exclusive jurisdiction over all matters and suits at law and in 
chancery arising in each county in their respective districts, except when justices 
of the peace have jurisdiction, and concurrent jurisdiction with said justices of 
the peace, in cases where the cause of action exceeds fifty dollars, and not exceed- 
ing one hundred dollars, and has jurisdiction in all cases of appeals from a 
justice of the peace or judge of probate. Justices of the peace have jurisdic- 
tion co-extensive with their counties, and extends to all cases wherein the sum 
involved does not exceed .^100. When action is rightly brought in any county, 
n summons may issue to any other county, and, unless otherwise provided for, 
shall be returnable on second Monday from its date, but when issued to another 
county, it may be made returnable, at the option of the party having it issued, on 
the third or fourth Monday after its date. Personal service before justices of 
the peace, three days before trial ; constructive service may also be made in 
certain cases by publication. 

Judgments in district court, are liens upon the lands of the judgment debtor, 
situated in the same county, from the first day of the term at which judgment is 
rendered ; but judgments by confession, and those I'endered at the same term in 
which the action is commenced, are liens only from the day on which such judg- 
ments are rendered. To create a judgment lien in other counties, a transcript 
must be filed or levy made. 

Judgments in probate and justices' courts, operate as a lien upon the realty of 
the debtor when a transcript thereof is filed and docketed in the office of the 
(Clerk of the district court. _ ^ 

00 



882 SPECIAL LAWS OF NEBKASKA. 

Lands, tenements, goods and chattels, not exempt by law, are subject to levy. 
Executions, unless stayed, issue at any time after judgment on order therefor. 
May issue to any county in the State, and simultaneously to any other counties ; 
must liret exhaust goods and chattels, and afterwards realty. Are not liens on 
personalty or realty in counties other than the one in which judgment is obtain- 
ed, until levy has been made or transcript filed. Ko redemption of property sold 
on execution or order of sale on foreclosure of mortgage ; title becomes absolute 
on confirmation of sale. Judgments become dormant and cease to be a lien on 
debtors' property if execution is not issued within five years from rendition of 
judgment, or if live years intervene between the issuing of two executions;. 
Judgments cease to operate as a lien on the debtor's estate to the prejudice of any 
subsequent bona fide judgment creditors, unless execution is issued within one 
year from date of said j udgment ; but when the issuing of an execution is pre- 
vented by stay, appeal, proceedings iu error, etc., such year does not begin to 
run until after the removal of said disability. If an execution be returned 
unsatisfied, the debtor can be summoned, and be required to state under oath 
what property or interests he has or owns, which may be reached by execution. 

Chattel mortgages are valid against bona fide purchasers and creditors, if the 
instrument shall be filed and recorded in the office of the county clerk ; but cease 
to be valid against creditors, purchasers and subsequent mortgagees in good faith 
after the expiration of one year from the filing thereof, unless within thu'tj' days 
next preceding the termination of said year a true copy of the mortgage, together 
with a statement exhibiting the interest of the mortgagee in the mortgaged prop- 
erty, shall again be filed and recorded. Sale or mortgage of chattels, unless ac- 
c )mpanied by immediate, actual delivery and continued change of possession, 
are jjrima facie fraudulent and void as against creditors and subsequent bona 
fide purchasers, unless the instrument has been duly filed and recorded in the 
office of the county clerk. 

Deeds, Rights of Married "Womex, &c. — All deeds affecting the title to 
real property, or any interest therein, in this State, except leases for one year or 
for a less time, must be signed by the grantor, of lawful age, in the presen'ce of at 
least one competent witness, who shall subscribe his name as a witness thereto, 
and be duly acknowledged or proved and recorded. Acknowledgments or proofs 
may be taken in the State, before a judge or clerk of any court, justice of the 
peace, or notary public ; no officer can take any such ackiv^wledgment or proof 
out of his State jurisdiction. 

The certificate of acknowledgment must be indorsed on the instrument, and 
show that the grantor acknowledged the same to be his voluntary act and deed, 
and that the officer before whom the same was taken knew him to be the ident- 
ical person whose name was affixed as grantor, or had satisfactory evidence of the 
fact. 'If, after the instrument is executed but not acknowledged, the grantor die, 
or if, from any cause, his attendance cannot be procured in order to make the 
same, or, having appeared, he refuses to acknowledge it, proof of the execution 
and delivery of the deed may be made by any competent subscribing witness 
thereto, before any oflicer authorized to take the acknowledgment ; such witness 
mast bo personally knovv'n to the officer, or such officer must have satisfactory 
evidence that the witness is the person who subscribed the instrument as a wit- 
ness. If all the subscribing witnesses arc dead, or out of the State, the execution 
of the deed may be proved by provinsj the handwriting of the grantor and of any 
subscribing witness thereto. AH deeds, duly executed and acknowledged, must 
be recorded in the office of the clerk of the county in which the land lies ; in case 
the land is situated in an unorganized district, the deed is to be recorded in the 
othce of the clerk of that county to which said district is attached for judicial 
purposes. All deeds, mortgages and other written instruments take effect, and 
are in force as to third parties, from and after the time they are delivered to the 
clerk for record. No separate examination is required in taking a wife's ac- 
knowledgment ; to convey her right of dower she must execute a deed with or 
without her husband. All deeds should have at least one subscribing witness. 
Private seals are abolished, not even scrawls are required, 

[Form of Certificate of Acknowledgment of Husband an4 "Wife.l 
State of , i 

COUXTY OF , ) • 

On this day of , A. D, 187 , before me (here insert name 

a.ul title of officer), duly appointed, commissioned (or elected) and qualified for, 
and residing in said county, personally appeared and , 

his wife, to me personally known (or by the oaths of one or more witnesses 
whose names arc hereto subscribed, satisfactorily proved) to be the identical 
persons described in, and whoso names are affixed to, the foregoing instrument 



SPECIAL LAWS OF NEVADA. 883 

as grantors, and tliey severally acknowledged the same to be their voluntary act 
and deed. 

In testimony whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and official seal, at , 

in said county ,'the day and year last above written, 

[seal.] (Signature and title.) 

Tlie property, real and personal, which any woman in this State may own at 
the time of hex' marriage, the rents, issues, profits or proceeds thereof, and any 
real, personal or mixed property which shall come to her by descent, devise or 
bequest, or the gift of any person except her husband, shall remain her sole and 
separate property, and not be subject to the disposal of her husband, or liable 
for his debts. She may bargain, sell and convey her real and personal property, 
and enter into any contract in reference thereto, in the same manner, to the 
.sa.iie extent, and with like eifect as a married man. She may sue and be sued 
as if u]imarried, and carry on trade or business on her separate account. Her 
earnings are her sole property. If married out of the State, she may here enjoy 
all rights to property there acquired. 



SPECIAL LAWS OF NEVADA. 

Exemptions From Forced Sale. — A Homestead worth §5000, and Personal 
Property. A homestead owned by a head of the family, worth 35000, and the 
following personal property : household furniture to the value of SlOO ; provis- 
ions and lire-wood for one month ; farming utensils of a farmer not exceeding in 
value 5200 ; two horses, two oxen or two mules, and two cows, one cart or wagon, 
mechanics' tools ; a miner's dwelling, in value $500, and his mining tools ; a 
library of a dentist, physician, lawyer or surgeon ; one sewing machine worth 
§150. A mortgage or other security on the homestead is void, unless for purchase 
money or mechanics' lien. 

Mechaxics' Lie>". — Persons who perform labor or furnish materials for the 
erection or improvement of any building has a lien on the same for such work 
and materials for all amounts over §25. And so have all laborers on all work 
done by them on any railroad, toll-road, canal, water-ditch, mine or mining-shaft, 
or tunnel, or building lot in a city or town ; pj^ovided, the original contx-actor 
shall file his lien in sixty days, and the sub-contractor or laborer in thirty days 
after the work is completed, and suit commenced in six months. 

Collection of Debts. — A debtor may be arrested and held in custody or re- 
leased on bail, upon an affidavit being made by the plaintiff, or his agent or attor- 
ney, that the defendant is fraudulently disposing of his property, or is absconding 
from the State, or where the debt was contracted in some fiduciary capacity, or 
where the action is for libel or slander, or where the debtor is concealing his prop- 
erty to defraud his creditors. 

Writ of attachment may issue against any property, whether real or personal, 
of the debtor may be attached upon the plaintiff entering into a bond, as required 
by the statute, not to be less than .§200 in gold coin, with sufficient sureties, and 
making an affidavit that the debt claimed is an actual bona fide debt due to plain- 
tiff from the defendant ; that the attachment is not asked to hinder, delay or de- 
fraud the defendant or his creditors ; that the action brought is on a contract 
for the direct payment of money, and which is not secured by a mortgage or 
other lien, or upon a contract executed by a party not in this State. And the 
property so attached will be held to abide the judgment the plaintiff may recover. 

A debtor may prefer one or more of his creditors, by assigning his property for 
their benefit ; ^yrovided, the assignment is bona fide, and bankruptcy does not in- 
tervene. 

Notes and bills for the payment of money are negotiable like bills of exchange. 
Acceptance must be in writing, on the bill or on separate paper; it shall not 
bind the acceptor, except in favor of the person to Avhom such acceptance was 
shown, and who gave value for the same on the strength of the acceptance. 
Kates of damages for non-payment or non-acceptance are as follows : On bills 
drawn on persons in the United States, east of the llocky Mountains, §1.3 on the 
§100 ; if drawn on Eux'ope or other foreigxi country, §20 on the §100 ; these dama- 
ges are in lieu of protest fees. Paper maturing on any legal holiday must bo pro- 
tested the day jjrevious. Legal holidays are : Sujxdays, January 1st. February 
22d. July 4th, Cliristmas and Thaxxksgivixig Days. Sight bills or drafts ax^o xiot 
oxititledto grace. 

The juxisdictioix of justices' courts extends to §300. except whexx suits concern 
land orinining claims, District courts have general jurisdiction of all matters. 



884 SPECIAL LAWS OF NEAV HAMPSHIRE. 

either of a legal or equitable nature, when the amount exceeds §300, and appellate 
jurisdiction in all cases which originates before a justice of th(? peace. The 
supreme has appellate jurisdiction from district courts. 

Judgments from courts of record, are liens on the debtor's lands in the 
county where obtained, and upon his land in any other county where transcript 
of same is tiled ; and judgments before justice of the peace become liens on the 
debtor's land, where a transcript of the same is tiled with the clerk of the district 
court of the county. 

Execution may be stayed by the court in which the judgment was obtained a 
reasonable time ; and, unless same is thus stayed, it can issue at any time Avithin 
the limitation, five years, and may be levied "on any of the property of the de- 
fendant not exempt by law. It is not a lien on personalty until an actual levy. 
As the judgment is a lien on the debtor's land, it can be enforced by the execu- 
tion. 

Deeds, Rights of Married Womex, &c. — Deeds must be in writing, a scrawl 
will answer for a seal. Witnesses are not necessary to its validity. 

If proven or acknowledged in this State, it must be before a judge, or clerk of 
a court having a seal, a notary public, or a justice of the peace. If without the 
State, before any judge, clerk of a court having a seal, notary public or justice of 
the peace, or a commissioner of this State. If before a justice of the peace, it 
must be accompanied by a certificate of the clerk of a court of record, certifying 
to the official capacity and signature of the justice. If taken without the United 
States, before some judge or clerk of a court of a State, Kingdom or Empire hav- 
ing a seal, a notary public, or by a minister, commissioner or consul of the United 
States. If the grantor does not acknowledge the execution of the deed, the wit- 
ness may prove his signature ; but if the witnesses ave dea<l, or cannot be had, 
proof by competent parties, under oath, of the signature of the grantor and at 
least one witness. 

The wife must join the husband in the execution of a deed, and this form can 
be used for the certificate of acknowledgment by husband and wife, or without a 
wife, and can be changed to suit the circumstances : 

State of New York, ) 
County of Orange. ) ' 

Be it remembered, that on this day of , A. D. 187 , person- 

ally appeared before me, J. Gordon, a notary public in and lor said county and 
State, duly appointed and qualified to take acknowledgments of deeds, etc., A. B. 
and C. D., his wife, whose names are subscribed to the conveyed instrument as 
parties thereto, personally known to me to be the individuals described in and 
who executed the said annexed instrument as parties thereto, who each acknowl- 
edged to me that they each of them respectively executed the same, freely, vol- 
untarily and for the uses and purposes therein mentioned. And the said C. D.. 
wife of the said A. B., having been by me first made acquainted with the contents 
of said instrument, acknowledged to me, on examination apart from and without 
the hearing of her said husband, that she executed the same freely and voluntarily, 
without fear or compulsion or undue influence of her said husband, and that she 
does not wish to retract the execution of the same. 

In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and aflixed my official seal, 
the day and year first above written. 

J. Gordon, Notary Public. 

All the property owned by the wife at the time of her marriage, or to which 
Bhe acquires after marriage by inheritance, devise, gift or bequest, belongs to 
and remains her separate estate which she can sell and convey without the con- 
sent of her husband. And all property acquired by purchase by husband and 
wife during the coverture belongs to them in common ; and upon the death of 
the husband, one-half goes to the wife ; but during coverture, is under the abso- 
lute control of the husband. He can couA-ey the same Avithout the joining of his 
wife in the execution of the deed. A married AA-oman has no dower in the real 
estate of her husband, neither has he any courtesy in hers. 



SPECIAL LAWS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

Exemptions From Forced SALE.^JTome u'or^/t $500, and Personal Property. 
Homestead to the A^alue of ^500, for the benefit of Avife, AvidoAV or children. 
Household furniture to value of $100 ; books and library in use by the debtor and 
liis family to value of §200 ; jjecessary Avgaring apparel ot debtor and family ; 



SPECIAL LAAVS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 885 

necessary bed, bedsteads and bed-clothing ; 1 cooking stove and its furniture ; 
tools of his occupation, yiOO ; provisions and fuel, $50 ; beasts of the plow, not ex- 
ceeding 1 yoke of oxen or 1 horse ; sewing machine, 1 cow, G sheep, 1 pig or hog. 

Mechanics' Lien. — Laborers and persons furnishing materials have a lien on 
the building and the land on which it is put, to the amount of §15, and for the 
space of sixty days after the labor was performed or materials furnished. 

CoLLECTiox OF DEBTS- — Arrest for debt can be made upon affidavit of the 
plaintiff, or his agent, that defendant owes more than §1.3.53, and conceals his 
property so that no attachment or levy can be made, or is about to leave the State 
to avoifl the paj-ment of his debts. 

Writs of attachment may issue for the following causes : Non-residence ; 
being about to remove from the State ; concealment with view to avoid service ; 
removal of property from State, or concealment of the same, with a view to hinder 
and delay creditors ; where debt is contracted out of the State and debtor ab- 
sconds from there and secretly removes his property into this State ; for debt con- 
tracted fraudulently or from commission of felony ; or where goods were bought 
and payment is to be made in cash and the same is not doiie ; bond must be in 
double the debt claimed, with one or more sureties, who must be resident house- 
holders of the county where suit is brought. Every species of property, whether 
it bo legal or equitable, is subject to attachment, and constitutes a valid lien on 
the property for thirty days after judgment, within which period the execution 
must be levied to preserve and protect the lien. 

Assignments in trust, for the benefit of creditors, inure for the benefit of all 
creditors of the grantor, whether named in the deed of assignment or not ; the 
deed of assignment must be acknowledged and recorded like other deeds. One 
partner cannot assign all the partnership assets for the payment of partnership 
debts, but only liis own share of them. Assignments made to secure sureties or 
endorsers, prior to any pa^^nent by then?, are valid here. Notes, bills, accounts, 
and every species of contract or claim is assignable, and the assignee can sue on 
it in his own name. 

Garnishment can be issued on attachment, against any person owing the debt- 
or or having his property in possession. The garnishee is entitled to compensa- 
tion for his trouble and expense ; this is payable out of the fund, if any is found 
in his hands, or if nothing is due from the garnishee, then the plaintiff is bound 
to pay this sum. 

All notes and bills, payable in cash to order or bearer, are negotiable ; on de- 
mand, are dishonored and overdue GO days from their dute. Grace is allowed on 
all notes, drafts and bills payable on time, unless expressly excluded by terms of 
the contract. 

The jurisdiction of justice and police courts, extend only to §13.33. The cir- 
cuit court has jurisdiction bej^ond that sum, and of all appeals from the justice 
and police courts. Superior court of judicature has only appellate jurisdiction, 
and may issue writs of error. 

Judgments may be obtained at the first term, unless defendant make affidavit 
of defense, in which case he is entitled to continuance unless the plaintiff has 
given him 30 days previous notice to be prepared for trial. 

Executions may issue the day judgment is rendered, and are a lien on personal 
property, when issuing out of a justice's court from the time they are delivered 
to the officer ; when issuing from courts of record, only from the time they are 
actually levied. Executions from a justice cannot be levied on real estate. 
Every species of property, real or personal, books of account, debts and judg- 
ments, whether the interest in real estate be a legal or equitable title, is subject 
to execution and sale at law. Redemption after execution sale can be had for 
one year. Stay of execution is only had when plaintiff is insolvent and defendant 
furnishes bond to pay the amount of judgment in reviev.'. 

Deeds, Rights of Married Women, Wills, &c.— Deeds must be under seal 
and attested by two witnesses. The acknowledgment, if made in this State, may 
be made before a justice of the peace of the county where the land lies, befort; a 
court or judge, the court having a seal, or before a notary public ; if out of lire 
State, before a commissioner of this State, notary public, or before a court or 
judge or clerk of a court having a seal, or before the chief ofHcer or mayor of 
a town or city who has a seal, or before a consul or minister of the 
United States who has a seal, or a justice of the peace, his official character duly 
certified by the clerk. The seal must be attached, and the deed recorded in the 
county where the land lies. No separate acknowledgment is required to be made 
by the wife, nor need she be examined separate and apart front her husband, but 
ebe muBt join in the deed to bar lier dower or homestead, 



88G SPECIAL LAWS OF XEW JERSEY. 

The following is the form to ho used of certificate of acknowledgment of lu:s- 
band and wife : 

State of New Hampshire, ) . 
County ok Cariiot.l. j 

Personally appeared the above-named, A. B. and C. J)., his wife, and acknowl- 
edged the foregoing instrument to be their voluntaiy act and deed. Before 
me, tills day of , 187 . 

John Gardner, Commissioner. 

No necessity for the certificate to state the wife releases her dower. The 
above is sufficient. Proof of subscribing witnesses must be made by depositions, 
and upon due notice to the parties interested. Andif the identity of the grantor 
is denied, it must be proven by deposition. 

Married women hold all property owned by them before marriage, or acquired 
after in any way, except through property of the husband, to their sole and sepa- 
rate use as if sole. All their acts in reference to such property are valid and 
binding upoii them and their property. All other contracts void. The wife is 
entitled to homestead and dower in all the property of. her husband, unless .'^he 
release the same by joining her husband in its conveyance. In most respects the 
wife is equal to the husband before the law. The husband cannot convey real 
estate to the wife. 

A chattel mortgage of perishable articles which are left in the hands of the 
grantor, with right to use the same, is void ; so is mortgage of stock of goods, the 
grantor having right to sell ; so is any mortgage if unregistered and the chattels 
,left with the grantor, save as between the parties thereto, unless the above pro- 
visions are complied with and an oath taken by both parties made on the mort- 
gage, to the effect that the debt accrued therein is just, honestly due antl owing. 

Wills should be in writing, signed and sealed by the testator, or by some per- 
son in his presence, and by his express direction, and attested and subscribed in 
his presence by three or more credible witnesses. 



SPECIAL LAWS OF NEW JERSEY. 

Exemptions from Forced Sale.— 7/ome tvorth §1,500 and Personal Prop- 
erty. Lot and buildings thereon, occupied as a residence and owned by the 
debtor, being a householder and having a family, to the value of §1,500. Per- 
sonal property to the amount of $200. owned by a resident head of a family, 
appraised by three persons appointed by the sheriff ; and the widow or adminis- 
trator of a deceased person may claim the same exemption of §200 as against 
creditors. 

Mechakics' Liens. — Persons who perform labor or furnish materials for the 
erection and construction of buildings, have a lien on the same for sucli labor 
and materials, including the lot on which such buildings are erected ; provided, 
the lien is filed in one year after the labor is performed or materials furnished, 
and the summons issued in the year. 

Collection of Debts. — A defendant may be arrested for debt, on aflidavit 
being made that he is either, 1. About to remove his property oat of the jurisdic- 
tion of the court, for the purpose of defraudinghis creditors ; or, 2. Fraudulejitly 
conceals his property or rights of action ; or, 3. He has assigned, removed or 
concealed, oris about to assign, remove or conceal his property, Avith intent to 
defraud his creditors ; or, 4. That he has fraudulently contracted the debt or 
incurred the obligation about which the suit is to be commenced. 

Writ of attachment by the creditor or his agent nuiking affidavit, to be filed 
with the clerk of the court out of which the Avrit is to issue, stating that the 
debtor, according to his knowledge and belief, is not a resident of this State ; 
that he owes the plaintiff (specifying the amount), or that the debtor abscoiuls 
from his creditors. All property of the defendant may be seized under attach- 
ment, and his debtors garnisheed, but the real estate seized under attachment 
cannot be sold for twelve months after seizure. 

Every assigiiment for the benefit of the creditors of the assignor, whither of 
real, personal, or mixed property, must inure to their mutual benefit without any 
preference or priority, and all preferences by which one or more creditors are to 
be first paid, or any other preferences, are fraudulent and void, excepting only 
creditors holding mortgages and judgment creditors. The debtor making the 
assignment must attach to the deed of assignment an inventory of all his estate, 
ftud a full list of creditors, these to be verified by the affidavit of the debtor. 



SPECIAL LAWS OF Js^EAV JEKSEY. 887 

The said inventory is not conclusive upon creditors or their assignee ; the latter 
< an recover any other property belonging to the assignor and not embraced in 
the schedule. 

Notes for the payment of money, payable to the order of any person or corpo- 
ration, are negotiable and assignable by endorsement, like inland bills of ex- 
change ; bills of exchange, for the sum of eight dollars and upwards, drawn upon 
any person in this State, can be protested for non-acceptance or non-payment, 
and be governed in every respect by the law governing foreign bills of exchange. 

All checks, drafts or bills of exchange (other than those drawn upon bauKs or 
banking houses) wJiether drawn on demand or otherwise, are entitled to three 
days' grace. Bills of exchange, taken for a pre-existing debt, will extinguit^h 
the debt, if such person accepting such bill for his debt doth not take due course 
to obtain payment thereof, by endeavoring to get the same accepted and paid, 
and make his protest thereof in case of non-acceptance and non-payment. 
Notaries public are authorized to make protest of negotiable paper ; but for 
want or in default of a notary, a justice of the peace may make lawful protest . 
The following are legal holidays, for purposes of protest ; Christmas day, first 
day of January, fourth of July, and any day specially appointed by the Gov- 
ernor for a day of fasting or thanksgiving, and paper falling due on such legal 
holiday shall become due and may be protested on the day precefling the holi- 
day ; notice of protest need not be sent till following such holiday. 

jurisdiction of justices' courts in civil actions, on amounts, or debt claimed cr 
matters in disp^ute, which does not exceed $100, except in actions of replevin, 
slander, trespass, for assault, battery or imprisonment, and actions wherein the 
title to lands come into question. Justices' courts are courts of record. Court 
of Common Pleas. — Concurrent with circuit. Appellate from justice of the 
peace. Circuit Coiirts. — Have concurrent, civil, original jurisdiction with su- 
preme court, and appellate from the common pleas court. Cmirt of Chancerji . — 
Exclusive jurisdiction in all equity and divorce cases. Supreme Court. — Has 
original and appellate jurisdiction of all civil suits at law. Court of Errors and 
Appeals. — Has only appellate jurisdiction, and is the court of last resort. 

Judgments constitutes liens on all the lands of the defendant in the county 
Avhere obtained, if obtained in the circuit or chancery courts ; but, if obtained 
in the supreme court, or docketed there from the circuit or chancery courts, a 
lien on all the lands of the defendant everywhere in the State. The liens con- 
tinue during the period of limitation. 

Executions may issue immediately after judgment, and at any time within the 
period of limitations, against the body of the defendant, or against his property, 
any kind of which can be levied upon. There is no stay of execution, except for 
a short period on judgments obtained before a justice of the peace, where good 
security is given, unless an appeal or writ of error is taken. There is no redemp- 
tion after sale under execution. 

Deeds, Kights of jMakiiied Womex. Wills, &c.— All deeds must be written 
in the common law form, under seal ; an iraijression on wafer or wax is sufficient, 
attested by at least one witness, and have the word heirs incorporated to con- 
vey a fee. Both husband and wife must join in a deed conveying the estate of 
either, the wife to relinquish her dower in her husband's estate, and the husband 
to give his assent to the wife's conveyance. If the deed is acknowledged in this 
State, it must be done before the chancellor or justice of the supreme court, a 
master in chancery, a judge of the court of common picas, or a commissioner of 
deeds. 

If out of the State, before a judge of the supreme, superior, circuit or district 
court of the State or United States without any seal of such coiirt or judge ; 
before a mayor or other chief magistrate of a city, under the seal of such city ; 
before a master in chancery of New Jersey, or a commissioner of deeds for New 
Jersey, under his seal ; before a judge of the court of common pleas, or any 
o.fficer authorized by the laws of the State where taken, to take the acknowledg- 
ments of deeds, and in the latter cases there shall be annexed a certificate under 
the great seal of such State or territory, or under the seal of the county court 
where the same is taken that such officer i3 such as he claims to be, and as such 
oflicer authorized to take the acknowledgments of deeds in such State or terri- 
tory, and that his signature is genuine. 

Tlie following is the form of certificate to be used : 
State of Neay York, ) 
CorxTY CF Okaxge. ) 

Be it remembered, that on this day of , 187 , before mo, tho 

subscriber, John Currie, a notary public, personallj' appeared A. B. and C. I)., 
bis wife, who, I am satisfied, are the gi-autors named in. and who executed the 



883 SPECIAL LAWS OF NEW YORh:. 

Williin instrument of conveyance, and I having first made k:;owii lo ihcm the 
contents thereof, they did therefore severally acknowledge before mc that they 
signed, sealed and delivered the same as their voluntaiy act and deed, for the 
uses and purposes therein expressed. 

And the said C. D., wife of the said A. B., being by me privately examined 
separate and apart from her said husband, did further acknowledge that she 
sicrncd, sealed and delivered the same as her voluntary act and deed, freely, 
without auv fear, threat or compulsion of or from her said husband. 

In V, itne s whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and affixed my official seal 
the day and year aforesaid. JoHX Currie, Notary Pablic- 

A married woman can hold, to her sole and separate use, all property, both 
real and personal, wliich she owned at the time of her marriage, or which she 
acquired during marriage by gift, grant, descent, devise or bequest, and the 
rants, profits and issues thereof shall not be subject to the disposal of her hus- 
band, nor liable for his debts. She can be sued with her husband for debts con- 
tracted for her own benefit, and which cannot be enforced against her in equity. 
AVidow is entitled to dower in one-third of all the real estate of which the hus- 
band died seized, and to the mansion house until dower is assigned her. 

All chattel mortgages to be valid as to creditors and subsequent bona fide 
purchasers, must be tiled with the clerk or register where the mortgagor resides, 
and if a non-resident, where the property is situated, or the possession of the 
property mortgaged must be immediately delivered to the mortgagee, and this 
possession be continued. And thirty days before the expiration of one year from 
the first filing of such mortgage, a true copy of same must be again filed with the 
clerk or register, accompanied with a statement showing the interest of the 
mortgagee in the property. The same becomes void as to creditors. 

All wills shall be in writing, and shall be signed, or acknowledged to have 
been signed, by the testator, and declared to be his or her last will, in the pres- 
ence of at least two credible witnesses present at the same time, who shall sub- 
scribe their names as Avitnesses in the presence of the testator. 



SPECIAL LAWS OF NEW YORK. 

Exemptions from Forced Sale. — Home wertli §1000. and Personal Prop- 
erty- Homestead to the value of $1000 ; but not as against an execution upon a 
judgment recovered for fraud. Burial plat not to exceed one-fourth of an acre. 
Personal property, when owned by a householder, is exempt as follows : Spin- 
ning wheels, looms and stoves in use in dwelling house, pictures and books in use 
to the value of $50 ; a pew in a church, 10 sheep, 1 cow, 2 swines and their neces- 
sary food, necessary household furniture and library to value of $250 ; working 
tools, professional instruments, a team and necessary food therefor for ninety 
days, and a sewing machine, except on execution for purchase money for sucii 
things. 

Mecha>'ICS' Lien. — The laws on this subject are not uniform throughout the 
State. Material men and mechanics have lien for labor and materials on land 
improvements to the extent of their claims. The claim must be filed within 
thirty days after completion of Idbor and furnishing of materials ; and in the 
county of New York, and some other counties, within three months. The lien 
continues for one year. 

Collection of Debts. — The defendant is liable to be arrested and held to 
bail, at any time before judgment, in an action for injury to person or character, 
or wrongfully taking, detaining or converting personal property ; in an action 
for money received or property embezzled or fraudulently misapplied by a public 
officer or attorney, or by an officer or agent of a corporation or banking associa- 
tion in the course of his employment as such, or by any other person in a 
fiduciary capacity ; in an action to recover the possession of personal property 
unjustly detained, where the property has been concealed or disposed of so that 
it cannot be found by the sheriff ; when the defendant has been guilty of a fraud 
in contracting the debt or incurring the obligation for which the action is 
brought, or in concealing or disposing of the property for the taking of which the 
action is brought ; or when the action is brought to recover damages for fraud 
or deceit, and when the defendant has removed or disposed of his property, or 
is about to do so with intent to defraud his creditors. 

The plaintiff is required to give a bond in at least $100, with one or more 
resident sureties, householders. The affidavit to obtain arrest may be made 



SPECIAL LAWS OF NEW YORK. 889 

by any one with knowledge of tlie facts. Arrest may be made by non-resi- 
dents. 

Writ of attachment may issue on account of non-residence ; departure from 
the State with intent to defraud creditors, or to avoid service, or concealment 
with like intent ; removal or intended removal of property from this State with 
intent to defraud creditors, or the assignment, disposition or secretion, actual or 
intended, of property with intent to defraud creditors. The plaintitf gives a bond 
in at leavt s?250, witli one or more resident sureties, householders. Every species 
of property is subject to attachment and execution at law. Attachment on real 
estate becomes a lien on tiling of notice. Attachments may be made by non- 
residents. 

Assignments for the benefit of creditors must be acknowledged and recorded. 
One partner cannot assign the firm assets for the partnership. A debtor may 
prefer his surety or endorse on an existing indebtedness, although not yet 
matured. All claims on contract are assignable, and the assignee can sue in his 
own name. No particular form of assignment necessary. 

Garnishment can be had either on executioit or attachment against any person 
owing the debtor or Laving property in his possession. 

Acceptors of notes and bills are chargeable only when their acceptance is in 
writing on the bill ; or if on separate piece of paper, when the party who gave 
the credit saw the paper ; or if a promise is made in writing to accept a draft be- 
fore it is drawn, and the draft is in the hands of any person who gave credit on 
the strength of the writing. 

Justices' Courts have jurisdiction in actions on contract and for damages for 
fraud in sale of property up to $200, and for recovery of personal property to 
value of 9200. Process returnable in from 6 to 12 days. 

The supreme court is a court of general jurisdiction in every county having 
cognizance of all actions. Process returnable in 20 days. 

There are various local courts in the cities with general concurrent jurisdic- 
tion with the supreme court. The marine court of the city of New York has 
jurisdictioiv in actions on contract where the recovery sought is not more than 
§1000. Process returnable in six days, and incase of non-resident, plaintiff or 
defendant, may be in 2 days. 

Judgments are liens for 10 years on all real estate owned by the judgment 
creditor, or subsequently acquired by him, in the county where the judgment is 
docketed. At the expiration of the ten years, the judgment can be revived by 
action. Judgments of inferior courts are made liens on real estate, by filing a 
transcript in county clerk's office. 

Execution issues the day judgment is rendei'ed. Personal property is bound 
from the time of the delivery of the execution to the sheriff, except in the hands of 
bona fide purchasers. All personal property, except such as is exempt by statute 
(see Exemptions), may he levied upon and sold. All interests in real estate, except 
a mere equitable interest, is subject to execution and sale. And within one year 
from the sale thereof, the property may be redeemed on payment of the bid, 
with interest, at ten per cent. If an execution is returned unsatisfied, the debtor 
can be examined under oath to discover property liable to execution. And any 
one owing the debtor, or having property of the debtor in his possession, may be 
likewise examined for the same purpose. 

Deeds, Rights of Married Women, Wills, t&c. — Deeds must be under seal ; 
a scrawl is not sufficient. There must be a subscribing witness, unless the deed 
is acknowledged by the grantor. Within the State the acknowledgment must 
be made by judicial officers generally, by notaries public and commissioner.s of 
deeds. Without the State the acknowledgment may be taken before any New 
York commissioner, or before any officer of the 5tate or territory where made, 
authorized by the laws thereof to take acknowledgments. 

The officer must be authenticated by the certificate of the county clerk under 
his official seal. 

The following is the form of acknowledgment, where the grantor is unmar- 
ried : 

State of Ixdiaka, ) 
County of Jackson. ) 

On this day of , in the year , before me personally came 

A. B., to me known to be the individual described in and who executed the 
within (or annexed, or above) conveyance, and acknowledged that he executed 
the same for the purposes therein mentioned. 

Peter Wilson, Notary Pitblic. 



890 LAWS OF NEW MEXICO AND NORTH CAROLINA. 

Tho following is tlie form where Imsband and wife join in the deed. • 

State of Indiana, ) 
County of Jackson, j 

On this day of , in tlie year , before me personally came 

A. B. and C- B., Ids wife, to me known to be the individuals described in and 
who executed the within {or above, or annexed) conveyance, and severally 
acknowledged that they executed the same for the purposes therein mentioned. 
And the s'ai;l C. B., on a private examination by me made, apart from her hus- 
band, acknowledged that she executed the same freely, and without any fear or 
compulsion of her said husband. Peter Wilson, Notary Fiihlic. 

Married women can hold real and personal property to their sole and separate 
use. A wife's obligation may be recovered out of her separate property when 
given with intent to charge it. Property acquired before or subsequent to mar- 
riage is in no cases liable for her husband's debts, but for her owji debts oiily. 
A widow shall be endowed with one-third of all the lands owned by her husband 
during his lifetime. 

To render a chattel mortgage valid as against creditors and purchasers, there 
must be actual possession by the mortgagee, or the mortgage or copy must be 
filed ill the town or city where the mortgagor resides. The mortgage must be 
refiled every year. 

Every will must be subscribed by the testator, and shall be acknowledged by 
him to be his will to each of at least tv/o attesting witnesses, each of whom shall 
sign ills name at the end of the will, at the request of the testator. The witnesses 
to any will shall write opposite to their names their respective places of residence ; 
if residing in a city the street and number of the house should also bo given. 



SPECIAL LAVs^S OF NEW MEXICO. 

Exemptions from Forced Sale.— /fo?ne worth 5B1000 ; Provisions, $25 ; 
Furniture, ^10 ; Tools, S20. Real estate to the value of $1,000 is exempt in farm, 
if the heads of the families reside on the same ; also the clothing, beds and bed- 
clothing required for the use of the family, and firewood requisite for 30 day.<:, 
when actually provided and intended for use. All Bibles, Testaments, liymn 
books, and school books'used by the family, and family and religious pictures ; 
provisions on hand to the amount of $25, and kitchen furniture to the value of 
$10, both to be selected by the debtor ; also tools and implements belonging to the 
debtor that may be necessary to enable him to carry on his trade or business, 
Avhether agricultural or mechanical, to be selected by him, and not to exceed §20 
in value. Real estate Avhen sold must be first appraised by two freeholders of 
the viciioity and must bring two-thirds of the appraised value. 



SPECIAL LAWS OF NORTH CAROLINA. 

Exemptions from Forced Sale.— i7o?ne rcorth ^IWO^nnd Personal Properiy 
iDorth $500. Every homestead, and dwellings and buildings connected there- 
with, not exceeding in value $1000, to be selected by the owner thereof, or in lieu 
thereof, at the option of the owner, any lot in a city, town, or village, with the 
dwellings used thereon, owned and occupied by any resident of the State, and 
not exceeding $1000 in value. Personal property to the extent of $500 in value. 

Mechanics' Lien. — All laborers, material men and mechanics have liens on 
tho houses built, improved or repaired by thein, and on tho lots on which they 
are built, to the extent of the interest of the party who had the improvements or 
repairs done. But they must take the necessary steps to enforce this lien, by 
filing same and bringing suit within ninety days after the work is finiylsed. 

Collection of Debts. — The defendant may be arrested and held to bail, on 
the following grounds : Where, as an attorney, solicitor or agent of any kind, 
he has collected money and failed to account for it, or professional misconduct 
or neglect in office ; wdiere he has unjustly detained personal property, or where 
lie conceals or disposes of his property with intent to deprive the plaintitf of the 
benefit of the same ; where he has been guilty of fraud in contracting the debt 
for which the action i3 brought ; where he has removed or disposed of his prop- 



SPrCIAL LAWS OF XORTH CAROLINA 891 

erty, or is about to do so, wltli intent to defraud his creditors ; where ho is a non- 
resident of the State, or is about to remove therefrom, or where the action is for 
breach of promise to marry. The court, or judge of tlic court in wliich the action 
is brought, must order the arrest of the defendant. No female can be arrested 
in any action, except for a wilful injury to person, character or property. 

"Writs of attachment may issue on making affidavit to one or more of the fol- 
lowing reasons : !• Where the defendant or corporation is a iion-resident. 2. 
Where the defendant has absconded, or conceals himself. 3. AVherc any person 
or corporation is about to remove any of his or its property fiom the State. 4. 
Where any person or corporation has assigned, disposed of or concealed, or i ^ 
about to dispose of or conceal, any of his or its property, with intent to defraud 
his or its creditors. 5. Where the defendant has wrongfully converted property 
to his own use. 

Garnishment in this State is not regulated by statute, but is governed by the 
rules of commo\i law. 

Bills and notes for the payment of money are negotiable, like inland bills of 
exchange, whether expressed to be payable to the order of a person or not. Bills 
of exchange payable at sight are entitled to grace ; but bills and notes payable 
on demand are not entitled to grace. 

Damages on protested bills are as follows : When drawn or endorsed in this State, 
and on a person outside the State but within the United States, three per cent. ; 
where it is drawn on persons in any other place in North America, or in the West 
India or Bahama Islands, ten per cent. ; when drawn on persons in the Madeira, 
Canaries, Azores or Cape de Verde Islands, or in Europe or South America, fif- 
teen per cent. ; and any other place, twenty per cent. In default of a notary-, a 
justice of the peace or a clerk of a court of record may protest paper. When any 
check, negotiable or promissory note, is endorsed, the endorser, imlcss he in the 
endorsement stipulates to the contrary, becomes surety on the paper, and liabli 
to the holder without any demand oii the maker ; this rule, however, does not 
apply to bills of exchange, either inland or foreign- 
Assignments for the benefit of creditors, are governed by the rnles of common 
law. The debtor has the right, therefore, to prefer one or more of his creditor.-, 
jtrovided it is a bona fide transaction. 

The jurisdiction of the justices' courts extends to §200, the probate court ha", 
authority over probate of deeds and general probate business, the superior 
court has exclusive jurisdiction of all demands over ?200, and the supreme court 
has only appellate jurisdiction. 

Judgments are liens on the land of the debtor, from the time they arc docketed 
in the clerk's otRce when the same are obtained in the superior court, and from 
the time a transcript from the justices of the peace is filed with the clerk of the 
superior court. Transcripts of judgment thus docketed may be filed in any 
county where the defendant has land ; and from the time tlie same is so filed 
with the clerk of the court, it operates as a lien on defendants lands. 

Executions may be levied on real as well as personal property, whether the 
realty is simply an equity of redemi)tion, or whether it is in the name of a fraud- 
ulent vendee ; leaseholds of three years, or more duration are treated as real 
property. Executions from a justice of the peace arc a lien on personal property 
from the time of the actual levy. Executions from courts of record issue in six 
weeks from the rendition of the judgment. 

Deeds, Rights of Makried Wome^", Wills, &c.— Deeds must be acknowl- 
edged by the grantor, or proved by the subscribing witness, before clerks of the 
superior courts, or judges of the 8ui)reme court, or iiotaries public, within the 
State where the grantor or witnesses reside ; beyond the State, their handwriting 
may be proven in this State before either of the above officers, or, where they 
reside beyond the State, the acknowledgement of the grantor can be taken, or 
proof by subscribing witnesses can be made, before a special commissioner ap- 
pointed under the seal of the probate judge having jurisdiction, authorizing such 
conmiissioner to take the acknowledgment of the grantor, or examination on oath 
of the witnesses to the deed, and the proceedings of such commissioner shall be 
returned to the probate judge issuing the commission, who may adjudge the deed 
duly acknowledged or proven, and order it registered. Or, the deed may be 
acknowledged or proven by witnesses before any regular commissioner of this 
State resident in the State or territory where the grantor or witnesses reside. 

Where the grantor and witnesses reside beyond the limits of the United States, 
llic acknowledgment or proof may be taken or made before the chief magistrate 
of any city where they reside, or any minister, ambassador or consul oE the 
United States, under the official seal of such magistrate or other officer, and then 
the certificate so made must be exhibited to the probate judge having juris.lic- 



892 SPECIAL LAWS OF OHIO. 

tioT\, who will adjudge tlie same duly acknowledged or proven, and order th« 
same to be recorded in the proper place in this State. 

The wife must join the husband in the execution of all deeds concerning real 
estate, to bar her dower, and her signature cannot be proven, but her separate 
acknowledgment must be taken ; slie must be examined privily and apart from 
her husband, and must show she does it to relinquish her dower. Where the 
grantor and subscribing witnesses are dead, the proof of the deed may be made 
by proving the handwriting of the grantor or the witnesses. 

Use this form in taking the acknowledgement of husband and wife : 
State of , ) 

couxty of . ) 

Before me (here insert name and title of ofl&cer), this day, personally appeared 
A. B. and C. I)., his wife, grantors named in the foregoiiig deed of conveyance, 
and the said deed being also produced and exhibited before me, the said A. B. 
and C. D. acknowledged the execution thereof by them as their act and deed for 
the purposes therein expressed ; and the said C. D. being by me privily examined 
separate and apart from her said liusband; touching her free consent in the ex- 
ecution of the said deed of conveyance, in her examination declared to me that 
she executed the same freely ,voluntarily and without compulsion or restraint upon 
the part of her said husband, or any person whatsoever, and did still voluntarily 
assent thereto ; and this she does in relinquishment of her dower in the land 
mentioned in said deed. 

In witness whereof, I have set my hand and afiSxed my official seal this 
day of , 187 . 

(Signature and title.) 

There is no necessity of a seal to a deed, a scrawl is sutficient. 

The property acquired by the wife either before or after marriage, either by 
inheritance, devise, gift or otherwise, shall bo and remain her sole and separate 
properly, free from the debts or control of her husband, and she can convey the 
same with the written consent of her husband. She has dower in all the real 
estate of her husband, owned or acquired during the coverture, and join in con- 
veyances made by him to release the same. 

No chattel mortgage of personal property is valid unless the same is duly re- 
corded in the county where the grantor resides, or the possession of the property is 
removed from the grantor, and is only authorized on property to the value of 
$300. 

The will must be signed by the testator, or by some other person in his presence 
and by his express direction, and subscribed in his presence by two witnesses, 
no one of whom shall be interested in the devise. Or, if found among his papers 
must be in his own handwriting, and his name subscribed thereto, inscribed in 
some part thereof, and the handwriting generally known to his acquaintances, 
and proved by three witnesses to be every part in the testator's own hand- 
writing. 



SPECIAL LAWS OF OHIO. 

Exemptions from: Forced Sale.— /Tome IForfh fpl.OOO, and Personal Pro- 
perty. — Every head of a family, resident in Ohio, shall hold exempt from exe- 
cution, his homestead, not to exceed $1,000. If the homestead exceed $1,000, 
the property will be partitioned and a homestead of $1,000 set off to the debtor. If 
ho have no homestead, he shall hold exempt real or personal property not to ex- 
ceea $500, exclusive of general exemptions, which are : Beds and bedstead ; 1 
stove ; 1 cooking stove ; fuel for GO days ; $100 of wearing apparel ; 1 cow, or 
instead $35 of household furniture : 2 hogs, or instead $15 of household furni- 
ture ; 6 sheep, or instead $15 of household furniture ; all Bibles and hymn 
books ; family pictures ; provisions not exceeding $50, and such other articles of 
household or kitchen furniture as may be needed, not exceeding $50 ; a sewing 
machine ; a knitting machine : tools of his trade, not exceeding $100 ; his per- 
sonal earnings, and his minor children's, for not more than three months before 
judgment; all specimens of natural history, if not kept for pecuniaiy exhibi- 
tion ; a doctor shall hold his horse, saddle, instruments and books, the two latter 
not to exceed $100, exempt ; a drayman, his horse and dray ; a farmer, his horse, 
wa<?on, and yoke of oxen. Widowers having unmarried minor children, 
^■^(low < and married people having no children, may have the benefit of this act. 
'*Iiowifc may claim cxemptiou when the husband will or cannot, but the two 



SPECIAL LAWS OF OHIO. 893 

may not claim exemption at the same time. Unmarried women may hold 5100 
of wearing apparel, §25 of books, a sewing and a knitting machine, exempt. 

Mechanics' Lien. — Material men and mechanics, whether they be contrac- 
tors, sub-contractors or laborers, may have a lien upon the buildings erected, and 
the land on which the buildings are erected, if within four months of the com- 
pletion of the labor or furnishing of the materials they file an account, under 
oath, of their claim, in the county recorder's office. ' This account must bo 
itemized. If the work be done or materials furnished under a written contract, 
such contract, or a copy thereof, must be filed with the account. The lien thu:j 
obtained dates back to the commencement of the labor or the furnishing of 
materials, and extends to two years after the completion of the labor or the 
iurnishing of materials. 

Collection of Dedts. — Arrest in civil actions can only be made in cases of 
fraud. The plaintiff may sei forth, by affidavit, fraud in the removal or conceal- 
ment of property, in the contracting of the debt, or of the conversion of the pro- 
perty into money. Escape of the prisoner, Avithout the consent of the creditor, 
is not satisfaction of the debt, but non-payment of jail fees, which jailer may de- 
mand weekly in advance, at the rate of forty cents a day, is constructive consent. 
This remedy is rarely, if ever, resorted to. 

AVrits of attachment may be obtained on one or more of the following 
grounds : 1. "When the defendant, or one of several defendants, is a non-resident 
or a foreign corporation ; or, 2. Has absconded with intent to defraud creditors; 
or, 3. has left the county of his residence to avoid service ; or, 4. So conceals 
himself that service cannot be made ; or, 5. Is about to remove his property out 
of the jurisdiction with intent to defraud his creditors ; or. 6. Is about to con- 
vert his property into money with like intent : or, 7. Fraudulently or criminally 
contracted the debt or incurred the obligation. 

An attachment on the first ground is only granted on claims founded on judg- 
ment, coiitract or decree. The affidavit in attachment may be made at or after 
commencement of any suit by plaintiff, his agent or attorney. Bond in attach- 
ment is in double the amount of the debt (except when obtained on the first 
ground, when no bond is required), executed by one or more sureties — it is the 
practice to have two sureties — need not be householders. There is no duty 
imposed upon the creditor to publish any notice of attachment on real estate ; 
that is the sheriff's duty. Attachment may be had before the debt is due, when 
the defendant has disposed, or is about to dispose, of his property with intent to 
defraud or delay his creditors. Same law as above. 

Assignments in trust, for the benefit of creditors, inure to the benefit of all 
creditors ; the deed of assignment, or a copy thereof, must be filed within ten 
days of its execution, in the probate court of the assignor's county of re- 
sidence, by the assignee. After all liens and mortgages, the wages of laborers 
and operatives, performed within six months, and not exceeding one hundred 
dollars, are to be first paid. Assignment made to secure sureties or endorsers are 
valid in any case, if for value. Every species of contract or claim is assignable; 
the holder of it must sue in his own name. 

Garnishment can be issued on attachment, and a process analogous to it on 
execution, against any person or corporation owing the debtor any moneys, or 
having his property in ijossession. In no case is the garnishee allowed anything 
but his costs in the case. 

All biUs, notes, or other instruments payable to order, becrer, or assignor are ne- 
gotiable. They must be put in suit in the name of the real party in interest. Ko 
damages or attorney's fees can be recovered in an action, save when there is an 
express and written clause in the note or bill, allowing the recovery of such 
damages or fees, in case it shall have to be sued upon. Notarial protest is evi- 
de'.ice of demand and non-payment, in the manner and at the time stated in the 
protest. 

Justices of the peace have exclusive jurisdiction up to SlOO, and concurrent 
jurisdiction with common pleas and superior courts up to §300. They have jur- 
isdiction in actions for trespass on real estate where the damages do not exceed 
■SlOO, and in actions for forcible entiy and detejition of real estate. Summons 
issued by justices of the peace must be returned within twelve days of their 
issue, and must be served on the defendant at least three days before trial. 

Courts of common pleas have original jurisdiction in all civil suits where the 
amount exceeds the jurisdiction of justices, in suits affecting real estate, in 
divorce and criminal prosecution, and appellate jurisdiction of cases before 
justices of the peace and probate judges. The superior courts of Cincinnati, 
Cleveland and Dayton have the same jurisdiction as courts of common pleas, ex- 
cept in divorce, criminal law, and justices' appeals. The district courts have 



894 SPECIAL LAWS OF OHIO. 

appellate jurisdiction of common pleas courts. The superior courts in gene 
ml term review the superior courts' decisions in special tenn. The supreme 
court has appellate jurifdiction of district court and general term of superior 
court decisions, and original jurisdiction in mandamus, quo warranto, habeas car- 
pus and procedendo. 

Service of summons must be made and returned, in common pleas courts, on or 
before the second Monday after their date. Actions arc triable the term after 
the issues arc made up, or if they be made up during a term, at that term. 

Judgments of courts of record, execution having issued on them witliin one 
year of their rendition, are a lien upon all real estate of the judgment debtor's?, 
rituate in the county where the the judgment is rendered, and owned by him at 
that time, from the first day of the term" at which such judgment is obtained, and 
for five years thereafter. Every issue of execution extends the lieu for five years, 
and a judgment lien. may be extended indefinitely. Judgments by confession, 
and judgments obtained during the same term at which the action is commenced, 
date from their rendition only. If execution be not issued in one year, the judg- 
nient, though still a lien, dates only from actual levy of execution. Judgments 
are no lien'ou personal property and on real estate acquired subsequent to the 
date of judgment. Dormant judgments may be revived by new actions founded 
on them. Judgments obtained before justices of the peace may* be made 
liens, by filing a transcript of same in the court of common picas. 

In order to prevent the priority of a judgment lien on lands, execution must 
bo issued within one year after the rendering of judgment. Actual levy must bo 
made on personal property to create a lien . Executions from justices of the 
peace cannot be levied on real estate. 

All property, legal and equitable, is subject to execution, except as qualified 
by the exemption laws. Proceedings in aid of execution may be instituted at 
any time after jmlgment and execution by which the debtor, and any one hav- 
ing property of the debtor's, may be "compelled to disclose its nature and 
amount. 

Before the return of an execution issued, an order may be granted by the 
court upon proper aftidavifc, Avhich Avill have the force of an attachment, and a 
coj)y served on any third party is analagous to the proceedings in garnishment. 

Deeds, Eights of Markied Women, Wills, «S:c. — Deeds must be under 
seal, a scrawl is a seal, and must be signed and sealed in presence of two wit- 
nesses, who sign also as attesting the execution of the instrument, and acknow- 
ledged in presence of any officer empowered to take depositions. If the grantors 
be non-residents, their deed, etc., may be executed accoixling to the laws of this 
State, or according to the laws of the "state where it is executed and acknow- 
ledged. jNIortgages iif this State date and become liens only from the time of 
their entry for" record. ' All other deeds are to be recorded within six months of 
their execution, in order to become notice as to subsequent purchasers without 
notice. 

This is the form where the grantor is unmarried : 
State of I>'diaxa, ^ 
CorxTV OF Stakk. I 

Be it remembered that on (the date) before me, the subscriber (title of officer) 
personally came (the name of grantor) the grantor named in the foregoing in- 
strument," and acknowledged the signing and sealing thn-eof to be his voluntary act 
and deed for the uses and purposes therein mentioned. Witness my hand and (if 
the officer have a seal of office he will here state : official) seal, oii the daj- and 
year lii-st above written. 

[seal.] Johx Haki'EK, Notary Public. 

The wife must join her husband in a deed or power of attorney, whether the 
land be in her own right, or she have but a dower interest therein. 

This is the form when the grantor is maiTiod : 
State of Ixdiaxa. I , 
CouxTY OF Stark. ) '*'*• 

Be it remembered that on , before me, the subscriber (John Harper, 

notary public) personally came and his wife, the grantors mentioned 

in the foregoing instrument, and acknowledged the signing and sealing thereof 
to be their voluntary act and deed for the uses and purposes therein mentioned. 
A nd the said , wife of the said , being by me examined sepai-ate 

and apart from her said husband, and the contents of said instrument by me ex- 
plained and made known to her, as the statute directs, declared that she -'id vol- 
untarily sign, seal and acknowledge the same, and that she is still satisfied there- 



SPECIAL LAWS OF OREGON. 895 

■with as her act and deed for the use and purposes therein mentioned. Attesta- 
tion same as in unmarried form. 

A marrftd woman may own property, real or personal, in her own right, with- 
out the intervention of a trustee. She may manage it herself, hut cannot disi)ose 
of it for any term longer than three years, without her liusband joining her. 
She may ho sued or sue alone, in actions eonccniing her scperato property, or 
upon a written obligation, contract or agreement signed by her. or if she bo 
engaged in any business, and tlio cause of action grows out of such business, 
and in all such cases a personal judgment can be had agninst her, and her separ- 
ate property will be liable. In no cascshall she be I'eqiiired to prosecute or de- 
fend by her next friend. If Iter husband has abandoned her, she will be con- 
sidered aHj'emme snip.- The widow shall bo endowed with one-third part of all the 
lands owned by her husl>and during coverture. 

Chattel mortgages of every kind are valid, if the instrument itself, or a true 
copy thereof, be deposited with the clerk of township wlifire the mortgager re- 
sides ; or if he be a non-resideii' , where the i>roi)erty is situate at the time of the 
execution of the mortgage. 

On every mortgage so filed the mortgagee shall make the following state- 
ment : 

[Form.] 



State of , ) 

County of . j 



, mortgagee, named in this mortgage, heing duly sworn, makes oath 
an 1 says that his claim against , n)ortgager, of which a true statement is 

hereto annexed, amounts to the sum of , and that said claim is just and 

unpaid. 

Sworn to before me and subscribed in my presence this day of 

, A.D. 

Every mortgage so filed shall be valid one year, and may be renewed within 
:*iirty days of the expiration of the year, by refiling the original mortgage, or a 
copy of it, with the statement as above. Each renewal is valid one year, 
and the mortgage may be so renewed indefinitely. 

Wills mu6t be in writing and signed by the testator, or by some person in his 
presence and by his express direction, and attested and subscribed in the pres- 
ence of the testator by two or more competent witnesses. See form No. 45 on 
page 815. 



SPECIAL LAWS OF OREGON. 

Exemptions from Forced Sale. — Personal Property. The following are 
exempted : Books, pictures, and musical instruments to the value of ST.ii ; neces- 
sary wearing apparel owned by any person to the value of .'$100, and if sucli 
person be a householder, for each member of his family to the val*ue of §.50 ; the 
tools, implements, apparatus, team, vehicle, harness or librarj' Jiecessary to en- 
able any person to carry on the trade, occupation or profession by which such 
person habitually earns his living, to the value of §400 ; also sufficient quantity 
of food to support such team, if any, for sixty days. The word team includes only 
one yoke of oxen, or a pair of mules or horses, as the case may )je The follow- 
ing property, if owned by a householder and in actual use, or kept for use by and 
for his family, or when being removed from one habitation to another on a 
change of residence : 10 sheep, with one year's fieece or the yarn or cloth manu- 
factured therefrom; 2 cows and 5 swine; household goods, furniture and 
utensils to the value of 3300 ; also sufficient food to support such animals, if any, 
for three months, and provisions actually ijrovided for family use, and necessary 
for the support of such household and family for six months ; the seat or pew 
occupied by a householder or his family in a place of public worship ; all property 
of the State, or any countj', incorporated city, town or village therein, or of any 
other public or municipal corporation of like character. No article of property, 
or if the same has been sold or exchanged, then neither the proceeds of such sale 
or the article received in exchange therefor, shall be exempt from execution 
issued on a judgment recovered for i' s prize. 

Mechaxics' Liex. — Contractors for material or labor on any building have, 
from the time work is commenced thereon, a lien on the building and the ground 
on which it is situated, prior to all other liens on the same premises jjlaced there- 
on after the commencement of work on the building. Suits must be brought 



I 
896 SPECIAL LAWS OF OREGON. 

within six months .after payments are due under the contract, but no credit 
given on payments can extend the lien beyond two years from the completion of 
the work. The lien extends in favor of the workmen to the extent of the con- 
tract jirice ; if before payments are due, they give written notice of their inten- 
tion to hold the owner. And no payments made to the contractor before they 
are due, under the contract, can defeat this lien. 

Collection^ of Debts. — Arrest in civil actions is unknown here, except in 
cases of fraud or of absconding debtors. 

In actions for debt or tort, the goods of defendant may be attached, whenever 
the plaintiff, or his agent, shall make and file an affidavit that a cause of action 
exists against the defendant, and the grounds thereof, and that the defendant U 
either a foreign corporation or a non-resident of thi.s State, or has departed there- 
from with intent to delay or defraud his creditors or to avoid service of sumuiors 
or keep himself concealed therein with like intent, or has removed or is about 1o 
remove his property from the State with intent to delay or defraud his creditors ; 
that he has assigned, secreted or disposed of, or is about to assign, secrete or dis- 
pose of any of his property with intent to delay or defraud his creditors, or that 
the defendant has been guilty of fraud in contracting the debt or incurring the 
obligation for which the action is brought. The affidavit may be in the alter- 
native as to any of these causes, and may be either positive or upon inforniation 
and belief. But upon information and belief, the nature and sources of the in- 
formation upon which the belief is founded must be stated. All property, or 
right or interest therein, not exempt from execution, may be attached. 

The assignment of notes, bills, accounts, and every kind of contract or claim 
arising out of contract, is valid, and action thereon must be brought in the name 
of the real party in interest ; but the action by the assignee, except in case of 
negotiable promissory note or bill of exchange, transferred in good faith for a 
valuable consideratioar before due, shall be without prejudice to any set-off or 
other defense existing at the time of or before notice of the assignment. 

Garnishment can be issued, either on execution or attachment, against any 
person owing the debtor or having his property in possession. 

As to bills and notes, no person is chargeable as an acceptor of a bill of ex- 
change unless his acceptance is in writing, signed by himself or his lawful agent. 
Grace is allowed on all bills and notes, unless they contain an express stipulation 
to the contrary. On bills of exchange drawn or endorsed within this State and 
payable without the limits of the United States, duly protested for non-accept- 
ance or non-payment, on due notice and demand thereof, the party liable for the 
contents of such bill shall pay the same at the current rate of exchange at the 
time of the demand, and damages at the rate of ten per centum upon the con- 
tents thereof , together with interest on such contents, to be computed from the 
date of protest ; said amount of contents, damages and interest to be in full of 
all damages, charges and expenses. On bills of exchange drawn within this 
State, payable without this State, but within the United States, and protested for 
non-acceptance or non-payment, the di'awer or endorser thereof, due notice 
being given of such non-acceptance or non-payment, shall pay said bill with 
legal interest, according to its tenor, and five per centum damages, together with 
costs and charges of protest. 

The jurisdiction of justices of the peace, in actions for the recovery of money 
or damages only, extends to §250 ; for the recoveiy of specific personal property, 
when the value thereof and the damages for the detention do not exceed S2f ; 
for the recovery of any penalty or forfeiture, whether given by statute or arising 
out of contract, not exceeding ^250. 

The county court has exclusive jurisdiction in the first instance of probate 
matters, and has jurisdiction, but not exclusive, of actions at law, and all pro- 
ceedings therein and connected therewith, when the claim or subject of con- 
troversy does not exceed the value of §500, and exclusive jurisdictioai of actions 
of forcible entry and detainer, without reference to the value of the property. 

The circuit coui-t is clothed with all the judicial power, jurisdiction and 
authority not vested exclusively in some other court. 

Service of the summons in county and circuit courts, if made within the 
county where action is brought, must be made ten days before judgment can be 
obtained ; or, if served within anv other county in the State, twenty days. Be- 
fore justices, service must be made not less than live, nor more than twenty days 
before day set for trial. 

Judgments in courts of record are a lien from their rendition, and for ten 
years thereafter, on all real estate owned by the defendant, or subsequently 
acquired by him, and situated in the county where the judgment Is rendered. Ko 
execution can issue on a judgment older than ten years, unless on cause shown. 



SPECIAL LAWS OF OREGOX. 897 

Judgments create no lien on personal property. Judgments before justice can 
be made to create lien on real estate by filing a transcript of the judgment in the 
circuit court. 

Executions may issue the day judgment is rendered. They are a lien only 
from the time actually levied. Executions from justices' courts cannot be levied 
on real estate. Every species of property, or right or interest therein, is subject 
to execution, except the exemption. Kedemption of real estate sold under ex- 
ecution may be made at any time within sixty days after the confirmation of the 
sale, but the redemptioner, in addition to the price paid by the purchaser, must 
pay interest thereon, at the rate of two per cent, per month, from the date of 
sale to the date of redemption. 

'^ Deeds, Rights of Married TVoME^', &c. — Deeds must be under seal, but a 
scrawl with the pen, a wafer, or other adhesive substance, is regarded as a seal. 
They must have two witnesses ; and, to be entitled to record, must be duly 
acknowledged. 

Acknowledgment, if made in this State, maybe made before any judge of the 
supreme court, county court, justice of the peace or notary public ; if out of the 
State, before any judge of a court of record, notary public, justice of the peace, 
or any other officer authorized by the laws of such State or territorj^, or country, 
to take acknowledgment of deeds therein, or before a commissioner of this State. 
Unless the acknowledgment be before a commissioner, when taken out of this 
State, there must be a certificate of the clerk or other proper certifying officer of 
a court of record, under the seal of his office, th?t the person whose name is sub- 
scribed to the certificate of acknowledgment was, at the date thereof, such oflicer 
as he is therein represented to be ; that he believes the signature of such person 
subscribed thereunto to be genuine, and that the deed is executed and acknowl- 
edged according to the laws of such State, territory or district. 

The following is the form of certificate of acknowledgment when the grantor 
is unmarried : 
State of . ) 

CouxTY OF , j •''*• 

Be it remembered that on this day of > 18 , before me, the 

undersigned, a Avithin and for , personally appeared A. B., to me 

Ijersonally known to be the identical person described in and who executed the 
foregoing deed, and to me acknowledged that he executed the same for the uses 
and purposes therein expressed. 

The following is the form where husband and wife join, the wife releasing 
dower or conveying her own lands : 
State of Ohio, 1 

CouxTV OF Butler. ) ^' 

Be it remembered that on this day of , IS , before me, the under- 

signed, a nol-ary public within and for said county and State, personally appeared 
A. B. and his wife, C. D., to me personally known to be the identical persons de- 
scribed in and who executed the foregoing deed, and to me acknowledged that 
they executed the same for the uses and purposes therein expressed, and the said 
C. 1)., Avife of the said A. B., on a separate, examination by me made, separate 
and apart from and without the hearing of her said husbaml, to me acknowledged 
that she executed the, same freely and voluntarily and without fear or compul- 
sion from any one. 

[Seal.] Johx Morgax, Notary Ptiblic. 

In this State married women can hold real or personal property in their own 
names, and free from control of or liability for the debts of their husbands, but in 
the case of personal property a schedule must be filed Avith the county clerk. 

Chattel mortgages, to be a lawful lien, must be filed in the county clerk's office, 
and are in force for one year only from the date when so filed. They may be re- 
turned for a further period of one year by the mortgagee, Avithin thirty days 
next preceding the expiration of the year, makiiig and annexing to the instru- 
ment on file an affidavit setting forth the interest Avhich the mortgagee has by 
virtue of such mortgage in the property therein mentioned. Within thirty days 
of the expiration of the second year, another affidavit may be made in like 
manner and with like effect. 

57 



898 SPECIAL LAWS CF PEJ^NSYLVANIA. 

SPECIAL LAWS OF PENNSYLVANIA. 

EXEMPTIOKS FROM FORCED Saxe.— iicai or Personal Property, $300. lieal 
or personal property to the extent of !i;300, besides wearing apparel, bibles and 
scbool books and sewing machines in the use of the family, and the arms, ac- 
coutrem^ents, and uniform of a soldier. The exemption may be waived in note 
or contract. 

Mechanics' Lien. — These bind houses and lands from the date of the com- 
mencement of work on the building (usually the cellar digging) ; for all work 
done and materials furnished toward the erection and construction of the build- 
ing ; provided, a lien for the same be filed within six months after the work has 
been done or the materials furnished. Liens may also be filed for alterations or 
repairs ; they bind the property from the date of filing. 

The debts of a deceased person are a lien on his real estate for 5 years after 
his death ; the lien may be continued by suit brought within that time. The 
lieiv of judgments operates for 5 years from date of entry, when they must be 
revived by scire facias. The lien of a mortgage for purchase money is good from 
date of mortgage if rendered within 60 days ; other mortgages from date of 
record. 

Collection of Debts — Arrest and imprisonment for debt is abolished in 
all actions founded on contract, except where such actions arise from breach 
of a fiduciary relation, and in cases of fraud. In cases where imprisonment still 
exists, the debtor may be committed to prison until he pays the debt, or gives 
bond to take the benefit of the insolvent laws. 

The property of a non-resident debtor, who is not within the county at the 
time the writ is issued, may be attached in civil actions. The property of a resi- 
dent debtor may be attached upon affidavit, that the defendant is justly indebted 
to him in a sum exceeding ^100, and setting forth the nature of indebtedness, 
and that the defendant is about to remove his property out of the jurisdiction of 
the court with intent to defraud his creditors, or that the defendant has trans- 
ferred, assigned or removed, or is about to transfer, assign or remove his proper- 
ty with intent to defraud his creditors, or that he has property, rights in action, 
interest in any public or corporate stock, or evidences of debt which he fraudu- 
lently conceals and refuses to apply to the payment of his debts. Plaintiff must 
give bond of indemnity in double the amount claimed, with sufiicient sureties, to 
ibo approved by the court before the attachment issues. Attachments may be is- 
sued in the nature of an execution, after final judgment, which is a lyeans of 
reaching the property of the defendant in the hands or custody of another. 

Assignments for the benefit of creditors, must be recorded within 30 days after 
date, or they become void as to creditors. Preference in assigmnents are void, 
and fall into the general fund, except as to wages due laborers, miners and 
operatives, who are preferred to the extent of §100. One partner may make gen- 
eral assignment of partnership property for benefit of creditors. 

A judgment is a lien on all the real estate of the defendant within the county 
in which it is obtained. Its lien continues 5 years, after which it must be revived 
or continued by scire facias. Does not bind after-acquired property unless 
levied thereon or revived. An execution binds personal property of the defend- 
ant from the time it is placed in the hands of the sherifi". but executions issued 
by a justice of the peace only bind from time of actual levy. "SVhen personal 
property or any leased premises is taken in execution, the landlord is entitled to 
one year's rent out of the proceeds of sale. 

To stay execution defendant may plead his freehold, that is, allege his owner- 
ship of unincumbered real estate, or put in special bail, and thereupon shall be 
entitled to stay of execution as follows <t If under §200, six months ; if over §200 
and less than §500, nine months ; if over §500, twelve months. This does not 
apply to actions on judgments, mortgages or bail for stay of execution on former 
judgments. 

In tax sales, unseated lands may be sold after one year's taxes are due, but 
may be redeemed by owner within 2 years on payment of amount of sale, costs, 
interest, and 25 per cent, penalty. Improved lands may be sold for non-payment 
of 2 years' taxes, but must be redeemed within one year after notice of sale. In 
Philadelphia, 2 years are allowed to redeem debts, not of record on a lien on the 
estate of the deceased person for five years, and may be continued for five years 
longer by suit commenced within that time. In case the personal estate of "a de- 
cedent is not sufiicient for the payment of his debts, the orphans' court will 
direct the sale of the realty. The widow and children of a deceased person are 
entitled to §300 out of his real or personal estate. 



SPECIAL LAWS OF PEXNSYLVANIA. 899 

Deeds, Rights of Married "Women, Wills, &c.— Deeds must be under seal, 
a scrawl is not sufficient, and should be attested by two witnesses. Acknowl- 
edgment of deeds may be taken in the State, by justices of the Supreme court of 
Pennsylvania, judges of the courts of common pleas, mayor, recorder, and alder- 
man of Philadelphia, Pittsburg, Alleghany and Carbondale, the recorders of 
deeds, the notaries public, and all justices of the peace. 

Out of the State acknowledgment may be taken by the mayor or chief magis- 
trate of the city, town, or place where the deed is executed (under the public 
seal) ; any justice or judge of the supreme or superior court, or court of common 
pleas, or of any court of probate, or court of record, or any State or territoy in 
the United States (certified under the hand of the judge and the seal of the 
court) ; by any judge of the United States supreme court, or of any United States 
district court ; by an officer or magistrate of any State or territoiy in the United 
States who is authorized by the laws of his own State or territory to take ac- 
knowledgments therein. The proof of such authority is the certificate of the 
clerk or prothonotary of any court of record in such State, under seal of the 
court, that the officer taking such acknowledgment is duly qualified to take the 
same ; by ambassadors and other public ministers of the United States (under 
official seal) ; consuls and vice-consuls of the United States (under consular 
seal) ; by any notary public in any State or territory in the United States, or in 
any foreign country ; by commissioners appointed by the Governor in any State, 
territory or foreign country, whose commissions last five years unless sooner re- 
voked. And, where the person making the acknowledgment is in the military 
service of the United States, before any person holding the rank of major, or any 
higher rank, in said military service. Proof of the execution of a deed may be 
made by the affidavit of a subscribing witness- Powers of attorney relating to 
i*eal estate muse be acknowledged the same as deeds. Acknowledgments taken 
by notaries public or commissioners of deeds need not be certified. 

No deed or contract relating to the real estate by a wife is binding upon her, 
unless acknowledged substantially as below : 

[Certificate of Acknowledgment by Husband and Wife.] 
State of Pennsylvania, ) 
County of Lehigh. j **' 

Be it remembered that, on the day of , A. D. 187 , before 

me (here insert name and title of official), duly commissioned in and for said 
county, came and , his wife, and acknowledged indenture to be 

their act and deed, and desired the same to be recorded as such. She, the said , 
being of lawful age, and by me examined separate and apart from her said hus- 
banji, and the contents of said deed being first fully made known to her, did 
thereupon declare that she did, voluntarily and of her own free will and accord, 
sign and seal, and as her act and deed deliver the same, without any coercion or 
compulsion of her said husband. 

Witness my hand and seal, the day and year aforesaid. 

[seal.] (Signature and title.) 

[Proof by Subscribing Witness.] 
State of Pennsylvania, ) 
County of Leaigh. ) ^" 

Be it remembered that, on the day of , A. D. 187 , be- 

fore me (here insert name and title of official), duly commissioned in and for 
said county, personally appeared , one of the subscribing witnesses to 

the execution of the above indenture, who being duly sworn (or affirmed) accord- 
ing to law, doth depose and say that he did see , the grantor above named, 
sign and seal, and as his act and deed deliver the above indenture (deed or con- 
veyance) for the use and purposes therein mentioned, and that he did also see 
subscribe his name thereto as the other witness of such sealing and 
delivery, and that the name of this deponent, thereunto set and subscribed as a 
witness, is of this deponent's own proper hand-writing. 

Sworn (or affirmed) to and subscribed before me the day and year aforesaid. 

Witness my hand and official seal. 

[seal.] (Signature and title.) 

A married woman may hold and enjoy as her own separate property all such 
as she owned at the time of her marriage, and all such as may descend to or vest 
in her during her coverture, and such is not liable for any debts or engagements 
of her husband. A married woman may petition the court for leave to enjoy her 
own earnings, which will be allowed ; her separate estate is, however, liable for 
necessaries purchased by herself for the use of her family. She cannot make a 
valid contract except for the improvement of her separate estate and for neces- 



900 SPECIAL LAWS OF RHODE ISLAND. 

saries. Slie may make a will of her separate estate, subject to lier hiusband's 
rights as tenant by the courtesy. 

Wills must in writing : and, unless the person making tbe pame shall be pre- 
vented by the extremity o£ his last sickness, shall be signed by him at the end 
thereof, or by some person in his presence and by his express direction, and in 
all cases shall be proved by the oaths or affirmation of two or more competent 
witnesses. 



SPECIAL LAWS OF RHODE ISLAND. 

Exemptions From Forced Sal,e. — N'o Home Exemjjted, hut Personal Prop- 
erfy. — Householders are entitled to hold the following exempt from execution : 
The necessary wearing apparel of the debtor and his family ; his necessary work- 
ing tools, to A^alue of $i200 ; his household furniture and family stores, to the value 
of 1^300 ; one cow ; one hog and one pig, and the pork of the same ; debts secured 
by bills of exchange on negotiable promissory notes. 

Mechanics' Lien. — Mechanics have a lien for labor, or labor combined with 
m.aterials furnished, which, in the case of an original contractor, must be prose- 
cuted within six months, and in case of a sub-contractor or day laborer, within 
thirty days after cotnmencing the work ; but no landlord is bound for the im- 
provements made by the tenant, nor a married Avoman, under any circumstances, 
unless the contract is in writing, assented to by them, and is cleaiiy intended to 
bind them. 

Collection of Debts. — The defendant may be arrested in all cases of toits, 
Avhere the form of the actions, as trover or trespass, or the necessary allegations 
of the writ, make a prima fade case of tort ; in actions of debt, convenant and 
assumpsit, which cover almost all collections. No arrest of females can be had, 
on original writs, but males may be arrested on original Avrit in the following 
cases: 1. Incaseof claims originating before July 1, 1870. 2- "\^Tiere the plaintiff, 
his agent or attorney, makes affidavit, on the back of the writ, *' that the plaintiff 
has a just claim againsb the defendant, upon which the plaintiff expects to re- 
cover, in the action commenced by such writ, a sum sufficient to give jurisdiction 
to the court to which such writ is returnable ; and also," either " that the de- 
fendant, or some one of the -defendants, is about to leave the State, Avithout leav- 
ing therein personal or real estate upon Avhich an execution, that may be obtained 
in such action, can be served ;" or, " that the defendant, or some one of the de- 
fendants, has committed fraud in contracting the debt upon which the action is 
founded, or in the concealment of his property, or in the disposition of the 
same." 

To obtain a writ of attachment, the plaintiff must make affidavit that the de- 
fendant owes him justly the claim set forth, and which must be a sum sufficient 
to give the court jurisdiction ; that defendant resides out of the State, or has left 
the State, and is not expected to return in season to be serA^edAvith process before 
the next term of the court ; or that he has committed fraud in contracting the 
debt sued on, or in concealing his property, or in disposing of the same f raudu- 
lentlyj and all the legal interest of the defendant in property can be attached, 
except what is exempt from execution. 

Assignments made for the benefit of creditors are A-alid whether a preference 
is shown or not, except where the grantor is imprisoned on execution. Assign- 
ments or other conA"eyances, giA'en as security for past, present or future endorse- 
m3uts, if made in good faith, are valid, subject, of course, to the provisions of the 
bankrupt act. 

Assignees of contracts or claims, other than bills of exchange or negotiable 
promissory notes, must sue iiT the name of the assignor, unless they can prove a 
special promise by the defendant to pay to them. 

The usages relating to notes and bilts are governed by the common law. For- 
eign bills draAvn or endorsed Avithin this State and returned protested from with- 
out the United States, are subject to 10 per cent, damages and interest. The 
holder of such protested bill inay sue the drawers and endorsers jointly. Foreign 
bills of exchange draAvn or endorsed in this State and returned to this State pro- 
tested for non-acceptance or iion-payment, from any place Avithout the limits of 
+he United States, are subject to payment of 10 per cent, damages, besides protest 
lees. Inland bills drawn or endorsed in this State are subject to 5 per cent, 
damages, besides protest fees. Bills draAvii at sight, payable in this State, are 
due on presentation, without grace. Notes, for the payment of money, only are 



SPECIAL LAWS OF KHODE ISLAND 901 

assignable ami negotiable like bills of exchange. Legal holidays are 4th of July, 
Ohristnias clay antl February 22nd : also, any days appointed by the Governor, 
Legislature or President of the United States as d;iys of thanksgiving or holidays. 
Paper maturing on any of those days must be protested the day preceding those 
holidays, severally, at* his election. Foreign bills drawn or endorsed in this State 
and returned protested from without the State and within the United States, are 
subject to five per cent, damages and interest. Sight bills are without grace. 
Other bills and notes liave three days' grace, except the last day be Sunday or a 
holiday they are payable the last secular day preceding. Holidays are July 4, 
Christmas, February 22, and all duly appointed thanksgiving and fast days. 
Corporations are authorized to issue promissory notes signed by their proper 
officers. 

The jurisdiction of justice courts extend to $100 ; the court of common pleas 
has original jurisdiction in actions for SlOO and upwards, and has exclusive juris- 
diction on appeals from justice's courts. Tlie supreme court has exclusive juris- 
diction in equity causes appellate from the court of common pleas. 

Judgments are not a lien on real estate, and only binds the property seized by 
the attachment. 

Execution issues after the rising of the court, or, in the county of Providence, 
five days after judgment, except on motion, when they may be granted imme- 
diately. They are to be levied ou property previously attached, before the return 
dfty (the first day of the next term), or the attachments are released. But where 
t^e property is replevied, and, by the final judgment in replevin, is restored to the 
officer, it must be levied on within 20 days after it is returned and becomes sub- 
ject to IcA-y. Executions bind nothing except what they are levied upon. 
They may be levied xipon anything that may be attached on original 
writ, and executions of justices' courts may be levied on real estate, but no exe- 
cution can be served by garnishment or trustee process. In such cases, where 
there has been no previous attachment, the only available mode of procedure is 
by .1 new suit on the judgment. Executions may also be served by arrest of the 
body of a defendant, not exempt from arrest, in actions for tort, or for the recov- 
ery of debts incurred before March 31, 1870, or where the defendant was arrested 
on the original writ or on a writ of mesne process, or where proof is made show- 
ing, to the satisfaction of ihe court or some justice thereof, facts which -would 
have authorized an ari'est in the first instance, but no female can be imprisoned 
on a debt less than §50, not under seal. There is no redemption for execution 
sales. 

Deed.s, Rights of Married "Womex, Wills, &c.— Every deed of real estate 
requires a seal (not a scrawl) but not witnesses are essentially jiecessary to their 
validity. Within the State, they may be acknowledged before a senator, judge, 
justice' of the peace, notary public or town clerk. Without the State, and within 
the United States, acknowledgments may be taken by any judge, justice of the 
peace, mayor or notary public, or any commissioner appointed by the Governor 
of the State and duly qualified. As it has never been determined how long such 
an appointment as commissioner, and as some presume to act by virtue of old or 
uncertain appointment, it is better to resort to some one of the local officials 
named above— of course, selecting one whose official character could be easily 
proved. AVithout the United States, deeds may be acknowledged before any 
minister or consul of the United States, or any commissioner appointed by the 
Governor and duly qualified. 

The following form is used in taking the acknowledgment of a deed where it is 
necessary for husband and wife to acknowledge the same, and can easily be used 
where a single man or woman makes the acknowledgment : 

State of Rhode Island, \ 

COUXTY OF PROVIDEXCE. j 

Be it remembered that, on this dav of , A. D. 187 , before 

me, Joseph Perkins, a notary public duly qualified, etc., personally appeared A. 
B. and CD., his wife, and "the said A.B. acknowledged the foregoing instru- 
ment, by him signed, to be his free and voluntary act and deed ; and the said C- 
D., being by me examined privily and apart from her said husband, and having 
said instrument shown and explained to her by me, declared to me that it is her 
voluntary act, and that she does not wish to retract the same. 

In witness whereof, I have set my hand and seal at Providence, R. I., the day 
and year above written. 

Joseph Perkins, Notary Public. 

The wife must join in the execution of a deed made by the husband, to reliiv 
quish dower ; yet the husband alone is required to acknowledge it. 



90*2 SPECIAL LAWS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 

Married women hold real and personal estate, not coming from the husband, 
free from all interference of the luisband's creditors, and free from thehusb.iiid's 
interference by means of trustees appointed in the ordinary manner, or by the 
supreme court' on petition. They are not authorized to do business as traders. 
Tliey may sell their personal estate in the same manner as their real estate, and 
certain unimportant kinds, such as clothing, books and similar personal articles, 
except jewels, they may sell as if single. Their other contracts, except their 
warranties in conveyances of real estate, are utterly void and do not bind their 
separate estate. 

Wills must be in writing, signed by the testator, or by some one in his pres- 
ence, and by his express direction, and attested and subscribed in the presence of 
the testator, by two or three competent witnesses. 



SPECIAL LAWS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 

Exemptions from Forced Sale.— ^ome irorth SIOOO, Personal Property 
$500. A homestead to the liead of each family, his widow or the orphan minors, 
not to exceed ^1000. Also, personal property, as follows : " Household furni- 
ture, beds and bedding, family library, arms, carts, wagons, farming implements, 
tools, neat cattle, work animals, swine, goats and sheep, not to exceed in value 
in the aggregate §500, — except the homestead cannot be held exempt from exe- 
cution issued on a judgment obtained for the purchase money of the same, or for 
improvements made thereon, or taxes due thereon." One-third of yearly pro- 
ceeds of persons not tlie head of family is exepipt, except as against taxes. 

Mechaxics' Liex. — All persons who furnish materials or perform labor in 
the erection, improvement or repairing of buildings, have a statutory lien on tlic 
same, to the extent of the interest of the party who had the bnildings erected or 
improvements done ; provided, that within ninety days after he ceases to labor 
a proper account be filed with the clerk of the court and suit thereon be begun in 
six months. 

Collection of Debts. — A debtor may be arrested upon an order from the 
court where the action is pending, upon an affidavit that he has removed or dis- 
posed of his property, or is about to do so with intent to defraud his creditors, or 
has been guilty of a fraud in contracting the debt sued for, or is concealing or 
disposing of the property, for the taking, detention or conversion of which the 
action is brought ; or where the action is brought for damages for fraud or de- 
ceit, or for money received and embezzled or fraudulently misapplied by a 
public officer, agent or officer of a corporation, factor, agent, broker, attoniey- 
at-law, or one acting in any fiduciary capacity, or for misconduct or neglect in 
office or professional employment, or where he is a non-resident of this State, or is 
about to remove therefrom ; or when the action is for injury to person or char- 
acter ; or for injuring or for wrongful taking, detaining or converting property. 
No female can be arrested, except for wilful injury to property, person or char- 
acter. 

A writ of attachment may issue for the following causes : 1. When the de- 
fendant is a non-resident, or a foreign corporation. 2. Or where he has abscond- 
ed or concealed himself to avoid service of summons. 3. Or is about to remove 
his property from the State with intent to defraud creditors. 4. Or has assigned, 
or disposed of, or secreted, or is about to assign, dispose of or secrete his property, 
for the purpose of defrauding liis creditors. 

Debtors, in making assignments, can prefer any, or any class of creditors, and 
make any provisions for the administration of the property, only cainiot retain 
any advantage or benefit to himself. The assignee must, within ten days, call a 
meeting of creditors, to appoint an agent of creditors to act with him, who has 
joint control of the property. If no agent is elected, the assignee is both assignee 
and agent. Assignments to secure sureties or endoi'sers, prior to any payment 
by them, are valid. In fact, assignments, free from fraud, for any purpose, are 
valid, and can be set aside only in bankruptcy, according to the rules of the 
bankrupt act. Notes, bills, accounts and all choses in action are assignable. 
The assignee should sue in his own name. 

As to notes and bills, the principles of the common law apply to notes and 
bills of exchange, and negotiable papers of all kinds, as to endorsement, presen- 
tation and protest. No protest is necessary on a bill for less than §100, and all 
bills, foreign and domestic, payable at sightj,ar§ entitled to days of grace. 

Endorser or acceptor not liable, unless the endorsement or acceptance be in 



SPECIAL LAWS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 903 

writing on the note or draft, or protest be made for non-acceptance. Drawers 
and endorsers may be sued jointly and severally. All bills or promissory notes 
payable to order or bearer under §1, are void. 

Justices' courts have jurisdiction to the extent of §100, and have concurrent 
jurisdiction with the court of common pleas. The court of common pleas has 
exclusive jurisdiction in all cases appealed from justices of tlie peace, and orig- 
inal and exclusive jurisdiction in all actions at law or equity where the amount 
sued for exceeds §100. If the debt recovered in the common pleas court is less 
than §50, the plaintiff must pay costs. The Supreme Court has appellate juris- 
diction of all cases in equity from court of common pleas ; corrects errors of law 
in cases at law from such courts, and has original power to issue writs of injunc- 
tion, ma?if/a7H us, (7?to ?carra?ito, /ia^vas corpus, and such other remedial A^Tits as 
are necessary to give it a general supervisory control overall the courts in the 
State. 

Judgment, as soon as entered, binds all real estate in that county, and can be 
entered at same time in several counties, but binds personal property only on 
levy, constructive or actual. 

Execution may issue at once after judgment, unless the court open a special 
day for the entry of judgments, or unless a notice of an appeal is given, and then 
it can issue, if plaintiff will execute to the defendant a bond, with good sureties 
in double tlie value of judgment, to pay all damages sustained by the defendant 
in case the judgnient is reversed. Even then the defendant can still secure the 
stay of the execution until the appeal is disposed of, if he will execute a counter 
bond to plaintiff to pay him the debt, costs and damages, if the judgment be sus- 
tained. There is no redemption of property sold under execution. 

Deeds, Eights of Makkied Womex, AVills, &c — Deeds of conveyance of 
real estate must be in wiiting, and signed in the presence of at least two witnesses, 
and must be recorded in the county where the land lies in thirty-three days after 
same is acknowledged. If acknowledged in this State, it must be done beff)re 
a notary public or trial justice ; without the State, before a commissioner of this 
State only. Before the deed can be properly admitted to probate, one of the 
subscribing witnesses must go before a notary public or trial justice, if he is in 
.this State, or before a commissioner for this State if he is without the State, and 
make affidavit that he saw the grantor sign, seal and, as his act and deed, de- 
liver that deed, and that he, with the other subscribing witness, naming him, did 
witness the execution thereof. And the officer before whom such affidavit is 
made must add this certificate, which must be signed by the witness ; 
State of South Carolina, ) 

COUXTY OF CHABLESTOX. . ) 

Personally appeared before me A. B., and made oath that he saw C. D. sign, 
seal and deliver the within conveyance, for the uses and purposes therein men- 
tioned, and that he, with E. F., in the presence of each other, witnessed the due 
execution thereof. A. B. 

Sworn to before me this day of , A. D. 187 . 

(Signature and title of officer.) 

If the grantor has a wife, she should renounce her dower before a notary pub- 
lic or trial justice, if within the State, or before a commissioner of deeds for the 
State if outside of it, and the officer will use this form : 

State of South Carolina, ) 
County of Charleston. ) * 

I (here insert name and title of officer), do hereby certify unto all whom it 
may concern, that G. H.,the wife of the within-named C. D., did this day appear 
before me, and upon being privately and separately examined by me, did declare 
that she does freely, voluntary, release and forever relinquish unto the within- 
named John Smitli, his heirs and assigns, all her interest and estate, and also all 
her right and claim of dower, of, in, or to all and singular the premises within 
mentioned and released. 

(Signed by wife.) 

Given under my hand and seal this day of , A. D. 187 . 

[Seal.] (Signature and title of officer.) 

All the property, both real and personal, belonging to a woman at the time of her 
marriage, and all which she acquires during coverture by gift, grant, inheritance 
or devise, shall remain her sole and separate property free from the debts of her 
husband, and may be disposed of by her, by deed, will or otherwise, in the same 
manner as if she were unmarried ; provided, no gift from husband shall injure 
the just claims of her creditors. She must, as previously stated, relinquish her 
d<jwer. 



904 SPECIAL LAWS OP TEXXESSEE. 

Chattel mortgages of perishable goods, of goods, wares, and merchandise, in 
fact, of any personal property, are valid, if recorded ■within s<ixty days in the 
office of the registrar of mesne conveyances in the county wherein the property 
is situated. In all counties, except Charleston, the clerk of the court of common 
l)leas is ex officio registrar. 

Wills must be in writing, signedby the testator, or some person inhis presence 
and by his express direction, and attested and subscribed in the presence of the 
testator by three or more competent witnesses. See Business Form, No. 45, p. 
815. 



SPECIAL, LAWS OF TENNESSEE. 

ExEMPTioxs FROM FORCED SALE. — Home worth ^1000, and Personal Prop' 
erty. The following property is exempt for garnishment, execution, or attach- 
ment : Thirty dollars of the wages of mechanics or other laboring men in the 
hands of heads of families, two beds, bedsteads and necessary clothing for each, 
and for each three children of one family, one additional bed, bedstead and 
clothing, the value of such bedsteads in no case to exceed ^26 ; 2 cowy and calves, 
and if the family consist of 6 or more persons, 3 cows and calves, etc. ; 2 horses ov 
2 mules, or 1 horse and 1 mule, and 1 yoke of oxen ; 1 wagon or cart, etc., not to 
exceed in value 375 ; 25 lbs. corn ; 20 bushels wheat ; 500 bundles oats, etc. ; 
1,000 lbs. pork, or GOO lbs. bacon ; a homestead carpet, manufactured by the wife 
for family use ; 6 cords wood, or 100 bushels coal ; 1 sewing machine, if used for 
livelihood, etc, ; in the hands of mechanic, who is engaged in the pursuit of his 
trade, one set of mechanics' tools ; a homestead in the possession of each head 
of the family and the improvements thereon to the value of, in all, SIOOO. Per- 
sons who aro not the heads of families are not entitled to the benefit of exemp 
tions. 

Mechanics' Liex. — Material men, contractors and mechanics who furnish 
work or materials to aid in the construction or repair of any building or buildings, 
shall have a lien on the same for 1 year after the work is done, provided notice iiv 
Avriting of said lien be tirst given to the owner, or his agent at ihe time said 
work is begun, or materials furnished. All debts incurred for repairing, fitting, 
building, iiavigating, or furnishing steam or keel boats, shall bo a lien on such 
vessels provided suit be commenced within three months from the time the debt 
i3 incurred. 

Collection of Debts. — Arrest in civil actions is unknown in this State. 
Writs of attachment on affidavit being made to either of the following causes. J. 
Where the debtor resides out of the State. 2. Where he is about to remove, or 
has removed himself or property from the State. 3. Where he has removed, or 
is removing himself out of the county privately. 4. Where he conceals himself, 
so that the ordinary process of law cannot be served upon him. 5. Where ho 
absconds, or is absconding or concealing himself or property. G. '^^^^ere he has 
fraudulently disposed of, or is about tofraudulently dispose of his property. 7. 
Where any person, liable for any debt or demand, residing out of the State, dies, 
leaving property in this State. (Code, § 3455.) 

Bond, with good security, must be given in all cases before an attachment can 
Issue. And all property, both real and personal, legal and equitable, of the 
debtor, can be seized. 

All assignments for the benefit of creditors inure for the benefit of only those 
creditors of the grantor named in the deed of assignment ; the acceptance of the 
creditor is presumed, unless proof to the contrary is made. Assignments can he 
made to secure endorsers or sureties. Assignments, like other deeds, must be 
acknowledged and recorded. 

Gariiishment can issue on executions or attachments, and holds all the prop- 
erty of the defendant in the hands of the garnishee from the date of the service 
of garnishment to his answer. The garnishee is entitled to the payment and 
privileges of a witness and his costs. 

Every bill, note, or bond, whether sealed or not, wliether payable to order for 
value received or not, shall be negotiable as inland bills of exchange by the 
custom of merchants. And the holder of any such instrument may maintain a 
joint action against the maker and any one or more of the endorsers, or a joint 
and several action against any one or more of the endorsers. The holder of a bill 
of exchange, drawn or endorsed in this State upon any person or corporation of 
or in any other State, territory or place, and which is protested for non-payment, 
may recover from the drawer or endorser, besides the principal and interest, 



SPECIAL LAWS OF TENNESSEE 905 

damages as follows : Three per cent., if drawn on any person or corporation in 
the United States or territories ; fifteen per cent., if in any other place in North 
America ; and twenty per cent, on any person in any other part of the world. 
Bays of grace are nc't allowed on hills payable at sight. The certificate of a 
notary public in or on his protest is prima facie evidence of the facts stated 
therein. 

The jai'isdiction of justice conrts, extends, against makers of notes and accep1»- 
ors of drafts, to the extent of §500. On accounts, obligations, contracts, and 
other evidences of debt, §250. Damages and replevin suits, $250. The circuit 
and equity coi;rts have general jurisdiction, and circuit courts have jurisdiction 
appellate from justices of the peace on all cases before them. The supreme court 
has appellate jurisdiction only. 

Executions may issvie from a justice after two days, and from a court of record 
after 30 days from date of judgment. An execution from a justice is a lien only 
on personal property from the day of its teste, audit becomes a lien on real estate 
only from the day of its levy thereon. The lien on real estate, under an execu- 
tion from a justice, can be enforced only by an order of sale from the circuit court, 
which is made upon the return of the execution, with the levy thereon, and all 
the papers into the circuit court. The legal interest of the defendant in all kinds 
of personal or real property, also in stock of a corporation , can be levied on under 
an execution. All judgments before a justice of the peace can be stayed for 
eight months, upon entering good and sutficient security on the justice's docket 
for debt, interest and costs, if same is done in two days after judgment. No stay 
allowed on judgment obtained in court of record. Real property sold under 
execution can be redeemed in two years by the debtor, or by a judgment creditor 
of the debtor. In case the debtor does not redeem until other judgement creditors 
redeem, he shall pay all the judgments which have secured a lien'by redemption. 
The legal title only can be subjected to an execution at law. An equitable in- 
terest in lands can only be reached by bill in chancery. 

Deeds, Rights of 'Married "Women, AYills, &c.— Deeds are valid without 
being under seal. Not good as to strangers, unless duly acknowledged by the 
grantor, proved by two witnesses under oath and recorded. Deeds must be ac- 
knowledged, if tli'e grantor is in the State, before the clerk or legally appointed 
deputy clerk of the county court, or before a notary public. If before a notary 
public, the clerk of the county court where he received his api)ointment shall 
certify as to his official capacity. 

If the grantor is without the State, but in the United States or territories — 1. 
Before any court of record, or before the clerk of any court of record in any of 
the States of the Union ; or, 2. Before a commissioner for Tennessee, appointed 
by the Governor, in any State or territory ;. or, 3. Before a notary public of such 
State or territory. 

If the grantor is beyond the limits of the Union and its territories — 1. Before 
a commissioner for Tennessee appointed in the country Avhere the acknowl- 
edgment is made. 2. Before a notarj^ public of such country'. 3. Before a 
consul, minister or ambassador of the United States in the country where the ac- 
knowled^ient is made. 

The certificate of the officer before whom the deed is acknowledged must be 
under seal, unless acknowledgment is made in the State before a justice or.iudge 
of some court, and then the certificate of the clerk of the county court, certifying 
to the signature, etc., of the justice, or of the clerk of the court certifying to the 
signature of the judge, must be under seal. 

The following is the fonn of the certificate necessary where the grantor makes 
'}hc acknowledgment in person and in this State : 
State of Texxessee, ) 
County of Hardin. ) *^* 

'• Personally appeared before me, clerk (or depxxty clerk) of the county court of 
said county, the within-named bargainer, with whom I am personally acquainted, 
and who acknowledged that he executed the within instrument for the pur- 
poses therein contained. 

*' Witness my hand, at office this day of , A. D. 187 ." 

[seal.] (Signature and title.) 

As the wife has no dower in land granted in fee by the husband, it is not 
necessary for her to join in the deed, but if a trust deed is given, then the wife 
must relinquish dower by joining in the deed. When the land conveyed is the 
separate estate of the wife, the husband must always join her in the deed. In 
any deed where the wife has to acknowledge the same, the certificate of the officer 
or court before whom it js taken must contain this additional clause : " And C. 
D., wife of the said A. B., having appeared before me, privately and apart from 



906 SPECIAL LAWS OF TEXAS. 

her husband, Iho Baid A. B., acknowledged the execution of the said deed to have 
been done by her freely, voluntarily, and understandingly, witliout compulsion 
or constraint from her said husband, for the purposes therein expressed." 

It is not necessary, to the validity of a deed, that it should be signed in pres- 
ence of witnesses, where Ihe grantor makes the acknowledgment in person. But 
unless grantor does acknowledge, it must be signed in presence of witnesses — two 
are sufficient, who may probate the same before either of the above-named 
officers, and in such case the following form must be used : 
State of Maine, ) 
CoiTNTY OF Waldo. ) 

Personally appeared before me, John Campbell, commissioner for Tennessee, 
etc., C. and D., subscribing witnesses to the within deed, who being just sworn, 
deposed and said, that they are acquainted with A. B., the bargainer (or as the 
case may be), and that he acknowledged the same in their presence, to be his act 
and deed upon the day it bears date (or stating the time as proved by the wit- 
nesses). Witness my hand, at office, this day of , A. D. 187 . 

John Campbell, Commissioner for Tennessee^ 

A married woman can hold real and personal property to her sole and sepa- 
rate use, without or through a trustee. She can, if over twenty-one years of age, 
and own the land in fee, or equitably, convey same without her husband joining 
with her by deed or will. And if settled upon her after marriage for her sole 
and separate use, at any age. A note or any other obligation, made by a manied 
woman, will not bind her separate estate, unless it was execute«l with the express 
intention to bind the same ; or unless it was given for necessaries for herself or 
her minor children. 

Wills must be in writing, signed by the testator, or some other person in his 
presence and by his express direction, and subscribed in the presence of the tes- 
ator by two witnes>es, no one of whom is interested in the will. 



SPECIAL LAWS OF TEXAS. 

Exemptions from Forced Sal'S — Home worth §5000, arid Personal Prop- 
erty. To every citizen, householder, and head of a family, not to exceed 200 
acres of land (not included in a city, town or village), or any city, town or vil- 
lage lot or lots, not to exceed §5000 in value at the time of their designation as 
a homestead, and without reference to the value of any improvements thereon. 
Also, all household and kitchen furniture, all implements of husbandry, all 
tools and apparatus belonging to any trade or profession, and all books belong- 
ing to private or public libraries ; five milch cows and calves ; 2 yoke of work 
oxen; 2 horses and 1 wagon, 1 carriage or buggy ; 1 gun ; 20 hogs ; 20 head of 
sheep ; all provisions and forage on hand for home consumption ; all saddles, 
bridles and harness necessary for the use of the family ; and to every citizen, 
not a head of a family, one horse, bridle and saddle, all Avearing apparel, all 
tools, apparatus and books belonging to his or her private library. 

Mechanics' I^ien. — Any person or firm who may labor, furnish material, 
machinery, fiixtures and tools to erect any house, improvement, or any improve- 
ment whatever, shall have a lien on such article, house, building, fixtures or im- 
provement,"and also on the lot or lots or land necessarily connected therewith, 
to secure payment for labor done, material and fixtures furnished for construc- 
tion or repairs. Such person or firm shall, within six months after such debt 
become due, file his contract in the office of the district clerk of the county in 
which the property is situated, and have the same recorded in a book kept for 
that purpose by the clerk. If the contract, order or agreement be verbal, a du- 
plicate copy of the bill of particulars must be made under oath, one to be filed 
and recorded by the clerk as provided for written contracts, the other to be 
served on the party owing the debt. When the contract or account is filed and 
recorded, they must be accompanied by a description of the property against 
which the lien is claimed. The filing and recording fixes the lien from the day 
it is filed. The lien, if against land in the country upon which said improve- 
ments have been made, shall extend to and include fifty acres ; if in a city, 
town or village, it extends to and includes such lot or lots upon which said im- 
provements are situated. The lien may be enforced against the land and im- 
provements, or the improvements alone. The purchaser having a reasonable 
time to remove the same. The sale to be upon judgment and order of sale. 
This lieu extends as well to homesteads as to other property ; also, to all boat» . 



SPECIAL LAWS OF TEXAS. 907 

navigating tho waters of this State. All actions to enforce li^ns must be brought 
within two years. 

Collection' of Debts.— Arrest for debt is unknown here. "Writ of attach- 
ment may issue for the following causes, viz. : When the defendant is not a 
resident of the State, or is about to remove himself or property out of the State, 
or has abandoned the country, or secretes himself so that the ordinary process of 
law cannot be served on him, or is about to remove his property beyond the 
county in which suit has been or is to be instituted, or is about to transfer or 
secrete, or has transferred or secreted his property, for the purpose of defraud- 
ing his creditors, so that the plaintiff will jjrobably lose his debt. Attachment 
bond must be double the amount claimed, with two or more approved securities. 
Affidavit made to facts claimed as ground of attachment. Everything, except 
choscs in action and property exempted by law, belonging to the defendant in 
3xecution, may be levied upon and sold as his goods and chattels. An attach- 
ment levied upon real estate is a lien thereon from date of levy. 

An assignmetit in trust, for the benefit of creditors generally, inure for the 
benefit of all the creditors of the grantor, whether named in the deed of assign- 
ment or not ; but a failing debtor may prefer his creditors. Assignments can be 
made in this State to secure sureties or endorsers prior to any payment by them. 

Notes, bills, accounts and every species of contract or claim are assignable 
here, and the assignee can sue in his own name. An assignment proves itself in 
Texas^ and can oiuy be put in issue by a plea of non est factum. A parol assign- 
ment is good here, but must be proven. 

Garnishment may be issued upon attachment, judgment, or upon original 
suitj upon filing proper bond and affidavit. May be issued either by district or 
justice court. Defendant may replevy property seized in hands of garnishee by 
filing proper bonds. Garnishee is entitled to his reasonable costs. 

As to notes and bills, acceptors are chargeable, either upon written or verbal 
acceptance. A holder of a bill of exchange drawn by merchants, resident in 
this State, upon their agents or factors out of the State, having fixed the liabil- 
ity upon the drawer or endorser, are entitled to recover and receive ten per 
cent, damages, and all costs of suit thereon accruing. An assignee can sue any 
assignor of any bill or note, but cannot sue any two or more of them in the same 
suit, unless they are joint assignees. When suit is brought against a remote as- 
signor by an assignee, he cannot only set up any defense he may have against 
the plaintiff, but any he may have against any of the inteiTnediate assignors. 
Three days of grace are allowed here upon all bills of exchange and promissory 
notes assignable by law. A notarial protest or copy of record, certified to under 
the hand and seal of the notary public, is admitted in all the courts of this State 
as evidence of the facts therein set forth. 

The jurisdiction of justice courts, extends, against makers of notes and ac- 
ceptors of drafts, to §500. On accounts, obligations, contracts and other evi- 
dences of debt, S250. Damages and replevin suits, 3250. The circuit and equity 
courts have general jurisdiction, and circuit courts have jurisdiction appellate 
from justices of the peace on all cases before them. The supreme court has ap- 
pellate jurisdiction only. 

Judgments and decrees in any court of record shall be a lien on the debtor's 
land from the time the same is rendered in the county where tbe debtor resides ; 
if rendered in any other county than where debtor resides, from the time when a 
certified copy of the same is registered in the county where the land lies. But 
this lien only exists for twelve months. Such judgment or decree does not give 
a lien on the debtor's equitable interest in land, unless within sixty days after 
rendition of same a memorandum of the same is registered in the county where 
the land lies. A lien on the legal title of the debtor in real estate can also be 
fixed under an execution from a justice of the peace, by filing the execution, 
with the levy of the same, and all the papers in the case before the justice, with 
the circuit court from Avhich an order of sale issues. 

Executions in district court issue immediately upon the adjournment of 
court, unless court is in session twenty days after rendition of judgment, or the 
defendant is about to remove hi^ property out of the county when they canissud 
sooner. In justice court ten days after rendition of judgment. Executions are 
not liens on any property in this State until levied. No stay laws here, except 
in justice court for three months' time. Everything except choses in action and 
property exempted by law belonging to the defendant in execution, may be 
levied on and sold as his goods and chattels. No redemption laws here. 

Deeds. Rights of Markied Women, Wills, &c.— Deeds, mortgages and 
deeds of trust are not required to be under seal. Proof or acknowledgment of 
©very iustrumeut of writing for record may be taken before some one of the fol- 



908 SPECIAL LAAVS OF UTAH. 

lowing officers : When acknowledged or proven within this State, heforc some 
notary public, district clerk or deputy clerk, or judge of the sujireme or distiict 
court in this State ; when acknowledged or proven without this State, and within 
the United States or their territories, before some notary public, commissioner 
of deeds for this State, or before some judge or clerk of a court of record having 
a seal ; when acknowledged or proven without the United States, before sonio 
public minister, charge fVaffaires, consul or consular agent of the United States, 
or notary public ; in all cases the certificate of such acknowledgment or proof 
shall be attested under the official seal of the officer taking the same, and the 
deed recorded in the county where the land lies. 

The following is the form of the certificate where the husband and Avife join 
in the deed : 

State of Texas, ) 
County of Travis, j ' 

Before me personally appeared and , his wife, parties 16 the 

foregoing attached , bearing date the day of , A. D . 187 , 

both of whom are known to me, who acknowledged severally that they 

liad signed, sealed and delivered the same for the purposes and consideratioiie 
therein stated. And the said having been examined by me privily and 

apart frcJm her husband, and having had the same fully explained to lier, she, 
the said , acknowledged the same to be her act and deed, and declared to 

me that she had willingly signed, sealed and delivered the same of her own free 
will and accord, without fear or compulsion on the part of her said husband, and 
that she wished not to retract it. 

Witness my official seal and signature at my office, this day of 

A. I). 187 . ■ (Signature and title.) 

[Certificate when the Grantor is Unmarried.] 
State of Texas, ( 
CouxTY OF Travis. ) 

Before me, John Smith, clerk of the district court in and for said county, 
personally appeared , who is to me known, and acknowledged 

that signed, executed and delivered the foregoing deed for the purposes 

therein specified. 

Witness my official seal and signature, at my office, in the city of Austin, this 
day of , A. D. 187 . 

(Signature o£ officer.) 

Deeds may be authenticated for record by affidavit of one or two attesting 
witnesses. Two witnesses required to every deed unless acknowledged. 

Married women can hold real estate or personal property to their separate 
use. A married woman can bind herself on a note, draft or endorsement, when 
for necessaries for herself or children, or for the benefit of her separate prop- 
erty. All property acquired by husband and wife during marriage is their coin- 
vion property, except that acquired by gift, devise or descent, which is his or her 
separate property. The husband's consent is necessary to the alienation of the 
wife's separate property. The husband cannot alienate the homestead without 
the consent of the Avife. The Avidow is entitled to the use of one-third of the 
real estate for her life. 

A chattel mortgage is valid here between the parties thereto, but A'oid as 
against creditors and bona fide purchasers Avithout notice, unless recorded in the 
county Avhere the mortgagor resides. 

Wills must be in writing, signed by the testator or by some other person in 
his presence and by his direction ; and, moreover, if not wholly written bj' him- 
self, be attested by two or more credible Avitnesses above the age of fourteen 
years, subscribiug their names in his presence. 



SPECIAL LAWS OF UTAH. 

Sxemptioxs FROM FORCED SALE.— ^ome icortli SlOOO, and Personal Property . 
To each member of the family §250. To the head of the family is allowed a home- 
stead not exceeding In A^alue §1000, to be selected by the debtor, and personal 
property to the A'alue of §700 or more, according to the value of articles exempt 
by statute ; aside from the homestead each member of the family is allowed §250. 
,No property shall be exempt from sale on a judgment received for its price, on 
a mechanic's lien, or a mortgage thereon. ' 



SPECIAL LAWS OF VEEMOXT. 909 



SPECIAL LAWS OF VERMONT. 

Exemptions fro^i Forced Sale. — Home icorlh §500, and Personal Propertrj, 
Homestead to the value of §500, and products, such suitable apparel, bedding, 
tools, arms and articles of furniture as may be necessary for upholding life ; 1 
sewing machine kept for use, 1 cow, the best swine, or the meat of 1 swine, 10 
sheep, and one year's product of said sheep in avooI, yarn or cloth ; forage sufli- 
cient for keeping not exceeding 10 sheep and one cow through one winter ; 10 
cords of firewood, or 5 tons of coal ; 20 bushels of potatoes, such military arms 
and accoutrements as the debtor is required by law to furnish ; all growing crops, 
10 bushels of grain, 1 barrel of flour, 3 swarms of bees and hives, together with 
their produce in honey ; 200 lbs. of sugar, and all lettered gravestones ; the bibles 
and other books used in a family; one pew or slip in a meeting-house or place 
of religious worship ; live poultry not exceeding in amount or value the sum of 
§10 ; the professional books and instruments of physicians, and the professional 
books of clergymen and attorneys-at-law, to the value of §200, and also 1 yoke of 
oxen or steers as the debtor may select, with sufficient forage for the keeping of 
the same through the winter ; or in lieu thereof, 2 horses kept and used for team 
work not to exceed in A-alue §200, with sufficient forage for keeping same ; also 
pistols, side-arms and equipments personally used by any soldier of the United 
States and kept by him or his heirs as mementoes. 

Mechanics' Liex. — Material men and mechanics have a lien for labor and 
material in building, repairing, fitting or furnishing any vessel until eight 
months after such vessel is completed. It may be secured by attachment, and 
has precedence of all other claims. They also have a lien upon a building, and 
the lot on which it stands, for erecting or repairing such building. The lien con- 
tinues tlu'ee months after payment conies due, but does not attach until the per- 
son claiming it has filed and caused to be recorded, in the town clerk's office, a 
written memorandum, by him signed, asserting such claim. 

CoLLECTiox OF DEBTS. — Xo female can be arrested on any process in an ac- 
tion founded on contract. Xo resident citizen of this State, or any of the 
L'nited States, can be arrested on any |;)rocess issued on any contract, unless tlie 
plaintiff, his agent or attorney file, with the authority signing the writ, va\ affida- 
vit, stating that he has good reason to believe, and does believe, that the defend- 
ant is about to abscond or remove from the State, and has property secreted 
about his person or elsewhere to the amount of §20, or sufficient to satisfy the 
demand in suit ; or file an affidavit stating that the defendant neglects or refuses 
to pay over on demand money which he holds for the plaintiff in a fiduciary ca- 
pacity. 

In actions of contract, writs of attachment may issue against the goods, chat- 
tels or estate of the defendant ; and in actions founded on tort, for want thereof, 
against the defendant's body. 

Assignments, for the benefit of creditors, are regulated by statute. To pro- 
tect the property in the hands of the assignee, it must be for the benefits of all 
the creditors. (Jhoses in action may be assigned, but the assignee cannot sue in 
his own name, unless there has been a special promise to pay him, or the de- 
mand is what is known as "negotiable pai^er." 

In actions on contract a person having goods, effects or credits of the defend- 
ant in his hands, may be summoned as trustee in the suit, and he is required to 
attend and disclose. Judgment is rendered against him in favor of the plaintiff 
for the amount of liis indebtedness or liability to the defendant, to the extent of 
the#udgment against the defendant. This process cannot be sustained unlcso 
the debt due the plaintiff from the defendant, as well as that from the trustee to 
the defendant, exceed §10. It does not roach debts due on a contingency, or due 
on a judgment where the judgment debtor is liable to an execution on the judg- 
ment. 

As to notes and bills, &c., a promissory note payable on demand is considered 
overdue at the expiration of sixty days from date, and presentment and demand 
of payment must be made within that time to charge the en<lorser. All negoti- 
able paper, except that payable on demand or at sight, is entitled to three days of 
grace. Negotiable paper may be endorsed for collection and sued in the name 
of the agent or attorney, though he is not the real party in interest, and holds it 
for collection merely. 

Judgments are not a lien. Real estate and certain articles difficult of removal 
are attached by leaving a copy of the original writ in the clerk's office. Execii- 
tion may issue' from county court twenty-four hours after the rising of the court, 
aud by a justice of^the peace two hour* after judgment is rendered. They are re- 



910 SPECIAL LAWS OF VIRGIXIA. 

turnable in sixty days, and must be issued and placed in the hanas of the officer 
within thirty days after judgment, to hokl personal property attached on mesne 
process, and ■\vithiu live months to hold real estate so attached. Iteal estate set 
off on execution (there is no power to sell real estate on execution) may be re- 
deemed within six months, otherwise it passes to the creditor. Personal prop- 
erty taken on execution is sold to the highest bidder. 

A justice of the peace has jurisdiction in all actions of a civil nature where 
the matter in demand does not exceed $200, except actions for slander, false im- 
prisonment, and replevin for goods and chattels where the value thereof exceeds 
^20, and Avhere the title to land is concerned. A justice also has jurisdiction in 
actions of trespass on the freehold where the sum demanded does not exced §20. 
The county courts have jurisdiction of cases appealed from the justices' courts, 
and of all actions where the justices have not jurisdiction. The municipal 
courts of Burlington, Rutland and St. Albans have concurrent jurisdiction with 
the county courts, to the extent of $500. Suit may be brought in the town where 
either party resides, and if neither party resides in the State, in any town in the 
State. 

Process, returnable before supreme or county court, must be served at least 
twelve days before the session of court to Avhich it is returnable. 

"Writs, returnable before a justice, must be served at least six days before, and 
not over sixty days from, the return day ; if against a party in another county, 
twelve days must intervene between day of service and retui-n day ; and in any 
case, if the defendant is a corporation, thirty days must intervene. 

Deeds, Rights of Makried Women, Wills, &o.— Deeds must be under 
seal (not a scrawl), signed in the presence of two subscribing witnesses, acknowl- 
edged before a proper officer, and recorded in the clerk's office of the town where 
the land lies. In this State, deeds may be acknowledged before a justice of the 
peace, a notary public, or a master in chancery. Acknowledgments out of this 
State, may be taken before a justice of the peace, notary public, commissioner 
from Vermont, or such officer as is authorized to take acknowledgment of deeds 
in that place. 

[Form of Certificate of Acknowledgment.] 

State of , ) 

County of . j 

At this day of , A. D. 187 , personally appeared (and 

his wife), the signer and sealer of the above-written instrument, and ac- 
knowledged the same to be his (or their) free act and deed. 

Before me. (Signature and title.) 

Married women cannot make contracts. They may in some instances change 
their separate property so that it may be reached in equity. Her real estate, and 
the rents and profits thereof , are exempt from attachment for the husband's debts ; 
and also the husband's interest in the same during coverture, except for debts for 
necessaries for wife and family, or for labor or materials furnished upon such real 
estate. A married woman may dispose of her property by will. The widow is en- 
titled to dower, during her natural life, of one-third of the real estate of which her 
husband died seized, during his natural life unless she shall be barred. Chattel 
mortgages do not protect the mortgagee against boi^a fide purchasers or attach- 
ing creditors if the property is allowed to remain in the possession of the mort- 
gagor. 

Wills must be in writing, and signed by the testator or by some other person 
in his presence and by his express direction, and attested and subscribed by three 
or more credible witnesses in the presence of the testator, and of each other^i 



SPECIAL LAWS OF VIRGINIA. 

Exemptions from Forced Sale. — Homestead and Personal Property to the 
Value of 5?2000. In case of a husband, parent, or other person who is a house- 
holder and head of a family, the law exempts from distress or levy divers 
enumerated articles of household and personal use, furniture, bedding, etc., 
ranging in value from fifty to five hundred dollars, according to the condition 
and size of the family. 

Besides the foregoing, every liouseholder or head of a family is entitled to a 
homestead exemption of two thousaixd dollars, to be set apart out of any property 
which he may select. 

Mechanics' Lien.— All ax'tisans, builders, mechanics, lumber dealers and 



SPECIAL LAWS OF VIKGIXIA. 911 

others performing labor or furnishing materials for the construction, repair or 
improvenient of any building or other property, are allowed a lien upon such i)rop- 
erty for the work done and materials furnished. It must be asserted by suit 
Avithin six months from the time the lien is secured. 

CoLLECTiox OF DEBTS. — Arrest, in civil actions, is permitted, when theplain- 
tiflf, by affidavit, shows to the court in which the suit is pending, or to any judge 
or justice of the peace, that he has cause of action or suit against the defendant, 
and that there is probable cause for believing that the defendant is about to quit 
the State, iinless forthwith apprehended. 

The defendant may be discharged from arrest by giving good bail, the condi- 
tion of the bail bond being, in substance, that in case judgment is rendered for 
the plaintiff, the defendant will, if thereto required, within four months after the 
judgment, discover and surrender whatever estate he may then have, for 
the satisfaction thereof. 

"Writs of attachment may be issued : 1. Against the estate of a non-resident 
defendant. 2. Against the estate of any defendant who js removing or intends 
to remove the specific property sued for, " or his own estate or the proceeds of 
the sale of his propertj', or a material part of such estate or proceeds, out of the 
State, so that process of execution on a judgment," when obtained, will be 
unavailing. 3. Against the estate of a debtor, whether the claim bo payable or 
not, when the debtor intends to remove or is removing, or has removed his 
effects out of the State so that there will probably not be therein suflicient clTecta 
of the debtor to satisfy the claim, should only the ordinary process of law be 
used to obtain such judgment. 4. Against the estate of a tenant liable for rent, 
who intends to remove or is removing, or has, within thirty daj-s, removed his 
effects from the leased premises, so that there Avill not be left on such premises 
property liable to distress, suflicient to satisfy the rent to become payable — not 
exceeding one year's rent in all. 5- Against steamboats and other vessels, for 
materials, supjiiies, work, etc., furnished and done, and damages for certain torts 
and breaches of contract. 

The foundation of the attachment in each case is the affidavit of the plaintiff 
or of his agent, setting forth not only the pai-ticular ground of the attachment, as 
above given, but also divers partic;ilars as to the amount of the claim, whether 
due or not, etc. If the plaintiff desires that the property to be attached shall be 
taken into the possession of the officer, the plaintiff, or some one for him, must 
give bond, with good security, in a penalty equal to, at least, double the amount 
sued for, conditioned to pay all costs and damages occasioned by the suing out of 
the attachment. The sureties must either reside, or n\ust have estate equal to 
the penalty of the bond, within the jurisdiction of the court. No bond is neces- 
sary-, except in the case above specified. Eveiy species of property, legal or 
equitable, is liable to seizure and sale, ixnder attachment. 

Assignments, for the benefit of creditors, with preferences, are allowed by the 
law of this State. Bonds and notes, not negotiable, are assignable, and the 
assignee may sue upon them in his own name. Open accounts may also be 
assigned; but suit must be brought upon them in the name of the original 
creditor. 

Process of garnishment may issue, either on execution or attachment, so as 
to reach debts due to the defendant. 

Every promissory note or check for money payable in this State, at a partic- 
ular bank, or at a particular office thereof, for discount and deposit, or at 
the place of business of a savings institution or savings bank, or at the place of 
business of a licensed broker, and every inland bill of exchange payable in this 
State, is deemed negotiable, and may, upon being dishonored for non-acceptance 
or non-payment, be protested, and the protest be in such case evidence of dis- 
honor, in like manner as in case of a foreign bill of exchange. The protest, both 
in the case of a foreign bill and in the other cases above mentioned, is made 
prima facia evidence of what is stated therein, or at the foot or on the back 
thereof, in relation to presentment, dishonor and notice thei'eof. Damages arc 
recoverable on bills of exchange — three per cent, if the bill be payable out of 
Virginia and within the United States, and ten per cent, if payable without the 
United States. 

The jurisdiction of justice courts extends to $50, Civil jurisdiction of the 
county courts is confined chiefly to matters of probate and guardianship ; with 
perhaps a few unimportant exceptions they have no jurisdiction of suits for the 
collection of debts. Circuit and corporation courts have general jurisdiction in 
all civil actions. Process in these courts is commonly made returnable to rules 
— held on the first INIonday in each mouth— and two rule clays, at least, must inter- 
vene between service and trial. 



912 SPECIAL LAWS OF VIRGINIA. 

Judgments are a lien on all the veal estate of, or to, wliich the defendant is or 
Bliall be possessed or entitled at or after the date of the judgment, or the com- 
niencemeut of the term at wliich it is rendered. They create no lien on penional 
estate. 

Executions may issue within a year, and a scire facias or action may be brought 
within ten years after the date of the judgment. Executions create a lien upon 
the personal property of the debtor from the date of the delivery of the writ to 
the officer, whether the property consists of chattels or of choses in action. As 
to the latter, however, the lien does not take effect against an assignee for valu- 
able consideration without notice, nor against a person making payment to the 
judgment debtor without notice. Real estate cannot be sold or levied on under 
execution. An execution debtor may be required to discover, under oath, his 
whole estate, real and personal, and to convey and transfer, for the satisfaction 
of the exectitioji, his ijersonalty and any realty which he may have out of the 
State. 

If execution be issued within the year, other executions may be issued, or a 
scire facias or action nlay be brought within ten years from the return day of an 
execution on which there is no return by an otlicer, or within twenty years from 
the return day of an execution on which there is such return. 

Deeds, IIights of Markied Womejt, Wills, &c.— Deeds may be admitted 
to record as to any party thereto, when proved, as to such i)arty, by two 
witnesses, or acknowledged by him, before the court of the county or corporation 
in which it is to be recorded, or before the clerk of such court, in his oflice. 
Also, upon a certificate of his acknowledgment Avilhin the United States, before 
a justice of the peace, a commissioner in chancery of a court of record, a notary 
public ©r any commissioner appointed by the Governor ; or, upon the certificate 
of the clerk of any county or corporation court in this State, or of the clerk of 
any court out of this State and Avithin the United States, that the deed was 
acknowledged by such person or proved as to him by two witnesses, before such 
clerk or before the court of which he is clerk, or upon certificate, under the offi- 
cial seal of any minister plenipotentiary, charge d'affairs, consul general, consul, 
vice-consul, or commercial agent, appointed by the Government of the United 
States to any foreign country, or of the proper ofiicer of any court of such coun- 
try, or of the mayor or other chief magistrate of any city, town or corporation 
therein, that the said writing Avas acknowledged by such person or proA^ed as to 
liim by two Avitnesses, before any person having such appointment, or before such 
court, mayor or chief magistrate. 

[Form of Certificate of Acknowledgment in case of a party other than a 
Married AVoman.] 

State of ,1 

coukty (or cobporatiox) of . / * 

I, , a justice of the peace (or commissioner in chancery of the 

court, or notary public), for the county (or corx)oration) aforesaid, 
in the State (or territory, or district) of , do certify, that E. F. (or E. F. 

and G. H., etc.), AA'hose name (or names) is (or are) signed to the AvriUng above 
(or hereto aiuiexed), bearing date on the day of , has (or 

liaA'e) acknoAvledgcd the same before me, in my county (or corporation) aforesaid. 
Given under my hand, this day of , A. D. 187 . 

(Signature and title.) 

The acknowledgment of a married Avoman must be certified hj two justices of 
the peace, or by some one of the other functionaries authorized to certify the 
acknowledgment of other persons. 

The certificate must be to the effect following : 
State of , \ 

COU^-TV (OB C0RP0RATI0>') OF . j ^^* 

I, , a commissioner appointed by the Governor of the State of Vir- 

ginia for the said State (or territory, or district) of , or and 

, justices of the peace, 'or I, , a commissioner in chancery 

of court (or notary public) for the county (or corpora.rion) of , in 

the State (or territory, or district) of , do certify that E. F., the Avife of 

G. H., Avhose names are signed to the Avriting above (or hereto annexed), bearing 
date on the day of , personally appeared before me (or us), in 

the county (or corporation) aforesaid (or, if it be a commissioner, in the State, 



LAAVS OF AVASII. TER. AND AVEST VIRGINIA 018 

territon" or district aforesaid), find being examined by me (or us\ privily nnd 
apart from her husband, and having the writing aforesaid fully explained to her, 
she, the said E. F., acknowledged the said wilting to bo her act. and declared 
that she had willingly executed the same and does not wish to retract it. 

Given under -my hand (or our hands) this day of , Anno 

Doinini. (Signature.) 

IVIarried women can hold real or personal property to their separate use 
tlirough a trustee. To bind the separate estate of a married woman by her con- 
tract, the intention so to bind it should l>e expressed on the face of the' contr.ict. 
The widow is entitled to one-third part of all the real estate owned by her hus- 
band during coverture, unless she has barred or relinquished the same. 

Cliattel mortgages are unknown in this State, though their equivalent Is 
found in deeds of trust of personal properiy, by which personal property of any, 
description may be conveyed for the benefit, and thus made available for the 
security of creditors. Sucji dceda arc not effective, <'\s to other creditors andsi'd)- 
f-jquent purchasers for value without iiotice, except from the time of their admis- 
sion to record in the proper clerk's office. 

Wills should be in writing, and signed by the testator, or by some one in his 
presence and by his express direction, in such manner as to make it manifest 
that the name is intended as a signature, and, moreover, unless it be wholly 
written by the testator, the signature shall be made, or the will acknowledged by 
him in the presence of at least two competent Avitnesses, present at the same 
time, and such witnesses shall subscribe the will in the presence of the testator, 
but no form of attestation shall be necessary. 



SPECIAL LAWS OF WASHINGTON TERRI- 
TORY. 

EXEMPTION'S FROM FORCED SALE. — Home tcortJi SIOOO a7id Personal Property. 
To each householder being the head of a family, a homestead worth SIOOO, while 
occupied by such family. All wearing apparel, private libraries, family pictures 
and keepsakes ; to each householder, 1 bed and bedding, and i additional bed 
ajid bedding for every two additional members of the fa^nily, a;id other house- 
hold goods of the coin value of 61500; 2 cows and their calves, o swine, 2 hives 
of bees, 25 domestic fowls, and provisioiis and fuel for G months. To a farmer, 1 
span of horses and harness, or 2 yoke of oxen, and 1 wagon, Avith farming uten- 
sils not exceeding §200 coin value. To attorneys and clergAmen, their libraries 
valued at not to exceed 8500, with office furniture and fuel. Small boats and 
lire-arms kept for use, not exceedins: S50 in coin A-alue ; parties engaged in light- 
ering, 2 lighters and 1 small boat valued at $250 ; the team of a drayman. 



SPECIAL LAWS OF WEST VIRGINIA. 

ExEMPTloxs FKOX Forced Sai^e. — Home vorth?-'100Q, and Personal Properttf. 
Homestead to the Aalue of 81000, is exempt, where the property of that value is 
demised or granted by debtor, being a husband or parent, and resident in the 
State, as a homestead ; and where he, previously to contracting the debt or liability 
has placed a declaration of his intentioiito keep Ihe property as a homestead on 
the land records of the county in Avhich the real estate is situate. Personal 
property to the value of 8300 is also exempted, provided tlebtoris a resident and 
a parent. 

MEcnANlcs' Liex. — A mechanic or Avorkman, or any person who shall per- 
form any labor upon or furnish material to erect, repair, alter or improve any 
building, has a lien on the same, Avhichcan be enforced by suit in chaiiceiy in six 
months ; provided, he filed his account under oath AAith the clerk of the county 
court in .thirty days after the Avork was done or material fiu-nished. 

Collection of Debts. — The debtor may be arrested in an action pending 
against him, until he give security that he shall answer such interrogatories as 
shall bo propounded to him, or tiled Avithin four months after judgment and 
perform the requirements of the .indgment or decree. But before tlie order for 
arrest will be made, the plaintiff must make atiidavit — 1. That the claim is 
just and that the defenda^it is about to leave the State, to reside permanently 
in another State, Avithout paying the debt for Avhich the action was brought. 2^ 
Or that he fraudulently contracted the debt for A\'hich the action Avas brought 
3. Or that he fraudulently conceals his property or rights of action. 4. Or that 

58 



914 SPECIAL LAWS OF WEST VIRGINIA. 

he ha-i removed or is about to remore his property beyoiul the State -wiUi intent 
to defraud his creditors. 5. Or that he has converted or is about to convert his 
property ijito money or securities, or that he has assigned or removed his prop- 
erty with lilce intent. And the plaintiff ■will also be required to give bond and 
good security, to indemnify the defendant in case the order of arrest was ma- 
liciously made. 

Writ of attachment may issue upon the ^plaintiff giving bond, for the same 
causes that an order of arrest will be made, and the foIloA^'ing additional causes : 
1. That the defendant is a non-resident, or a foreign corporation. 2. Or that the 
defendant has left or is about to leave the State with intent to defraud his 
creditors. 3. Or that he conceals himself, so that a summons cannot be served. 

Assignments, for the benefit of creditors, are not regulated by statute ; tlie 
debtor can prefer one or more of his creditors, if the transaction be not tainted 
with fraud. 

As to notes and bills, every note or check made payable at a particular bank 
of discount and deposit, or at any savings bank, and every inland bill of exchange, 
is negotiable, and may be protested, and the protest is evidence of the same ft^cts 
as in case of foreign bills of exchange. Bills of exchange, drawn or negotiated 
in this State, duly protested, entitle the holder, in addition to the usual protest 
fees, to the following damages : Three per cent, if payable out of this State and 
within the United States, and ten per cent, if payable out of the United States. 
Paper payable on Sunday, Christmas day, 1st ojl January or 4th of July must be 
protested on the day previous and notice of dishonor given on the day following 
such holiday. Any paper not negotiable as above stated, is subject, in the hands 
of the holder, to all equities existing against the assignor ; the equities, however, 
must have existed before the defendant had notice of the assignment of the 
papers. 

The jurisdiction of justice courts extends in civil actions to ^100, exclusive 
of interest. Tlie circuit courts, is appellate from inferior courts, and has original 
and general jurisdiction of all matters at law where the amount exceeds §50. 
The supreme court of appeals has appellate jurisdiction from inferior courts 
where the amount exceeds 6100. 

Judgments are a lien on the real estate of the defendant from the first day of 
the term, if rendered i}i a court of record ; but to make this lien available against 
a purchaser for value, and without actual notice, an abstract of the judgment 
must be filed in the recorder's oflice of the county where the land lies ninety 
days after the rendition of the judgment or before the deed to the real estate is 
delivered to the purchaser. Judgments of justice's courts also give a lieu on 
real estate if an abstract of the same is recorded in the proper county. 

Executions are a lien on personal property from the date the same is placed 
in the hands of the officer, and may be levied on any property of the defendant 
not exempt by law. Executions cannot be stayed, except when obtained before 
a justice, and only then for a limited time, not more than four months, upon de- 
fendant giving security. No redemption of property sold under execution. 

Deeds, Rights of Married Womex, Wills, &c. — Deeds must be in writing 
and under seal ; a scrawl will answer for a seal if deed be made by an indi- 
vidual, but not if by a corporation. They must be acknowledged before a re- 
corder, prothonotary, clerk of any court, a justice of the peace, notary public, 
commissioner of deeds, or proved by two witnesses before the recorder of the court 
in the county where the panie is to be recorded. If acknowledged out of the 
UnitedStates, before a minister plenipotentiary, charge* d affaires, consul-general, 
consul, vice-consul or commercial agent, or before the proi)er ofticer of any court, 
or before the mayor of any city or town, under the official seal of such officer. 
The wife must join witli the husband in the deed to relinquish her dower- 

The following is the prescribed form of certificate of acknowledgment : 

State of West Yirgixia, K 
OouxTY OF Wood. j ^ ' 

I, (giving the name and official character of the oflacer), do 

certify that A. B. and C. l5. , his wife, whose names are signed to the writing above, 
bearing date on the day of , A. D. 187 , have this day acknowledged 

the same before me ; and C. D., the wife of the said A. B., personally appeared 
before me, in the county aforesaid, and being examined by me, privately and 
apart from her liusband, and having the said writing fully explained to her, she, 
the said C. D., acknowledged the said writing to be her act. and declared that 
ehe had willingly executed the same and does not wish to retract it. 

Given under my hand, this day of , A. D. 167 . 

(Signature and title.) 



SPECIAL LAWS OF WISCOXSIK. 915 

A married woman has dower in all the real estate her husband is seized of 
during coverture, and slie must join her husband in the execution of all deeds to 
the same. She may hold her separate property tree from the control and debts 
of lier husband, and may convey the same as if she were unmarried ; provided, 
her husband joins in the deed with her. Her separate property is bound for her 
debts contracted before marriage, and her husband is not liable for such debts. 
She may deposit her separate funds in bank, and withdraw the same on her own 
check. AVhere tbe husband acquires any of the wife's separate property, by 
ante-nuptial contract or otherwise, he becomes liable for her debts contracted 
before marriage to the extent of the property so acquired by him, but no fur- 
ther. 

Chattel mortgages are governed by the common law ; and the mortgage will be 
void unless possession of the mortgage chattels is delivered to and continuously 
remains with the mortgagee. 

Wills should be drawn and attested according to form No. 45, p. 815. 



SPECIAL LAWS OF WISCONSIN. 

Exemptions from Forced Sale. — Farm of Forhj Acres, or House and Lot in 
Village or City, and Personal Property . A homestead, consisting of land not 
exceeding 40 acres, used for farming purposes ; or in lieu of the above, at the op- 
tion of the debtor, a lot in any town or city not to exceed one-fourth of aii acre. 
Family Bible, pictures, school books and private library ; church pew ; all wear- 
ing apparel ; usual household furniture, not to exceed i^200 ; gun or rifle, not to 
exceed $50 in value ; 2 cows, 10 hogs, yoke of oxen and horse or mule ; 10 sheep 
and wool therefrom, and necessary food for said animals and for the debtor's 
family for one year ; wagon and other farming utensils not to exceed f 50 ; also, 
all insurance money arising from the destruction of property exempt from exe- 
cution ; also, the earnings for the past sixty days of persons who have families 
to support. 

The tools, implements, and stock in trade of a mechanic or miner, or other 
person, not exceeding $200 in value ; library or implements of any professional 
man not exceeding $200 in value. All sewing machines kejjt for use ; any swords, 
plate, books, or other article presented by Congress or the members thereof. 

Mechanics' Lien. — All persons who perform labor upon or furnish materials 
for the building, improving or repairing of buildings, have a lien thereon for the 
same,which must be enforced by tiling a petition for the lien in six months in the 
circuit court and an action to foreclose in one year. 

Collection of Debts. — In civil actions a defendant is liable to arrest in the 
following cases : 1. In an action for the recoveiy of damages, on a cause of ac- 
tion not arising out of contract, where the defendant is not a resident of the State, 
or is about to remove therefrom, or whei'e the action is for injury to person or 
character, or for injuring, or for wrongfully taking or converting property, and 
in actions to recover damages for the value of property obtained by the defend- 
ant under false pretences. 2. In an action for a fine or penalty, or for money or 
property embezzled or fraudulently misapplied by a public officer or an attorney, 
or by an agent of any corporation in the course of his employment as such, or by 
a factor or agent, or any other person in a fiduciary capacity, or for any miscon- 
duct in office or professional employment, 3. In an action to recover possession 
of personal property unjustly detained, where the property, or part thereof, has 
been concealed, so that it cannot be taken by the sheriff ; but no female can be 
arrested, except for wilful injury to person, character or property. 4, When the 
defendant has been guilty of fraud in contracting the obligation for which the 
suit is brought. 

Writ of attachment may issue on the plaintiff giving bond, and making affidavit 
that his debt is just, and that one or more of the following reasons lor attach- 
ment exists : 1. That the defendant has absconded or is about to abscond from 
the State, or is concealed therein, to the injury of his creditors, 2, That he has 
assigned, disposed of, or concealed, or is about to assign, dispose of, or con- 
ceal his property,with intent to defraud his creditors. 3. That ho has removed or 
is about to remove liis property from the State Avith the same intent. 4. That ho 
fraudulently contracted the debt upon which the actioii is brought. 5. That he is 
a non-resident, 6. That the defendant is a foreign corporation ; or, 7. That he 
has fraudulently disposed of his property with intent to defraud his creditors. 
Attachment cainiot issue unless debt exceed-! $50. 

All assignments for the benefit of creditors are void, as against creditors, uu- 



91 G SPECIAL LAWS OF AVISCONSIN. 

• 

less tlie assignee is a resident of the State and gives bond, to the value of the 
property assigned, for the faithful performance of his trust. 

All notes or certilicates of deposit, payable to any person or his order, are nego- 
tiable. Bills of e:^fehauge, payable at sight, are entitled to grace ; but when pay- 
able on demand they are not entitled to grace. Protested bills of exchange, 
dra^vn or negotiated in this State, entitle the holder to the following damages: If 
drawn on any person residing out of the United States, or in some one of the 
United States which adjoins this State, five per cent. ; if drawn on a person in 
some one of the United States, but which is not adjoining this State, ten percent. 
Legal liolidays are January 1st, February 22d, July 4th and December 25th. Pa- 
per maturing those days, or on Sunday, must be protested the day previous. 
And when any of those days fall on Sunday, then the Monday following is a legal 
holiday, and paper maturing on that Monday must be protested the Saturday 
preceding. 

Judgments are a lien on all real estate in the county where obtained, and in 
the county where a transcript is filed and docketed in the circuit court clerk's 
office, and the lien remains on such real estate for ten years. 

A transcript from a judgment before a justice may be also docketed and filed 
in the circuit court clerk's office, and likewise becomes a lien, same as a circuit 
court judgment. 

Execution may issue at any time within five years after rendition of judg- 
ment as of course, and where an execution was so issued within that period, then 
an alias may be issued at any time within twenty years from the date of the 
judgment ; but when no original execution within* the first five years, then an 
alias will only be granted on affidavit that the judgment is unsatisfied. Execu- 
tions are of three kinds — against the property, against the person of the debtor, 
and for the delivery of personal or real property detained by the defendant. 
Execution gives a lien on personal property only from the time of actual levy. 
Real estate sold under execution can be redeemed by the debtor in two years 
from the date of sale, or by his creditors in two years and three months f roni that 
time. 

Deeds, Rights op Married "Womex, Wills, &c. — Deeds must be in writing, 
and it is only neeessarj' that they be in the form of a quit claim, as no covenant is 
absolutely necessary or implied ; not necessary to be under seal, a scrawl will 
answer, and must be executed in the presence of at least two witnesses, and must 
be acknowledged in the State before any judge or court commissioner, clerk of cir- 
cuit or county' court, justice of the peace or notary public. But if acknowledged 
out of the State, may be acknowledged before any person authorized to take the 
acknowledgment of deeds under the laws of the State where taken, or before a 
commissioner of deeds. But unless the acknowledgment is taken before a com- 
missioner of deeds, or a notary public, there must be attached to the deed a certifi- 
cate of the clerk of a court of' record, under seal of his office, ihat the person who 
took the acknowledgment was at the date thereof such officer as he represents 
himself to be, that he believes the signature of such officer to be genuine, and the 
acknowledgment is according to the laws of the State where taken. 

A married woman must join in the execution of a deed to her husband's prop- 
erty to bar her dower. She can do this by an attorney duly appointed. 

The form of certificate of acknowledgment may be the one in use in the 
State where taken. . 

All the wife's separate real and personal property whether owned by her at the 
time of her marriage or acquired by her after in any way, remains the sole and sepa- 
rate estate of the wife, free from the coiitrol and debts of her husband. She can 
convey the same as if sole, and without the written consent of her husband. 
She is liable for aE debts contracted by her before marriage, and after on 
account of her separate property, and can be sued for the fame. She c&n sue 
without joining her husband, but if sued he must also be sued. 

She has dower in all the real estate of her husband, owned by him during 
coverture, unless she relinquishes the same, 

A chattel mortgage is not valid as to third parties, unless the property be de- 
livered to the mortgagee and remain in his possession, or the mortgage be filed 
with the clerk of the town where the mortgagor resides, or ^^'here the property is 
situated, if the mortgagor is a non-resident. 

No will made within this State, except such non-cupative wills as are men- 
tioned in section number six, of chapter sixty-six of the Revised Statutes, shall 
be effectual to pass any estate, whether real or personal, nor tc change or in any 
way affect the same, unless it be in writing, and tianed by the testator, or by 
some person in his presence, and by his express directioM. and attested and sub- 
scribed in the presence of the testator by two or more competent witnesses, aud 



SPECIAL LAAVS OF ONTARIO, ETC. 917 

if the witnesses are competent at the time of attesting the exeention of the will, 
their subsequent incompetency, from whatever cause it may arise, shall not pre- 
A'ent the probate and allowance of the will, if it be otherwise satisfactorily 
proved, • 



SPECIAL LAV^S OF WYOMING. 

Exemptions from Forced Sale.— /Tome worth S1500, and Personal Proi>- 
erty. A homestead consisting of a house and lot in a village or city, or land not 
exceeding IGO acres, the value not in either case exceeding S1500, is allowed to a 
householder occupying the same. Also the following property of a householder, 
being the head of a family, is exempt. Wearing apparel, family Bibles, pictures, 
school books, cemetery lots, bedding, furniture, provisions, and such other arti- 
cles as the debtor may select, not exceeding in value §500. Tools, team, or stock 
in trade of a mechanic, miner, or other person, kept and used for the purpose of 
carrying on his business or trade, not exceeding S300, are exempt. Library, in- 
Btruinents, and implements of any professional* man, worth not more than '§300. 
The person claiming exemijtion must be a bona fide resident of the tenitory. 



SPECIAL LAWS OF ONTARIO, CANADA. 

Exemptions from Forced Sale.— The bed, bedding and bedsteads in ordi- 
nary use by the debtor and his family, Th^ necessary and ordinary wearing 
apparel. One stove and pipes, 1 crane and its appendages, 1 pair of andirons, 1 
set of cooking utensils, 1 pair tongs, 1 shovel, 1 table, 6 chairs, G knives,. G forks, 
C plates, 6 teacups, C saucers, 1 sugar basin, 1 milk jug, 1 tea pot, G spoons, 15 
hives of bees, all spinning wheels and weaving looms in domestic use, 10 volumes 
of books, 1 saw, 1 gun, G traps, and such fishing nets and seines as are in common 
use. All necessary fuel, meat, tish, flour and vegetables actually provided for 
family use, not more than sufficient for the ordinary consumption of the debtor 
and his family for 30 days, and not exceeding in value the sum of 840. One cow, 
4 sheep, 2 hogs and food thereof for 30 days. The tools and implements or 
chattels ordinarily used in the debtor's occupation to the value of §60. 

Exemptions from Forced Sales.— Om Free Grants and Homesteads in the 
Possession of Actuul Settlers, in the Algoma and !Nippissing Districts, and certain 
lands between the Kiver Ottawa and the Georgian Bay, are exempt from seizure, 
while in personal property, beds, bedsteads, bedding, and wearing apparel of the 
debtor and his family, household furniture, provisions, farm stock, tools, and 
implements to the .value of 360, are exempt from seizure. 

jVIechanics' Lien. — Mechanics, laborers and material men have a lien on 
buildings and on the land on which said buildings are situate, for work or 
materials furnished for erecting or repaiiing same. Lien can be secured by filing 
a statement of the claini in the registrar's office within 30 days after the comple- 
tion of the work. It will cease to hold good after the expiration of 90 days. 

The Collection of Debts. — Defendant is liable to arrest on affidavit by 
the plaintiff that he is a concealed debtor, or is about to abscond from the pro- 
vince with the design and intent to defraud him out of his just debt. 

"Writ of attachment may issue for any debt or damages arising upon any con- 
tract, express or implied, or upon any judgment where affidavit or affinnation is 
made before the judge of the county court, a justice of the peace, or the clerk of 
a division court, where the debtor absconds, or is about to abscond from the pro- 
vince, leaving property liable to seizure under execution for debt in any county 
of Ontario, or shall attemiDt to remove his, her, or their property, either out or 
the province, or from one county to another therein, or from Ontario to Quebec, 
or shall keep concealed in any county of Ontario to avoid service of process. 
Such judge, clerk or justice of the peace, shall, on such affidavit being made, 
forthwith issue a warrant under his hand and seal, directed to any constable of 
the county, or directed to the bailitf of a Division Court, within which the same 
was issued, empowering said constable or bailiff to attach, seize, take and safely 
keep all such effects and estate of said absconding or concealed debtor, wherever 
found Avithin said county, and shall within twenty-four hours after said seizure, 
call to his aid two freeholders, who shall, after being sworn, value and appraiso 
the said effects so seized, when the said bailiff or constable shall forthwith return 
"said inventory with the property, to the clerk of the Divisioii Court within 



918 SPECIAL LAWS OF ONTARIO, 

■wliich such warrant was issued. Proceedings may be conducted to judgment 
and execution in any case commenced by attachment. Defendants, against 
wliose elfects, &c., a warrant is issued, may tender a bond to tlicir creditors, witJi 
sureties (in doub\e the amount of the sum claimed) prior to judgment and obtain 
a release of the goods. No real estate is liable to seizure under Division Court 
writs of attachment. 

The jurisdiction of Division Courts (of which it is provided that there shall at 
no time be less than three, nor more tl^n twelve, in a county, each to be lield 
once every two months, or oftener at the discretion of the judge) extends to 
claims of debt, account or breach of contract, or covenant, or money demand, 
whither payable in money or otherwise, where the amount or balance claimed, 
does not exceed $100, and in all torts to personal chattels, to and including the 
sum of $iO. Summons to be served 10 days before sitting of court. Personal 
.service of summons necessary Avhere claim exceeds $S. No unsettled account 
to a greater amount than §200 shall be sued for in any Division Court, in which 
case judgment shall be in full discharge of all demands. No debt due for 
liquors, drunk in a tavern or ale-house, or any gambling debt, or any claim 
touching the title to real estate, or involving any right to custom or toll, or for 
seduction, or breach of promise of marriage, is suable in a Division Court. Trial 
by jury is accorded in cases of tort or trespass where claim exceeds $10, and in 
all otlier cases where amount exceeds §20. Debtor removing to another county 
may be served with summons from the Division Court where the debt was con- 
tracted, summons in this case to be mailed to the Clerk of the Division Court 
where the debtor may reside to be served by the bailiff of said Court, who will, 
through the Clerk of his Division, return the original of said summons duly en- 
dorsed with affidavit of service to the issuing clerk. Writ of execution may be 
issued and judgment debtor's goods be levied on by the same means. Execu- 
tions are returnable within 30 days from date of issue, and affect personal prop- 
erty only ; if returned nulla bona, a transcript of the judgment, if for §40 or nj)- 
wards, from the clerk of the Division Court, attested by the seal of said court, 
may be filed in the office of the clerk of the County Court where such judgment 
was obtained, or in the county where the judgment debtor's lands may be 
situate, and when thus tiled shall become a judgment of the said County Court 
and issue execution on said lands. Division Court judgments are made payable 
in ten, fifteen, or twenty days, more or less, at the discretion of the judge (but 
not for more than 50 days from the service of summons, unless plaintiff con- 
sents), but execution may issue forthwith on sufficient evidence, adduced by 
plaintiff, to satisfy the judge that the said plaintiff will be in danger of losing 
the amount of said judgment by delay till the day of payment before issuing 
execution. 

On return of execution endorsed nulla bona, judgment summons may issue 
citing judgment debtor to appear in court for examination under oath by the 
judge touching his ways and means of payment, what disposition he may have 
made of his property, the circumstances under which he contracted the debt, 
&c., on which the judge may order defendant to pay a stated sum per month ou 
sai(l judgment until the same be paid, and in default of such payments, or if 
guilty of fraud in contracting the debt, may commit said defendant to the com- 
mon jail of the county for a period not exceeding forty days. Such imprison- 
ment shall jiot, in any case, operate as a satisfaction or extinguishment of the 
debt, but the party imprisoned may be released forthwith on pajTnent of the 
debt and costs. The judge in his discretion may suspend any judgment, order, 
or execution given, on being satisfied that any defendant is unable, from sick- 
ness or other sufficient cause, to pay or discharge the debt and damages recov- 
ered against him, or any instalment thereof, until it shall appear by the like 
proof that such temporary disability has ceased. 

Wherever any goods, chattels, deeds, bonds, pro. notes, books of account, 
valuable securities, or other personal property, shall be wrongfully taken or un- 
lawfully detained, the owner, person, or corporation, who by law can now bring 
an action of trover or trespass for personal property, shall have and may bring 
an action of replevin for the recovery of said goods, with accrued damages for 
unlawful caption and detention. Judgment holds good for 10 years, 

The jurisdiction of County Court extends, in cases of debt' contract, to §200^ 
where the amount is ascertained by the signature of the defendant, to $400 ; in al 
matters of tort relating to personal chattels, where the sum does not exceed §20( 
The Superior Law Courts have concurrent jurisdiction with the County Court. 
The above amounts may be sued for in the Siipeiior Courts, but all concerned will 
only be liable to pay and receive County Court costs and fees. County Court 
writ of summons may be served on defendant in any county in the province, but 



SPECIAL LAWS OF ONTARIO. 919 

suit must bo brouglit in the county wliere the defendant, or one or more of them 
rei'ides, or where the contract was made payable. The County Court jurisdiction 
also extends to the relief of persons entitled to an account of the dealings and 
transactions of a partnership (the joint stock or capital not having hoen over 
§800) dissolved or expired, seeking such account, or to a creditor upon the estate 
of any deceased person, such creditor seeking payment of his debt, not exceeding 
5200, out of the deceased's assets not exceeding $!800 ; or to a legatee under the 
will of any deceased person, such legatee^ seeking paydient or delivery of his 
legacy, not exceeding ;!?200 in value, out of such deceased person's assets, not 
exceeding §800 ; or to a residuary legatee, or one of the residuary legatees of 
any deceased person seeking an account of the residue and payment, or appro- 
priation of his share therein, the estate not exceeding §800 ; or "to an executor or 
administrator of any such deceased person seeking to have the personal estate, 
not exceeding S800, of such deceased person administered under the direction of 
the Judge of the County Court for the County within which such executor or 
administrator resides ; or to a legal or equitable mortgagee whose mortgage 
is created by some instrument in writing, or judgment creditor having only regis- 
tered his judgment ; or percon entitled to a lien for security for a debt, seeking 
foreclosure or sale, or otherwise to enforce his security, when the sum claimed 
does not exceed §200 ; or to any person entitled to redeem any legal or equitable 
mortgage, or any charge or lien, seeking to redeem the same, where the sum 
actually remaining due does not exceed §200. Injunctions to restrain the com- 
mitting of waste or trespass to property by unlawfully cutting, destroying, 
or removing trees or timber, may be granted by the Judge of any County Court, 
which injunction shall remain in force one month, unless sooner dissolved on 
an application to the Court of Chancery. Judgment in a County Court 
is not a lien on real estate owned by defendant. 

Jurisdiction of Superior Court extends to claims of over §200 damages, and 
over §400 (secured claim) to any amount. Judgments in the County Court do not 
hold real or persoual estate until the execution is in sheriff's hands. 

The jurisdiction of a justice of .the peace is limited to §40, in actions for 
wages between masters and servants. Garnishmeilt may issue to recover money 
due debtor. 

Deeds, Mortgages, Chattel Mortgages, &c. — Conveyances of real estate 
must be in writing, sealed by the grantor, and subscribed by him or his attorney 
duly authorized, and attested by two witnesses. Deeds must be under seal, a 
scrawl will not answer. Deeds and mortgages of real estate are proved by afiida- 
vit of one of the witnesses to said deed or mortgage, said aflklavit being engrossed 
on what is called a memorial, setting forth a digest of the principal details of the 
deed ; this mem.orial shall be under the hand and seal of the grantee or the 
grantor, and is left for pevma'.ient I'ecord with the registrar of the county in 
which the property conveyed is situate. To illustrate : John Smith, and Mary 
his wife, convey property to I'obert Bell ; each will sign the deed in the order 
named, and John Gordon' and Peter Iloss will witness deed. In this case the af- 
fidavit on the memorial will read as follows : 

County of York. 1 John Gordon, of Toronto, in the said county of York, gentle- 
To wit: I man, in the within Memorial named, maketh oath and saith, 
that he was present and did see the Indenture to which the said IVIemorial relates, 
duly executed, signed, sealed and delivered, by the therein named John Smith 
and Mary his wife, and that ho is a subscribing witness to the execution of the 
said Indenture, and that he, this deponent, also saw the said Memorial duly 
signed and sealed by the therein named Robert Bell, for registry thereof. Which 
said Memorial was attested by him this deponent, and another subscribing wit- 
n -s-s and that both said instruments were executed at the city of Toronto, in the 
said county of York. 

Sworn before me at Toronto, in the said County of York, this 1 
ninth day of November, A. D. 1878. 

Samuel Hill, j-Johk Gordon. 

A Commissioner for taking affidavits in the Queen's Bench, 
in and for the said County of York. 
Within the province the affidavit to execution of deed may be taken on said 
memorial before the registrar of the county or his deputy, or before any judge of 
the Court of Queen's Bench of Ontario, or any judge of a county court, or any 
commissioner of the said Court of Queen's Bench, in Ontari'». Out of the Prov- 
ince, proof of deeds, conveyances, or wills, may bo made by affidavit (or declar- 



920 IIULES FOK COMPUTING PERCENTAGES, ETC. 

a'.ion -wlicu said declaration is by law perniissable) sworn before the mayor or 
chief magistrate of any city, borough, or towii corporate i)i Great Britain or Ire- 
land, under the common seal of such city, borough or town corporate, or before 
the chief justice or judge of any court of Queen's Bench in Quebec, or of the 
supreme court of any British colony, or before the mayor of any city, borough, 
or town corporate in any foreign country, or any consul or Auce-cousul of Her 
Majesty resident therein. Deeds, conveyances, judgments, &c., must be recorded 
in the county where pro*perty is situate, and bind lands according to priority of 
registration. A wife must join in a deed with the husband, in selling his real es- 
tate, to relinquish dower, and he must join Avith her in selling her separate real 
estate, acquired previous to, or subsequent to marriage. 

No chattel mortgage is valid as against the rights of third parties (if the goods 
remain with the grantor) unless said instrument is duly tiled in the office of the' 
clerk of the county, in which the property so mortgaged is situate, and it shall 
cease to bo valid as against creditors, if iiot refiled before the expiration of the 
first year, together with a statement exhibiting the interest of the mortgagee in 
the property thereby claimed. Every chattel mortgage is void as against credit- 
ors, unless accompanied with an affidavit of the mortgagee, sworn before a com- 
missioner of the court of Queen's Bench or common pleas, that the mortgagor is 
justly and truly indebted to the mortgagee in the sum mentioned in said mort- 
gage, and that it was executed in ^oocl faith andfor the express purpose of secur- 
ing the payment of the money so justly due, and not for the purpose of protect- 
ing the goods and chattels mentioned therein againot the creditors of the mort- 
gagor — and in case of an absolute sale, that the sale is bona fide and for good con- 
sideration (naming the sum) and not for the purpose of holding the goods against 
the creditors of the bargainor. 

The husband's property i:4 not liable for debts contracted by his wife previous 
to her marriage, free from all liability for her husband's debts. 

For form of wills and mode of attestation, see Form No. 45, p. 815. 



RULES FOR COMPUTING PERCENTAGES, PROFITS, &C. 

Rate per Cent. — To find the Gain or Loss when the Cost and Bate 
per Cent, lis given. — Eule. Mitltiply the cost by the rate j^er cent, nnd 
point off two places to the right as cents. Example. — Bought flour for 
SqDO.OO, and sold it at an advance of 12i)er cent. How nitich did I gain ? 
600 multiplied by 12 per cent, equals $72. 

To Find the Rate per Cent, when the Cost and Selling Price 
ARE Known — Rule. Find the difference between tlie cost and selling 
price, the difference will be the gain or loss ; tlien annex two cipliers to 
tlic gain or loss so found and divide hj the cost, the result Avill be the 
rate" per cent. Example. — Sold a drove of cattle for $10,000, whicli cost 
me $8,500. What per cent, did I gain ? vlns.— $10,000— 8,500 equals 
$1,500 ; 150,000 divided by 8,500 equals 17 11-17 per cent. 

To Determine the Cost when the Selling Price and the Rate 
PER Cent, of the Gain or Loss are Given. — Hide. Annex two ci- 
])licrs to the selling jn-ice and divide by $1.00 increased by the rate per 
cent, of gain or loss. Example. — A cargo of coffee was sold for $25,000, 
1 ealizing a gain of 25 per cent. What Avas the cost ? Ans. — 1 plus 25 
cqnals 1.25. 2500.00 divided by $1.25 equals 20,0C0. 

To Find the Cost when the Loss or Gain and the Rate per 
Ckxt. are Given. — Rale. Annex two ciphers to the gain or loss and 
divide by the rate per cent. Example.—X lot of ice was sold at a x>rofit 
oT $3,000, the percentage of the profit being 15. What was the cost? 
.]?i.<!._3000 divided by 15, equals $2,0.00. 

To Find the Rate -when the Cost and. Gain or Loss are Gh'^en. 
— Rale. Annex two ciphers to the gain or loss and divide by the cost. 
Example. — A wine merchant sold a lot of wine Avhich cost him $650, and 
gained $130. What Avas the gain per cent. ? Ans. — 130C0.C0 divided Ijy 
(350 equals 20 per cent. 



SPECIAL LAWS OF NEW BRUNSWICK. 921 



SPECIAL LAWS OF NEW BRUNSWICK. 

Exemptions fuox Fokceb Sale.— There is no liomestead law in this prov- 
ince. The wearing apparel, bedding, kitchen ntensils, and tools of his trade or 
calling, to the Aaliie of $100, of any debtor, are exempt from levy or sale under 
execution. 

jMechaxics' Liex. — No house or other property in the province can be held 
liable for debts due parties for furnishing materials for constructing or repairing 
same. 

OoLLECTiox OF DEBTS. — A person not having privilege may be arrested and 
held to bail or committed to prison on mesne process, in any cause of action within 
the jurisdiction of the Supreme or any County Court, if an'afiidavit be tirst made 
by the plaintiff or his agent of the plaintitf's cause of action, and that the amount 
thereof not being less than $20 is justly due to the plaintiff, and that such arrest 
is not made for the purpose of vexing or liarassing the debtor. When the cause 
of action is not a debt certain a judge's order must be obtained. 

In actions in justices' Civil Courts and Parish Courts, a person may be ar- 
rested on the plaintiff's making an affidavit of his cause of action, and that after 
giving full credit for all payments and oft'sets the defendant is indebted to him in 
a sum not exceeding 820 nor less than §2, as the case may be, aiul that he is afraid 
of losing hi« debt, and that he, tlie defendant, is of the a^e of twenty-one years. 

Members of the legislature, judges, and witnesses attending trial, are exempt 
from arrest, and in actions brought in justices' Civil Courts. Females also are 
exempt from arrest. No person can be arrested under an execution issued on a 
judgment in the Supreme or County Courts, hut arrest may be made on a judg- 
ment obtained in justices' Civil Courts, the City Court of St. John, the town of 
Portland Civil Court, the city of Fredericton Civil Court, and in Civil Courts 
held by Police or Stipendiary Magistrates, and in Parish Courts, to the amounts 
for which such courts respectively have jurisdiction. 

Ari'est and imprisonment may be had and allowed for : 1. Default in the pay- 
ment of a penalty or sum in the nature of a penalty other than a penalty in the 
nature of a contract. 2. Default in payment of anysum recoverable on summary 
conviction. 3. Default in payment of County, City, Totl-n, Parish or District 
rates. 4. Default by an attorney or solicitor in payment of a sum of money, when 
ordered to pay the same in his character of au officer of the Court making the 
order. 5. Default by a trustee or person acting in the fiduciary character, and 
ordered to pay by tho Court of Equity any sum in his possession or under his 
control. 

Decrees of the Court of Equity may be enforced by execution either against 
the goods or bodj'. A debtor in custody may on notice apply, and on making 
requisite disclosure be discharged, but if any property appears on disclosure it 
may be attached. 

The real or personal property within the province of any defendant, which by 
•law is liable to be taken in execution, may in respect of any cause of action upon 
a contract be attached and held as security to satisfy the judgment to the amount 
of the attachment. A person at tho time of entering into a contract, may (ex- 
cept in the case of a negotiable instrument) agree and stipulate .".s part of such 
contract, that in respect thereof the property of the contracting party shall 
not be subjvSct to attachment. Before any writ of attachment can issue the plain- 
tiff or some one on his behalf must make affidavit of his cause of action, and of 
the amount due, and (except in case of negotiable instrument, or when the cause 
of action arose prior to April 8th, 1874) that no agreement was made that an at- 
tachment should not issue, and also that the demand is not secured by mortgage 
or otherwise, and that the attachment is not sued out to vex, or to harass, or to 
hinder, delay, or defraud any creditor, and either : 1. That the defendant is a 
non-resident of the province, and the contract was made or is payable in the prov- 
ince, or that the plaintiff' is a resident of the province, or, 2. That the defendant 
is a resident of the province, and that plaintiff is apprehensive that unless attach- 
ment is issued that he niay lose his demand. In cases of a contract other than a 
contract for the payment of money, no attachment shall issue unless upon an 
order of the Court or a judge thereof. 

Garnishment may issue to arrest money due the debtor from third parties. 
The sheriff having an execution may seize and take any money, or bank or Do- 
nainion notes, bonds, specialties or other securities formoney belonging to the 
person against whom the execution is issued. 

A justice of the peace has jurisdictioji in actions of debt when the sum de- 



922 SPECIAL LAWS OF NEW BRUXSWICK. 

maiided docs not exceed the sum of $20, and in actions of tort to real or personal 
property where damages claimed do not exceed $8, but they have not jurisdiction 
over civil actions where the Queen is a party, or where the title to land comes in 
question. 

Tliere is a Court in each parish (except when there is a resident Police or Sti- 
pendiary Magistrate) called " The parish of (name of parish) Civil Court," where 
the jurisdiction goes as high as §40 in actions of debt, and $16 in actions of tort, 
but has no jurisdiction over civil actions when the Queen is a party, or where the 
title to land comes in question. 

There is also " The City Court of St. John," and '' The Town of Portland Civil 
Court," having jurisdiction in actions of debt to the amount of §80, and §20 in 
actions of tort. There is also the City of Fredericton Civil Court, having juris- 
diction in actions of debt to the amount of §80, and in actions of tort to the 
amount of §32, but no jurisdiction over civil actions where the Queen is a party, 
or the title to land comes in question. 

The names of the several Courts are : Supreme Court, Circuit Court, Equity 
Court, Divorce and Matrimonial Court, County Courts, Probate Courts, St. John 
City Court, City of Fredericton Civil Court, Small Debt Court of Fredericton, 
Town of Portland Civil Courts, Parish Courts, Justices' Civil Courts. 

Judgments obtained in the Supreme and County Courts bind the lands of the 
debtor, on the party obtaining itliling a memorial of the judgment in the oftice of 
the Registrar of Deeds for the County in which the lands lie. Memorial must be 
renewed every five years. Execution placed in the sheriff's hands for the pur- 
pose of being executed will also bind the lands. 

A debtor may obtain a full discharge from his debts by making an assignment 
of his property and complying with the other stipulations required by the Do- 
minion Insolvent Act which is in force in this Province. 

On Deeds, Rights of Married Wojien, Wills, &o. — Deeds must be under 
seal ; a scrawl is not sufficient, and one witness only is required by law. Before 
the registry of any conveyance the execution of the same shall eitlier be acknowl- 
edged by tlie person executing the same, or be proved by the oath of a subscrib- 
ing Avitness in the manner following, that is to say :— If the execution of such 
conveyance be acknowledged in the province, then such acknowledgment may be 
taken'before a judge oj^ the Supreme or any County Court, or a member of the 
Executive or Legislative Council, or before any Registrar or Deputy Registrar of 
Deeds, or any Notary Public appointed, and resident in the province, and certilied 
under his hand and official seal, or before any justice of the peace of the County 
in which the conveyance is to be registered. If the execution of such convey- 
ance be proved in the province, such proof may be taken by and before any of the 
officials hereinbefore in this section mentioned, excejot a justice of the peace : 
provided always, that in cases where the subscribing witness or witnesses to any 
such conveyance is dead or without the province, then the execution thereof may 
be proved before the Supreme Court, or some Circuit or County Court, by the or- 
dinary legal proof. If such acknowledgment or proof be taken out of the province, 
the same shall be taken by or before some one of the officials following, that is to 
say : — Any commissioner for taking affidavits and administering oaths under 
Chapter 30 ; or before any commissioner authorized by the Lord Chancellor to ad- 
minister oaths in Chancery in England ; or before any Notary Public certified 
under his hand and official seal ; or before the Mayor or Chief Magistrate of any 
city, borough, or municipality or town corporate, or the seal of such Mayor or 
Chief Magistrate, or before any Judge of the Court of Queen's Bench, or Com- 
mon Pleas, or Baron of the Exchequer in Great Britain or Ireland, or Master in 
Chancery in England or Ireland, or any judge or Lord of Session in Scotland, the 
handwriting of any such judge, baron, or Lord of Session being authenticated 
under the seal of a Notary Public, or before a judge of any Court of Supremo 
jurisdiction in any colony belonging to the Crown of Great Britain and Ireland, 
or any Dependancy thereof ; or before any British Minister, Ambassador, Consul, 
Vice-Consul, Acting Consul, pro-Consul, or Consular Agent of Her Majestj^^, ex- 
ercising his functions in any foreign place ; or before the Governor of a State, 
and certified under the hand and Seal of office of such Minister, Ambassador, 
Consul, Vice-Consul, Acting Consul, pro-Consul, Consular Agent or Governor. 
If the conveyance be by a corporation, proof of the Corporate Seal shall in all 
cases be sufficient. 

A conveyance, or power of attorney for the same, by a married woman, of all 
her right and interest in land jointly with her husband, shall be valid if executed 
without compulsion from him, and the person authorized by law to take acknowl- 
edgments of conveyances in other cases certifying thereon that he has examined 
her apart from her husband, and that she acknowledged that she executed the 
co3ivevance frcelv. 



SPECIAL LAWS OF NOVA SCOTIA AND QUEBEC. 923 

A wife's property acquired before marriage is in no case liable for her bus- 
band's debts. The husband's property is liable for the wife's ante-nuptial debts 
on judgment being obtained against liim. 

Mortgages on chattel property are valid, and require to be registered, but not 
every year. Bills of sale require to be registered iu the Record Office. For 
"Wills, consult Form No. 45, page 815. 



SPECIAL LAWS OF QUEBEC. 

Exemptions from Forced Sale.— Personal property exempt from forced 
sale being used and owned by the debtor : Bed, bedding and bedstead ; necessary 
apparel for himself and family ; set of table and stove furniture ; all spinning 
wheels and weaver's looms in use in the family ; 1 axe, 1 gun, 1 saw, C traps, tish- 
nets in common use, and 10 volumes of books ; fuel and food for 30 days, worth 
$20 ; 1 cow, 4 sheep, 2 hogs, with necessaiy food for 30 days ; tools and instru- 
ments used in his trade to the value of $20 ; 15 hives of bees, and wages and sal- 
aries not yet due ; besides certain other properties granted by the courts. 



SPECIAL LAWS OF NOVA SCOTIA. 

Exemptions from Forced Sale. — There is no homestead exemption law in 
this Province. Nothing is exempt from forced sale except personal property to 
the amount of $40. 

Mechanics' Lien. — No law exists to enforce a mechanics' lien in the Prov- 
ince. Creditor to secure himself on property must get a bill of sale on chattels, 
&c., and have it recorded in County Kegistrar's office. 

Tue Collection of Debts. — Defendant is liable to arrest under execution 
if the amount is §1 or upwards ; and on affidavit by plaintiff that defendant is a 
concealed debtor, or is about to abscond from the Province with the intent and 
design to defraud him out of his just debt, capias may issue and arrest ensue tor 
sums of $4 and upward. 

"Writ and attachment may issue under the Absconding Debtor's Act against 
defendant's property for sums of $20 and upwards. A book account is outlawed 
in C years ; a bond in 6 years ; a note in 6 years, and a judgment in 4 years. Juris- 
diction of a justice of the peace is limited to $20 ; two justices may render judg- 
ment for $80. The largest judgment obtainable in the County Court is $500 ; the 
amount of judgment obtainable iu the Superior Court is unlimited. Money can- 
not be seized under execution. Judgments bind defendant's real and personal 
estate as soon as obtained. 

The husband's property is liable for debts contracted by his wife previous to 
marriage, and as to his wife's estate acquired previous to marriage, the husband 
has full control except over entailed property. 



924 



TABLES, «&€., FOIl MINERS 



Miscellaneous Facts and Processes relating to Met- 
allurgy, Gold and Silver Mining, Treatment of 
Ores, &c. 

Ill mining operations a knowledge of the following facts, calculations, 
&c. , is of great utility. 

In Measures of Earth, Rock, &c. 

25 cul). ft. of sand = 1 ton. 13 cub. ft. of quartz, unbroken in lode = 1 ton. 

17 cub. ft. of clay = 1 ton. 20 cub. ft., brolten from lode = 1 ton cont. meas. 

18 cubic ft. solid eaitli = 1 ton. 27 cubic ft. of loose earth = 1 ton. 

Table for the Conversion of English and Metric Units. 



1 Meter ^ 3-2807 feet. 

1 Foot = 0-3048 m. 

1 Liter (vol. of 1 kilog. water) = 

0-2202 gal. 
1 Gallon (vol. of 10 lbs. water) = 

4-541 liters. 
1 Kilog. per sq. meter = 0*2048 lbs. 

per sq. ft. 
1 Kilog.- per sq. mm. =1422-28 lbs. 

per sq.* in. 
1 Lb. per sq. in. = 703-0958 kilbgs. 

per sq.-m. 
1 Gram = 15-4323 grs. 
1 Grain = 0648 gram. 
1 Kilogrameter = 7-2331 ft. -lbs. 



1 Foot-pound = 01383 kgm. 

1 Atmosphere = 147 lbs. per sq. in. 

= 10-333 kilogs. per sq. meter = 

29-922 in. or 7G0 mm. of mercury 

= 33-9 ft. or 10^ meters water. 
1 Kilocrram = 2-2046 lbs. av. 
1 Pound av. = 4536 kilog. 
1 Deg. Centigrade = 5-9 deg. F.— 32" 
1 Deg. Fahrenheit = 9-5 deg. C. 4- 

32" 
1 Calorie (kilog. water raised 1" C. ) 

= 424 Icilogrameters = 3-9683 

heat-units. 
1 Heat-unit (lb. water raised 1^ F.) 

= 772 ft. -lbs = 0-252 cal. 



For additional items consult pp. 126 aiid 576. 
Chapman's Tests for the Hardness of Gold or Silver Ores. 

Hardness = 1.5 yields with difficulty to the nail. 

Hardness = 2.5 does not yield to the nail, does not scratch a coin, but 
is easily scratched by it. 

Hardness = 3.5 scratches a copper coin easily, but is scratched by it mtli 
difficulty. 

For Table showing quantity of Gold to the ton of Ore, &c., see page 667. 

There are in minerals eight shades of white, nine of grej^, six of black, 
five of blue, twelve of green and yellow, fifteen of red, and eight of brown, 
besides clear, dark, light, or pale in these shades. 

Metals have five degrees of lustre, splendent, shining, glistening, glimmer- 
ing, dull. 

Hardness of Minerals, beginning with the softest. 

laminated, light 



1. Talc ; common 

green variety. 

2. Gypsum, a crystallized variety. 

3. Calcareous spar ; a transparent 

variety. 

4. Fluor-Spar ; crystalline variety. 

5. Apatite ; transparent variety. 

5, 5. Scapolite : crystalline variety. 



6. Feldspar ; white cleaveable vari- 
ety. 

7. Quartz ; transparent. 

8. Topaz ; transparent. 

9. Sapphire ; cleaveable varieties. 

10. Corundum. 

11, Diamond. 



TABLES, &C., FOK MINERS 



925 



The hardness of Precious Stones is tn the following order, be- 
ginning WITH the hardest. 



1. Diamond. 


5. 


2. Ruby. 


6. 


3. SapiDhire. 


7. 


4. Topaz. 


8. 



Hyacinth. 
Emerald. 
Garnet. 
Amethj-st. 

In the Scour of water-course Beds. 



9. Agate. 

10. Torq noise. 

11. Opal. 



i ft. per second will sconr fine clay. 
J " " " " saiid. 

I " '* " coarse sand. 

1 " " " fine gravel. 

2 ft. i^er second will sconr ronnd shingle 1 in. diani. 

3 ft. " " angnlar stone, size of an egg. 
3. ft. " " conglomerate. 

Value of Gold according to fineness.— Pure gold, 1000 fine, is 
worth S20.67 per oz. ; jjold SCO fine, is wortli .^10.33 ; 600 fine, $12.40 ; 700 
fine, $14.49 ; 800 fine, $16.53 ; 900 fine, $18.60. At the mint in San Fran- 
cisco, the charge for melting, assaying and refining is 14 cents per oz. The 
charge for coining is h per cent. No deposits are received at the mint in less 
sums thanSlOO. " 

The valne of a ton of pnre gold is $602,799.21. The value of a ton of sil- 
ver is $37,704.84. The Aveight of $1,000,000 in gold coin is 3.685.8 lbs. avoir- 
dupois. The weight of $1,000,000 in silver coin is 58,929.9 lbs. avoirdupois. 
For other facts relating to the weight of the precious metals consult pp. 127- 
331. 

Amount of Metallic Silver obtainable from the following sui- 

PLE SUBSTxVNCES I 

Chloride of silver, three-quarters, or nearly seventy-five per cent. Sul- 
phide of silver, three-quarters, or seventy-five per cent. Bromide of sil- 
ver, one-half, or fifty per cent., generally a little more. Iodide of silver, 
three-sevenths, or forty-three per cent. Oxide of silver, nine-tenths, or 
ninety per cent., generally more. Carbonate of silver, three-fourths or 
seventy-five per cent, generally more. Nitrate of silver, two-thirds, -or nearly 
sixty per cent. 

Table of some of the Properties of Various Metals. 

Names arranged in the order of their 



Ductility. 


Mallebility. 


Power of Conduct- 
ing Heat. 


Power of Conduct- 
ing Electricity. 


Gold. 


Gold. 


Silver. 


Silver. 


Silver. 


Silver. 


Copper. 


Copper. 


Platinum. 


Copper. 


Gold. 


(iold. 


Iron. 


Tin. 


Tin. 


Zinc. 


Nickel. 


Platinum 


Iron. 


Iron. 


Copper. 


Lead. 


Lead. 


Tin. 


Zinc. 


Zinc. 


Bismuth. 


Lead. 


Tin. 


Iron. 




Antimony. 


Lead. 


Nickel. 




Bismuth. 



To determine the proportion of Gold in a mixture or Gold and 
Quartz. — To find the specific gravity of a lump of gold, quartz or aurifer- 
ous quartz, divide the Aveight of the lump in air by the weight of an equal 
amount of water. To find the weight of an equal amount of water, deduct 
the weight of the lump in Avater from the weight of the lump in air. When 
the lump is to be weighed in Avater, it .should be suspended by a horse-hair 
so as to hang into the water ; keeping, of course, all other parts of the 
scales clear of the Avater. 



92G WHERE TO FIND GOLD BEAKING QUAIiTZ. 

Phillips gives tlio following rule for ascertaining the amount of gold iu a 
lump of auriferous quarts : 

" The specific gravity of the gold— 19,000. 

" The specific gravity of the quartz — 2,600. 

" These numbers are given here merely for convenience in explaining the 
rule ; they do not accurately represent the specific gravities of all quartz 
and quartz gold. (The quartz gold of California has not, on an average, a 
specific gravity of more than 18,(>00. ) 

" 1. Ascertain the specific gravity of the lump. Suppose it to be 8,067. 

"2. Deduct the specific gravity of the lump from the specific gravity of 
the gold ; the difference is the ratio of the quartz by volume : 19,000 — 8,067 
= 10,933. 

" 3. Deduct the specific gravity of the quartz from the specific gravity of 
the lump; the difference is the ratio of the gold by volume : 8,067 — 2,'600 
= 5,467. 

*'4. Add tliese ratios together, and proceed by the rule of proportion. 
The product is the percentage of gold by bulk : 10,933-f-5,467=16,400. Then 
as 16,400 is to 5,467, so is 100 to 33,35. 

" 5. Multiply the percentage of gold by bulk by its specific gravity. The 
product is the ratio of the gold in the lump by weight : 33,35X19,00= 
643,65. 

"6. Multiply the percentage of quartz by bulk (which must be 66,65 
since that of the gold is 33,35) by its specific gravity. The product is the 
ratio of the quartz in the lump by weight : 66,65X2,60=173,29. 

"7. To find the percentage, add these two ratios together, and proceed 
by the rule of proportion : 633,65+173,29=806,94 Then, as 806,94 is to 
633,65, so is 100 to 78,53. Hence, a lump of auriferous quartz, having a 
specific gravity of 8,067, contains 78,73 per cent, of gold, by weight. 

Gold-bearing quartz is always found near granite and slate, so that it is 
labor lost to search for gold where the primary granite is covered, thousands 
of feet deep, with stratified rocks, as in the coal beds of Pennsylvania, or the 
blue limestone of south-western Ohio . The probabilities are that gold will 
be found where granite, slate, and quartz are found together. It is well es- 
tablished that all native gold either is or was at one time embedded in 
quartZj hence the common saying, " quartz is the mother of gold." Placer 
gold appears to have been liberated by the crumbling of quartz ; and 
wherever gold is found in granite, or other rocks, the theory is that it has 
been communicated from neighboring quartz while all were in a condition 
of fusion. 

The poorest quartz that is worked yields $10 per ton, some yields $4000 
per ton, but the richest vein, on an average, will possibly not be over $100. 
. Gold is usually found in metallic condition, but never free from silver. 
The proportion of silver in the gold of the Comstock lode is from 30 to 45 
per cent., in that of the Gold Hill lode, N. T., 47 to 50 percent. Gila River 
and Australian gold contains from 3 to 5 per cent. Up to July 2, 1878, the 
entire product of the two mines known as the California and Consolidated 
Virginia may be divided as $45,000,000 gold, and $55,000,000 silver. The 
color of gold varies according to the proportion of silver it contains, 60 per 
cent, of silver imparts a white color to the alloy. 

In gold mining, the precious metal not being found in ore, is eliminated 
from the containing quartz or alluvium by very simple mechanical or 
chemical processes ; in silver mining, the metal is found in many varieties 
of ore, each of which must be reduced by intricate chemical j)rocesses 
varied by the character of the mineral under treatment. 

The business of mining resembles a lottery ; in Mexico, the Count Regla 
obtained for many years $5,000,000 per annum from them; Count Valenciana 
$1,250,000, and the Marquis del Apardado got $4,000,000 in six months from 
a mine. In the United States, among those who have been lifted into nota- 
ble })rominence by successful mining operations may be mentioned John 



ENORMOUS WEALTH OF PERU. 9117 

Mackey, chief owner of the Consolidated Virginia mine, whose wealth is esti- 
mated at about $80,000,000 ; Hon. William Sharon, of Nevada, supposed to 
he worth about 890,000,000 ; James G. Fair, supt. of the Consolidated Vir- 
ijinia and California mines, estimated wealth about 650,000,000 ; Hon. J. P. 
Jones of Nevada, Avorth about 870,090,000, and many others. All are highly 
gifted with practical saiiacity in mining matters, and as a general rule work- 
ed their way upwards through many reverses. The miner who would at- 
tain success must qualify himself by toiling to obtain the knowledge neces- 
sary for his guidance in emergencies. Let him not dispense with it after the 
fashion of the miner who once brought a specimen of a supposed very ricli 
gold ore to a San Francisco assayer for examination. On being informed 
tliat it was nothing but iron pyrites, and not worth a cent a ton, the as- 
tounded miner exclaimed in the direst dismay : " Great Creation ! there is 
an old woman up our way who owns a hill of it, and I married her ! " 

The silver mines of Potosi are so notably rich that $47,000,000 have been 
coined there since 1845. On the opposite side of the chain are tlie celebrated 
silver mines of Guantajaya, once famous for the large lumps of silver form- 
erly found there, one of which weighed 800 lbs. 

A Peruvian legend of questionable veracity narrates the finding of a large 
lump or nugget of native gold weighing 400 lbs. at the mine of San Juan de 
Oro, on the headwaters of the Amazon river, during the reign of Charles 
the Fiftli. 

From time immemorial the mines of Peru have been fabulously rich lu 
silver products. This was the inciting cause of the barbarous enormities 
and rapacity of the Spaniards at the time of their conquest of the country-, in 
murdering the inhabitants and plunderin;? the tombs of the Inca kings, the 
roval repositories, and ancient temples. From one temple, that of Cusco, the 
robbers obtained $11,000,000. 

By a parity of Avhat we must regard as retributive justice, much of the 
vast wealth obtained by these enormities from the helpless natives in 
Spanish South America and the West Indies, was in turn pillaged from the 
freebooters by armed vessels under the English flag. These mutual plun- 
derings extended over a long succession of years, and during the reign of 
various monarchs. 

In Peru, the immense silver-bearing deposits'of the Cerro de Pasco mines 
have been worked since 1630. They arc situated on the eastern side of the 
western Cordillera of the Andes, at an elevation of 14,000 ft. above tide level, 
and in consequence have hitherto been difficult of access, but under the new 
conditions created by the construction of the Trans-Andean railway (one of 
the wonders of South America), an output of 20,000 tons of ore per day is spok- 
en of as a possible amount. At present there arc £0 stamps at Avork, each with 
an estimated capacity of crushing 5 tons of ore per day, but 200 or 300 head 
are looked forward to as a small number at an early day. The ore will 
average about $30 per ton, and the anticipated annual production of the 
mines is $100,000,000. From $250,000,000 to $500,000,000 of free milling ores 
will be left above drainage level by the new tunnel lately constructed ; 
these ores it is projiosed to excavate by means of steam shovels, and load 
directly into railway trucks, Avhich deliver tliem at the top of the jnill. The 
water power is supplied from a fitreani issuing from a lake near the mines, 
and is utilized b}' six double turbine Avater wheels, manufactured by James 
Leffel &■ Co., Springfield, Ohio. Four of these turbines are of 30 ins. diam., 
each developing 200 horse-power, and two of 23 ins. diam., developing 100 
liorse-poAver each. The minex-al railway, undoubtedly the highest in the 
Avorld, is 7 miles long, and cost $1,200,000, the object of the road being 
to transport ores from the mines to Avater-power for milling purposes. The 
rolling stock, bridges, rails, &c., of the road, Avere transported from the 
coast, nearly 200 miles distant, on the backs of mules, over almost impassi- 
ble roads. Nothing Aveighing over 300 lbs. could be carried ; even the 
cylinders of the locomotives were brought in sections. 



928 VAST WEALTH OF INDIA. 

Tlic silver mine of Potosi is sncrar-loaf in form, 9 miles round, 10,000 ft. 
above the level of the sea, and 2700 above the plain. The upper part lias 
5000 adits for mines. Soiitli America, per Humboldt, yields per annum 
$43,500,000 -wortli of silver ; at the present time the yield is much grentei-. 
One mine is a third of a mile deep, and 8 miles in length, employing 3000 
miserables. In Peru over 40 districts are famous for their vast liiineral 
wealtli in gold and silver. 

In Russia, the immense mines of Siberia are government property, and arc 
worked by miserable unfortunates who have been banished by a cruel des- 
potism for crimes which are in many cases merely imaginarj- ; tlie Avretched 
exiles, when once consigned to their gloomy depths, are never permitted to 
emerge into the light of daj', but death, more merciful than the tyrant, 
soon ends the strife, for few survive the ordeal more than years. 

The " wealth of the Indies " is no poet's dream ; there the mines are indi- 
genous, and the accumulation of the precious metals has been such that it is 
usually estimated that Nadir Shah, in 1740, carried away not less than 1000 
or $2,000,000,000. In Jahomqueir's auto-biograi^hy, he relates that a golden 
platform around his throne weighed 40 tons. His throne and crown Averc 
worth $20,000,000. On his marriage he presented his queen Avith as many 
lacs of rupees as amounted to $49,000,000, and with a necklace of 40 beads 
which cost him $10,000 per bead. He spent besides $10,000,000 on the tomb 
of his father Akbar, one of the wonders of India. The province of Berar, 
on one occasion, furnished above $20,000,000 in gold. 

The ceiling of the pavilion of the Peacock Hall in Delhi was orginally cov- 
ered with silver filigree work, but in 1799 the Mahrattas, Jifter the capture 
of the city, took th.e silver down and melted it, the value of the same being 
estimated at $1,000,000. Here was the famous peacock tlirone, so called 
from its having the figures of two peacocks standing behind it, their tails 
being expanded, and the whole so inlaid with sapphires, rubies, emeralds, and 
other precious stones of appropriate colors, as to represent life. The throne 
itself is G ft. long by 4 ft. broad ; it stood on six massive feet, which, with tlie 
body, were of solid gold, inlaid Avith rubies, emeralds and diamonds. It was 
surrounded with a canopy of gold supported by 12 pillars, emblazoned with 
costly gems, and a fringe of pearls around the. borders of the canopy. Be- 
tween the peacocks stood the figure of a parrot, life size, carved from a sin- 
gle emerald. On either side of the throne stood a chatta, or umbrella (one 
of tlie Oriental emblems of royalty) made of crimson velvet, embroidered 
and fringed with pearls. The handles Avere 8 ft. long, of solid gold, and 
studded Avith diamonds. The cost of this sujperb AA'ork of art was estimated 
at $25,000,000. 

I'iie Melbourne Herald thus describes the "Welcome nucrget," weighing 184 
lbs. Troy, and Avorth $42,000, found at Ballarat, Australia, on the 9t]i June, 
1858, at a depth of 190 ft. beloAV the surface of the earth: "A large, mis- 
shapen, irregular lump of gold, water- Avorn and rounded upon each of the 
numerous edges presented by a surface completely and more or less honey- 
combed. Its total length is about 20 inches, its greatest breadth about 12 
inches, and its greatest depth about 8 inches." Other nuggets varying in 
Aveight from 10 to 45 ozs. had previously been taken from the same claim. 

Another nugget weighing 145 lbs. Avas found atlvorong, Australia, during 
the summer of 1857, in theform of a solid mass of virgin gold, 2 it. 4 ins. 
long., 10 ins broad, and from 1 to 2 ins. thick, estimated value $35,000. 

Victoria, in Australia, is Avorld renowned from the discover}'" of its im- 
mense cold fields in 1851, which in 1852 produced the enormous amount of 
$70,000,000. 

A nugget weighing 161 lbs. avoirdupois (including about 20 lbs. of quartz), 
of an estimated value of $29,000, Avas found in Calaveras Co., California, in 
November, 1854. 

Perhaps not less than from 1800 to 2000 nuggets, weighing 1 lb. or more 
each, have been found from time to time in Catifornia. Of these i;)robably 



MINING IN COLOIIADO d'29 

less than 140 ■vveigli over 20 lbs. each. Nuggets ■weighing from 1 to 7 ozs. 
have been found in innneu.sc numbers. 

Colorado presents a confluence of Avonders in the form of mineral deposits, 
■which it Avould require a volume to describe. 

In the Silver Cliffs, near Kosita, in ■what is known as the Hardscrabble 
district, the newly discovered mine, worlced by Powell, Edwards and Haf- 
ford (named the " liacinc Boy"), yields a return of 875 ozs. of silver to the 
ton. The low grade pans out 100 ozs. and upward. The mine is at present 
(Nov. 1878) not over 10 ft. deep and almost 25 ft. wide, but yields, with a 
very small force of men, between S2000 and $3000 per day. So far the 
mine has yielded nothing but horn silver, a chloride carried in decomposed 
porphyry lull of seams ; the ore is found in deposits without any crevice 
veins or distinct walls. Volcanic nplieavals seem to have burst the primary 
granite, and to have forced through chimneyed passages masses of eruption 
bearing molten precious metals. The silver hr.s been cooled amid a mix- 
ture of porphyry, manganite, feldspar, gypsum, and other mineral substances 
more or less decomposed and unstratified. Four miles soutli-east of tlic 
Silver Cliffs is the great "Maine mine," ■which made a very jwor man a mil- 
lionnaire in one year. 

In Leadville, a notable mining region, liigh np in tlie Colorado mountains, 
the mineral is found in layers, one above another, "with a regular and con- 
tinuous dip into the ground. Some of the mines have disclosed tlie existence 
of two or three deposits underlying the first mineral vein struck by a shaft, 
and many singular variations from the nsual form of mineral deposits have 
been observed here, presenting a notable contrast to the i^revailing type in 
California and the other joarts of Colorado. The mineral carries 100 ozs. of 
silver i)er ton and np wards, in high grade ores, and from 25 to 60 ozs. in 
low grade ores, while the i^ercentage of lead varies from £0 to 70. The ores 
lie in a sand or soft rock and are easily dug out with pick and drill, tlie 
quality improving with the increase of depth. 

On September 3, 1878, a miner, while prospecting about half a mile in 
the gulchon Bald Mountain, discovered a mine of marvellous richness. The 
•ore is of similar character, but of a much higher grade, than the ore above 
noted, much of it running as high as 3C00 ozs. per ton. A mining expert es- 
timated the value of the mine at $1,000,000 ; the oAvner asserted that he 
refused $250,000 for it, yet six ■weeks previously lie had not money enough 
to buy a pair of boots ! 

Mention is made of a prospector wlio, while recently exploring on the 
west side of Bodie Bluff, laid bare with few strokes of liis pick an 8 incii 
vein of white quartz, almost filled with solid gold,' and that the samples as- 
sayed s$40,000 per ton in gold and $1500 in silver ! 

Kecent examinations of the Arizonia mining region by Prof. Cox of Ind., 
has demonstrated that the mining property of Soutli Arizonia, once devel- 
oped, would supply the world with precious metals. Three shafts in the 
Tough Nut Mine, in the Tombstone district, averaging 10 ft. deep, sIioav a 
solid body of ore, which, at the Ioav average of $700 to tlie ton, will yield 
$2,400,000. He Avas present when assays Avere made of ore from this Jnino 
going from $1,C00 to $27,000 per ton. The conditions as regards timber and 
■water are vastly superior to similar surronndings in the mining regions of 
Colorado and Nevada. 

For several years, mining nnder the most unfavorable conditions has 
been progressing on Silver Islet, a storm-beaten ledge, situate about j mile 
from the main land, and exposed to the full sAveep of 200 miles of Lake 
Superior tempests. The locality is on the Canadian shore, 17 miles north 
of Cape Royale, and 7 miles east of Thunder Cape. The ore, Avhen first dis- 
covered, appeared as streaks of shining Avhite, from 3 to 10 ft. nnder AA'ater, 
and proved to be Avortli from $1400 to $7000 per ton, the general average 
being $1500, of the kind kuoAvn as "packing ore," being sufficiently rich 



030 MINERAL WEALTH OF NORTH AMERICA. 

to bo shipped in barrels and smelted witliout further treatment. The work- 
ings, -which penetrate 1000 ft. under water, are protected by means of a 
system of breakwaters, cribs, coffer dams, &c., ballasted with rocks and clay, 
erected at immense cost and with much difficulty. On many occasions 
furious storms have utterly wrecked the works, sweeping away cribs, rocks, 
buildings, &c., leaving nothing but ruin and desolation beliind, causing in- 
credible expense to reclaim and maintain the mine. The richest deposit was 
found jNIarch 20, 1878. For the week ending September 28, 1878, the yield 
was $43,000 ; Oct. 5, $73,000 ; Oct. 12, s^69,000; Oct. 19, Sl03,000; Oct. 28, 
$80,000. The richness of ore increases with the depth : 50 head of stamps 
crush 60 tons dailj'. 

The Homestakc Mine, Black Hills, has an 80 stamp mill, crushing 175 
tons of ore per day, yielding $900 per ton; another 80 stamp mill is to l)e 
finished by spring. The cost of mining and milling varies from $2.50 to 
$3.50 per ton ; daily profit $1000. It is estimated that 10 years' supply of 
ore is in siglit, and that 500 stamps could be supplied. 

The mines on tlie Comstock lode yielded, during the 23 years following 
their discover}^, $500,000,000 in gold and silver bullion, and have wasted 
$250,000,000 more. 

In North America, the mineral Avealth of the United States, Mexico, and 
the British possessions, is absolutely incalculable. Notwithstanding the 
enormous yield of the mines during late years, the discovery of new fields of 
astonishing richness is at the present time (1878) a matter of almost daily 
occurrence. It is asserted, on good authority, that during 30 years prior to 
Jan., 1878, there have been created in the countries west of the Missouri 
River, and mostly on United States territorv, biillion values to the amount 
of $1,948,000,000. Of this sum about $1,58(5,000,000 has been composed of 
gold, very little silver having been prod.uced prior to 1861, when the Com- 
stock dej)osits, discovered 3 years before, began first to turn out this metal 
in notable quantity. Of the $36,000,000 turned out by the Comstock lode in 
1877, 43 per cent, has been gold. Of the base bullion made in Eureka dis- 
trict last year (1877), valued at $12,000,000, over 16 per cent, was gold. The 
bullion from Nevada is nearly 40 per cent. gold. Since the beginning of. 
1861, the production of gold for the entire Pacific coast has been $876,(X)0,- 
000; of silver, $372,000,000. During 1877, the bullion values consisted of 
about $51,000,000 gold, and $49,000,()00 silver. 

The following tabulated statement is interesting, as showing the gradu- 
ally increasing product of the mmes on the Pacific coast during the 4 years 
noted in the table: 

1873. 1874. 1875. 1876. 

California $18,025,722 $20,300,531 $17,753,151 $19,000,000 

Nevada 35/254,507 35,452,233 40,478,369 49,300,000 

Oregon 1,376,389 609,070 1,165,046 1,200,000 

Washington 209,395 155,535 81,932 100,000 

Idaho 2,343,654 1,880,004 1,554,902 1,700,000 

Montana 3,892,810 3,439.498 3,573,609 2,800,000 

Utah 4,906,337 5,911,278 5,687,494 5,600,000 

Arizona 47,778 26,066 109,093 1,400,000 

Colorado 4,083,268 4,191,405 6,299,817 7,000,000 

Mexico. • 868,798 798,878 2,408,671 2,200,000 

British Columbia 1,250,035 1,636,557 1,776,953 1,500,000 

Total $72,258,693 $74,401,055 $80,889,037 $91,800,000 

The product of 1876 will be swelled to $93,000,000 by adding the sum of 
$1,200,000 to represent the yield of Wyoming, Dakota and New Mexico. 

As illustrative of the fluctuating value of mining property, it maj* be 
mentioned that during the early part of September, 1878, the stock of the 



TEMrEIlATUEE OF MI^'ES, &C. 931 

Sierra Nevada, and Union Consolidated Mines, •which hud been selling nt $4 
per share, took a sudden leap to i?liK), being equivalent to the fabulous 
amount of $30,000,000 additional capital, each mine having 108,000 shares. 
No ore had previously been found below the 1,800 foot level, but an incalcu- 
lable quantity of rich ore had been found by still deeper penetration. Some 
specimens arc reported to have assayed thousands of dollars to a ton, and 
one notable specimen not less than 810,000. 

The Gwin Mine in Calaveras Co., Cal., is 1400 ft. deep, runs 80 stamps, 
and yields $60,000 to ^70,000 per month, of which amount one-half is clear 
profit. 

Of the quartz mines in Soulumne Co., one, the Confidence, from a gross 
product of $011,853, paid to the owners $105,000 in dividends, besidespay- 
ing in full fo'r equi])ment. 

The yield of the Gilpin Co. (Colorado) mines, for the j'ear 1876, was 
$2,105,037, and the product of the Boston and Colorado Smelting Works at 
IJlack Hawk, Col., derived from Gilpin Co. ores, was $2,061,244, coin value. 

As evidence of the absorbing interest pervading the public mind regard- 
ing the vast mining industries of the country, it maj' be noted that during 
the last two weeks of 1878 no less than 20 mining companies Avere incorpo- 
rated in San Francisco, with an aggregate capital of over $200,000,000. 

On the Pacific coast the productive capacity of the mines is greatly cur- 
tailed by dry seasons and a short water supply, as a full allowance of this 
element is indispensable in hydraulic mining, and for the operation of the 
ore-crushing mills wherever steam power is not available. 

Among tlie serious obstacles in mining at profound depths may be men- 
tioned the influx of water and the high temperature of the mine. In cases 
Avhere the workings are kept above the adit level the Avater Avill pass away 
through this channel by its own gravity, and no pumps Avill be reqwired; 
but when the excavations penetrate deeper than this the Avater must be ele- 
vated by pumps or other machinery iip to that point. In causing the water 
to make its exit through the adit level an enormous saving is effected, for 
otherwise the water Avould have to be pumped to the summit of the shaft, 
frequently at a Aast exjjense. It sometimes hapi:»ens that a single adit is 
made to drain a chain of mines, as in the Avcst of Cornwall the "great 
adit,'' as it is called, Avhich extends, including its branches to various mines, 
over 30 miles, aiKl conveys aAvay a torrent of water resembling a small river. 
In addition to draining off the Avater, the adit subserves the important use 
of ventilating the mine by causing a circulation of air, and the passage may 
be still furtlicr utiliifed a; a tram-Avay for the conveyance of ore and rubbish 
from the interior excavations, the outflow of the Avater being effected 
through a channel beneath the tram-Avay. The AA-ater is raised by the pump- 
ing machinery from the ^' Sump," or bottonx of the engine shaft, Avhich is 
generally sunk beloAV the deepest level of the mine, so as to form a pit into 
Avhich the water may floAv before being pumped up 

In reference to the temperature of mines, the solar heat, as a general 
rule, exerts no influence at a greater dei)th than from 50 to 100 ft. At Paris, 
as determined by Poisson, a thermometer placed at a depth of 76 ft. remains 
stationary all the year round. By penetrating into the earth beneath the 
jwiut affected by the solar heat, Ave find a regular aiul rapid increase of 
temperature. In Cornwall, Avitli a^surface temperature of 50°, the tempera- 
ture of the rock in the Dalcoath mine, at a depth of 1381 ft., is 75.6° ; the 
temperature of springs at a depth of 1440 ft. is 82° ; in the United Cop- 
)ier Mines, Cornwall, the temperature of the rock at 1201 ft. is 88° ; in the 
Guanaxato Silver Mine, Mexico, Avith a surface temperature of 68.8°, the 
temperature of springs at a depth of 1713 ft. was 98.2°. Tlie last noted in- 
stance indicates 1° of heat for every 45.8 ft. ; observations recorded in Eng- 
land give 44 ft. for a change of 1 degree ; in Saxony it is considerably great- 
er, being nearly 65 ft. to a degree ; and a few observations in the United 



VoA C03I POSITION OF VARIOUS ROCKS. 

States indicate 54 ft. to a degree. According to Knpffer, the average for the 
various countries where observations liave been made, is 30.81 ft. to a de- 
gree, but this rntc of increase is manifestly too rapid ; for a.^suming it to be 
true, a heat sufficient to boil Avater Avould be found at a depth of 5902 ft., or 
slightly more than a mile, at 48 miles a temperature of 7000°, sufficient to 
melt all known rocks, and at the centre of the earth it would amount to 
577,000°. 

The deepest artesian well in the w^orld is at Pesth, Hungary, being 3250 
ft. deep, or about twice the depth of that in Paris. It sends up a jet of boil- 
ing water 42 ft. high. 

Of the rocks encountered hj miners, it may be noted that the crystalline 
rocks are the granitic series oi quartz, feldspar, mica, gneiss, syenite, por- 
phyry, green-stone, basalt, nnd compact lavas, all in varieties. 

Quartz is the base of all the silicious compounds in nature, and is dis- 
tinguished by the hardness of the bodies, as crystals, gritty sand, &c. It 
(Cannot be cut with a knife, and strikes lire with' steel. It is 96 or \)1 parts 
silica in 100, and 2 or 3 of clay and lime. 

Syenite is a middle rock between granite and pori)hyry, composed of 
feldspar and liornblende, or quartz and mica. 

Feldspar is composed of lamina or plates. Its constituents are silica and 
alumina, Avith some potash. Abounds in granite, syenite, gneiss, and por- 
phyry. When large crystals of feldspar appear in granites they are called 
porpiiyritic. Feldspar, next to quartz, is the mo.st abundant stone, being a 
constituent of granite and other rocks ; it scratches glass, gives out sparks 
with steel, is of a vitrified nature, and Avhen crumbled forms the basis of 
clay. Feldspar is white, red, or gray, and consists of G4 in 100 parts of 
silex, 19 of clay, 2 of lime, 13 of potash, and 1 of oxide of iron. 

3Iica, the other equal part of graiiite, is 47 silica, 22 clay, 14.5 potash, 15 
oxide of iron, and 1.75 oxide of manganese. Mica is occasionally found in 
large plates, is tough, flexible, elastic, semi-transparent, and sometimes used 
as a substitute for glass. When decomposed by the atmosphere or worn 
down, it mixes with the clay of the feld.spar or the sand of the quartz. 

Porphyry is stone, with a compact base, intermixed with crystals. The 
base is trap, and the crystals feldspar or quartz. 

Serpentines^ so called from its variegated colors, usually green ; composed 
of 32 silica, 37| magnesia, half alumina, 10^ lime, Avith iroM and carbonic 
acid 15, 

Curved gneiss proves that it Avas once fluid; it is in slaty layers or plates, 
formed of feldspar, quartz and mica, separated by thin layers of mica, it 
contains in its A'eins all the metals, and folloAvs the sinuosities of the granite. 

Hornblende is 42 silica, SO oxide of iron, 12 clay, and 11 lime. 

Augite is 54 silica. 22 lime, 12 magnesia, and 10 oxide of iron. 

The Schistose strata are inclined from 52 to 70 degrees in mountains. 

Magnesian Limestone contains about 20 magnesia, £0 lime, 48 carbonic 
acid, clay and oxide of iron. It renders dilute nitric acid milky, and effer- 
vesces little in acids. 

Mica slate is mingled AA'ith quartz in masses ; clay slate has quartz in 
layers. 

Carbonate of lime, forming one-eighth of the crust of the globe, contains 
50 parts in 100 of oxygen. 

Portland stone is coarse grit, cemented with earthy spar. 

Emery is a mineral containing 80 alumina, 3 silica, and 4 iron. 

Corundum is a stone, Avhich in crystals is ,a six-sided prism, called ada- 
mantine spar. 

The hardness of rocks is a surprise to many, but all wonder will cease 
Avhen Ave consider the effects of heat, combined Avith the pressure of super- 
incumbent rocks during millions of years, in forming rocks of primary 
gravAvacke from sand, and primary slates from clay. In ex]iloring or pros- 
l^ecting for mineral veins, it is Avell to remember that gold is not confined 



now TO FIXD MINERAL DEPOSITS. 



933 



to one class of rocks. In Mariposa, Cal., some gold-bearing quartz veins 
arc ill granite, but the largest and richest arc in slate ; the noted Oneida, 
Ke^-stone, Eureka and Springhill veins are also in slate, together -with the 
most valuable veins in Amador, The vein of the Eureka had a thickness of 
(J ft. at its " outcrop " on the surface of the ground; and down to a depth of 
1300 ft., to which it has been Avorked, the thickness and value has con- 
stantly^ increased with the sinking. In the Calaveras district, rich gold-bear- 
iug quartz veins are found both in limestone and granite; in Tuolumne the 
richest veins occur in granite ; in the Alta district the " wall-rock '' is serpen- 
tine, with white talc in the richest deposits. 




Fig. 1. 

Ground plan of tlie intersection of lodes in the Himmelfahrt mine. 

The engraving, sketched by Weissenbach, shows the appearance presented 
by the intersection of two veins in the Himmelfahrt mine, near Freiburg, 
Germany, 

]\Ietallic ores exist in four ways : 1. In irregular masses. 2. In fissures 
or veins crossing the strata and filled with the ore, combined with some 
matrix, 3, In regular interstratified layers or beds, and 4. Intermixed in 
small fragments among the rocks, 

A knowledge of geology and geometry is of the utmost value to the 
practical miner to aid him in ascertaining the location of mineral deposits, 
and to operate to the best. advantage in obtaining possession of them. The 
instruments used are : 1. The magnetic compass ; it is used to determine 
the direction of a metallic deposit in j^laces where the influence of iron is 
absent, 2. The graduated semi-circle or clinometer, which is used to 
measure tlie dip or angle of the lode. 3. The chain or cord, to measure 
distances between two points. 4. A ]ilane table or plate Avhenever the 
proximity of iron nullifies the action of tlie compass, 

111 exploring for mineral veins, abundant experience has shown the pri- 
mary importance of the following suggestions : 1, That they are mme 
numerous in mountainous and hillv distrkts than in tlio level tcrritorv. 2. 



934 THE VARIOUS mineral veins described. 

TliJit the richest lodes occur about the junction of the crj-stallinc and strati- 
fied rocks, and are more abundant in the former than in the latter. 3. 
That their situation is frequently determined by the color of the land, >vhich 
is often influenced by the decomposition of part of the mineral components, 
and scattered fragments of the vein intermingled -with the soil. 4. In cases 
where the location of the bearing is partially ascertained, the lode may fre- 
quently be found by sinking a shaft through strata into the underlying rock, 
and thence driving a drift or tunnel at right angles to the bearing of the 
lode. 5. The best proof of the existence of a lode is the discovery of its 
outcrops ; this sets every doubt at rest. For further information, see Pros- 
pectin a for Quartz, page 452. 

Gold-bearing quartz veins, in California, generally run from north 
north-west to south south-east, with a steep dip to the eastward. The dif- 
fusion of gold through the quartz is very unequal, and the lodes vary from 
a line to 50 ft. Two" ounces of gold to 1 lb. of rock is a rarity greatly ad- 
mired by quartz miners, for that proportion is held to be exceeding!}'^ rich 
in the precious metal. 

Mineral veins are usually graded into species, of which the prevailing 
forms are : 1. The Eakc vein, which extends downwards to unknoAvn 
depths, is frequently many miles in length, and is the prevailing type of 
the mineral veins most highly valued by miners. Beginning at the " out- 
crop " it perforates the strata downwards almost to their plane of stratifici- 
tlon. It also intersects or penetrates the granite rocks. The inclination or 
"dip "of these veins varies from a few degrees to a vertical direction. 2. 
The Interlaced vein, which is composed of many small veins grouped to- 
gether like irregular net work, is frequently surrounded by granite rocks, 
and more usually bear the ores of tin than any others. 3. liha Pipcvcin, 
which appears like an irregular shaft filled with ore, is usually found hc- 
ticeen the strata. This class of veins present a great variety of sizes, and 
the angle of inclination is generally less than the dip of the rake vein. 4. 
The Dilated or Flat vein, which in its extension is subject to varying con- 
tractions and expansions, is found in flattened masses in horizontal posi- 
tions like seams of coal, but differs from a coal bed by great variation in 
thickness within the distance of a few feet wherever breaks or interrup- 
tions occur. Tlie best mineral deposits are often found at these faults. 5. 
The Accumulated vein, usually found filling large vacancies in the earth, is 
a great irregular mass of ore, apparently isolated from all other mineral 
deposits. Veins of this class occur interposed between the stratified rocks 
and also in the granite. 

As to the nature and origin of the spaces occupied by metallic veins, 
they are : 1. The cracks and fissures made in rocks. 2. Openings be- 
tween their layers, especially in Schistose or slaty kinds. These crevices or 
fissures are produced in great numbers Avhere a region of rock is under- 
going uplift or where a folding of the strata is in progress, owing to earth- 
quakes or otiier movements of the earth's depths. The mineral contents of 
these crevices may have been charged : 1. When the fissures or crevices 
were filled from either side or below, and did not descend to regions of 
liquid rock, being not connected with igneous ejections. These include all 
banded mineral veins, and nearly all those filled with quartz or granite. 
The intense heat, acting on the moisture present, would inevitably decom- 
pose the rocks ; then their mineral matter sooner or later would be swept 
into the crevices, and, in combination with emanations from the deeper 
parts, form metallic lodes. Also, 2. Where the rents or fissures descended 
to regions of liquid rock and were filled from below. In this case the min- 
eral contents of the vein have been brought up in some state of combina- 
tion as solutions or vapors. The veins of silver ores in Nevada and many 
others thus originated in connection with subterranean disturbances. 

AVerner's theory is that open fissures in the earth's crust were filled 
Avith crystalline and metallic matter by aqueous infiltrations from above, 



THEORIES OF NOTED AVKITERS. 035 

and that the substances of mineral veins have been precipitated from a 
chaotic menstruum into fissures in the earth Avhilc it was in some nascent 
condition. 

Dr. Hutton contends that tlie contents of mineral veins, like those of 
dikes, -were formerly molten, and while in this condition were injected from 
below by mechanical force. 

Dr. liuckland and M. Ncckar propound the theory that tlie contents of 
some metallic lodes were deposited in crevices and fissures in the earth's 
crust by the condensation of mineral exhalations from immense subter- 
ranean fountains of intensely heated matter. 

Sir R. Phillips contends that metals are generated by long continued 
galvanic action between mixed rocks, and arc the Awxi of rocks, combined 
with oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen, whose actions and reactions are elec- 
tricitj\ The results are a matrix, a compound of some of tlic peculiar aura 
with oxygen and liydrogen ; exhalations from the lower parts of the vein 
are also to be considered. Ores and crystallizations are thcrefoic direct 
products of the oxygen and hydrogen rendered active in electricity, .".nd of 
the exudations and aura of the rocks and strata. Proximity is net essential 
to electrical influences ; the Avails of fissures may be affected by excite- 
ments from a distance. 

It is asserted that a hole drilled into auriferous quartz in the Urals, and 
Intended to be used for blasting, but never so nsed, was examined 40 years 
after it was made, and found to be full of fine crystals of gold. 

From the jjresent known existence of electro-currents in many Cornish 
A'eins, and the analogy between voltaic combinations and the arrangement 
of matter in mineral A-eins, Mr. Fox and M. Becquerel reason that the for- 
mation of many metallic lodes are due to electro-chemical agencies. 

When loicle fissures or fractures of strata are filled Avith stones or earth, 
they are called faxdts or dikes, but when charged with mineral contents 
they are called veins. Tlic tests of a probable mine are metallic ores or 
sand at the outcrop, mineral Avaters, trees or grass discolored, and the pro- 
ducts of boring. 

The best systems of minerals are those of Berzilins, and the chemical 
arrangement of Molis ; !Naumann unites them. As a Avriter on the min- 
eral kingdom, mines, furnaces, the treatment of ores, &c., Emanuel Swe- 
denborg occupies a hjgh rank. 

Of late years among Avorks of notable utility to miners may be men- 
tioned, P/ii75'(')js' Elements of Mctallurcjy ; DeaicCs Manned of Mineralu<iy ; 
ReindedVs Queniz Operator's Hand-Book ; ,SUvcr smith's Practical Jhoul- 
Book for Miners ; KnsteVs Processes ef Silver euicl Gold Extretction. Most 
of the engravings of furnaces and some of the amalgamiituig i)ans de- 
scribed in this book are taken from the last noted Avork, Avhich may be re- 
garded as absolutely indispensable to every progressive miner. Due ac- 
knowledgments are also rendered to other standard authors, successful 
miners and experienced mill-men, for much of the A'aluable infornnition 
presented in these pages. 

The superficial appearance of the outcrop of veins often indicate the 
metals they contain. The presence of lluors]^-ar indicates metallic associa- 
tions Avherever found. A brown powder at the surface indicates iron, :ind 
often tin ; a pale yelloAV powder, lead, and green, copijer. Gold and silver 
are found in primary and transition rocks, jiorphyry, quartz, syenite, and 
the lowest sandstone, occasionally in coals, and abundantly in the sands 
of rivers. Platina, ])alladium, rhodium, osmium, and iridium are found 
almost Avholly in the sands of rivers. Mercury is found in slate, limestone, 
and coal strata. Copper in primary and transition rocks, syenite (sonictinics 
sandstone), coal strata, and alluvial ground. Iron is found in every kind of 
rock, tin in granite, gneiss, mica-slate, and slate, lead and zinc in irinuiry 
and transition rocks (except trap and rerpentine), porphyry, syenite, the 



93G 



MINING XOMi: NC L A T URK . 



lowest sandstone, nnd occasionally in coal strata. Gold is j-ellow, copper, 
red, iron, grey, lead, blue, cobalt and manganese, giey ; all the others are 
white. 

Fig. 2 represents the transverse section of a mineral vein, in which, in 
mining nomenclature, A A represents the " country," or rock composing the 
fudes of the vein, C C is the vein, D, hang in a -lo all, (J,foot-icall, D D, selvaf/c,G, 
viif/h, F, hoise. Waste rock or rubbish is termed deads or attle ; workings in 
amine by persons of whom no record remains are termed old men; an 
opening left for letting down ore is called apos.s; the place at which a lode 
divides in two is named point of horse ; tlie lowest workings in a mine or 
level are called bottoms ; the appearance of a mineral lode at the surface is 
called an outcrop ; the amount of slope of a mineral vein measured from a 
horizontal line is termed a dij? ; a horizontal or nearly horizontal working in 
a mine is.called a drift, gallery, level, or gunny ; the substance in which ore 




Fig. 2.— TUAKSVERSE SECTION OF A YeTK". 



is found embedded is termed the matrix ; a cavern or fissure in which water 
falls and disappears is called a sioalloio ; the ascending air-current from a 
mine is termed an upcast, the downward current is called a downcast, &c., 
&c. Most of these terras, together Avith a vocabulary of similar technicali- 
ties, derive their origin from the Cornish miners. 

Metals are always found as alloys, sulphurets, oxides, or salts. Grla, 
platinum, and columbium, are found only as alloys. Silver, mercury, cop- 
per, iron, antimony, arsenic, and cobalt, in the four states. Lead and zinc 
in the three last. Tungsten, uranium, litanium, chromium, and tantaliuni, 
only as oxides. In density, the order of metals is platina, gold, silver, mer- 
cury, lead, copper, tin, iron, zinc. 

Few metals are found pure or native, but in ores, gangues or compounds, 
combined with oxygen or acids ; often two or more resulting metals, witli 
sulphur, arsenic, &c., in veins of rocks, the foreign bodies being called 
mineralizers, as sulphur is to lead, forming suli^huret of lead, called galena. 

The age of metals is estimated by that of tlie containing rocks ; the age 
of the latter it is not possible to determine even approximately. In treating 



GEOLOGICAL EPOCHS, &c. 987 

of geological epochs, Dana remarks : " If time, from the commencement of 
the Siliiriau formations (those resting on the granite) induded 48 millions of 
years, which some geologists wouldpronounce much too low an estimate, the 
ruleozoic part, according to the above ratio, would comprise 3G millions, 
the Mcsozic, 9 millions, and Cenzoic, 3 millions. It should be noted, liow- 
cver, that as rocks are formed of earth, and as metals are found mainly in 
veins and crevices of rocks, that they must be of more recent origin than 
the latter. 

The above noted estimate of geological time will doubtless astonish many 
who have been led, by a mistaken apprehension of the true meaning of 
Genesis, to suppose that only about GOOO years have elapsed since the crea- 
tion. For further evidence on this subject, see Gcolorjical Facts; Age, 
Orif/in, and Ultimate Duration of the Earth, on page 728. The adamantine 
facts of geology render very slight homage to the cherished errors of the 
world, and have struck fearful blows at the old explanations of Genesis, 
but time is a powerful remodeller. Already nearly 300 centuries attest the 
eternal verity of the grand truths for the propagation of w-hich Bruno suf- 
fered death and Galileo endured imprisonment, for their alleged inconsist- 
ency with the Jewish cosmogony, which, in describing an apparent truth, 
speaks of " the rising of the sun and the gomgdowu of the same" accord- 
ing to appearances as presented to the senses. 

The world has witnessed with astonishment the disgraceful treatment ac- 
corded to Sir James Y. Simpson, by infamous bigots, who insisted that liis 
humane use of aniesthetics to mitigate the pains of women in labor was 
neither more nor less than a direct contravention of the primeval curse, 
which affirmed that " in sorrow^ she should brii>g forth children." It is safe 
to say that the bigot.-? did not belong to the female sex. At this day such ab- 
surdity would not bo tolerated a single hour. 

The popular outcry Avhich at one time denounced the use of the lightning 
conductor as a flagrant defiance of heaven is also silenced forever. Railroads 
and telegraphs have been similarly denounced. These insanities are now 
numbered with the things of the past. 

It is notoriously true that in Scotland the fanning mill was fiercely as- 
sailed as an ungodly machine, and the inventor was subjected to persecution 
uy arrogant lunatics who asserted that nothing could be either good or useful 
which contravened the i)assagc which reads : — " The wind bloweth where it 
listeth." Now millions use fanning mills during their lifetime Avithout ever 
thinking of such an objection. 

The science of geologj-is as yet in its infancy, but its teachings have met 
with very general accejjtance among intelligent observers. It is sophistry 
to affirm that what is new, must, for that reason, necessarilj' be false, for of 
the disclosures unfolded by the stony facts of geology we are compelled to 
affirm that they must be true, though at variance Avith the beliefs of a thou- 
sand generations. 

A high authority has classified the placers of California as follows : — 

1. A coarse, boulder-like drift, the result of abrasion and powerful cur- 
rents in a great body of Avater. 

2. A river drift or coarse alluvium, ancient and modern. 

3. Alluvial deposits on Hats and broad surfaces, not confined to river 
channels. 

4. Lacustrine deposits made at the bottoms of former lakes and ponds. 
They are found in extensive, basin-shaped depressions in the surface of 
metamorphic rocks. These depressions have evident!}- been filled Avith deep 
quiet Avater, from which thick strata of clay, fine sand, and A'olcauic ashes 
liave been deposited upon the auriferous layer at the bottom. 

In the gullies and ravines the auriferous dirt is generally a A'ery stiff 
clay, abounding in coarse gravel and stones, and is usualh' as wide as the 
stream of Avater during the wet seas(m. In a ravine whore the extreme 
width of the stream docs not exceed 5 ft., as a general rule the pay-dirt will 



938 



FLUME MINING, &C. 



not be more tli.in a foot deep, with a bed of barren dirt on top. W])crc the 
channel of a stream in a small ravine has slightly changed, the pay-dirt may 
be buried nnder 6 or 8 ft. of alluvial soil. The gold will not lodge on the 
smooth or steep bed rock of a gully ; the richests spots will be found where 
the bed is level, and where the strata of the rock are almost vertical and pre- 
sent many jagged points to detain the gold, the largest pieces being usually 
found near the bed rock in the deepest part of the stream. 

In alluvial workings, near rivers and streams, the various companies wlio 
work neighboring claims often club together and construct a large flume, 
into which the stream is conducted by means of a strong barricade or wing 
dam of rocks, timber, mud, &c., which causes a diversion of the current, 
leaving the bed of the river nearl}^ dry, thus affording access for working it 
to good advantage. The stream affords pleut}^ of water for mining pur- 




Fig. 3 — Flttme Mixing. 

poses, together with ample power for operating under shot wheels for work- 
ing pumps to rid the claims of the surplus water which accumulates in tlie 
workings. See Fig. 3, representing flume mining. 

For ^Placer Mining, Board Shdce Process, see page 453 ; for Hydraulic 
Mining, Long Tom Process, &c., see page 454; for Gold Assay by tSmelting 
Process; Gold Assay loith a Horn Sijoon; Assay of Rock containing Pyrites ; 
Silver Assay by Smelting ; Assay of Argentiferous Galena ; Silver Assay 
with Testing Tube ; Test for Iron or Copper Pyrites, see page 451; for Pros- 
pecting for Qnariz ; Prospecting a River Bar '; Prospecting in a Gully ; 
Prospecting in Flats; Prospecting with a Knife, &c., see page 452. 

In order to thoroughly dispel the common illusion that a mine is merely 
a vast excavation in the earth, exposed to the open air, rain, storms, &c., 
like a quarrj'", it may be well to enlighten the reader by presenting a few 
facts relating to some of the silver mines on the Comstock lode in Nevada. 
At the main shaft and hoisting works of the Consolidated Virginia Mining 
Company, we find a great mass of buildings, resembling, a vast manufac- 
tory, containing engine and boiler houses, machine shop, blacksmith shop, 
carpenter shop, and numerous offices connected with the works. Around 



DESCRIPTION OF A GREAT MINE. 939 

the buildings are enormoiis piles of timber and lumber, resembling the sur- 
roundings of an immense saw-mill with its accumulated stock. This timber 
is used for supports, &c., in the mine, and it is safe to say that more tiniljer 
lias been absorbed by these mines than there is in all the houses in San 
Francisco. 

The main shaft appears as an opening in the floor, about 5 ft. in width, 
and 20 ft. in length, Avitli a depth of 2000 ft., and is securely cribbed by 
means of substantial timbers. This opening is divided into four compart- 
ments by means of partitions running from the top to the bottom of the 
shaft ; three of these fonr compartments are used for hoisting purposes, 
and in these the hoisting cages pass up and down to and from the various 
levels, after the manner of an elevator through the various stories of a high 
building. The fouith compartment is occupied by the tanks and pump 
column ; an iron pipe from 12 to IG ins. diam., through which the water is 
forced from the lower levels of the mine to the surface by means of the 
massive pumping machinery. The cages in the diilerent divisions work 
independent of each other ; one may be going down while the other is 
going up, or one may be at rest while the others arc in motion. 

Tlie motive power for hoisting is supplied by powerful engines at the 
opposite end of the building, about 50 or GO ft. distant from the shaft, and 
the hoisting is effected by means of a flat cable, some o or G ins. wide, J 
ins. tliick, and braided of the best quality of steel wire. This cable is 
wound and unwound on an enormous reel situated near the engine, and the 
great iron wheels and pulleys which sustain the cables are supported on 
what is termed the gallows frame, a huge structure composed of massive 
upright and cross timbers constructed directly over the mouth of the shaft. 
The positions of the cages in the shafts are iiidicated to the engineer by 
means of a hand moving over a dial in the engine room, and the signals for 
elevating and lowering the cages are struck ou bells near the engineer by 
I)arties in the cages or levels below. 

The entire machinery of the works is driven by a compound condensing 
engine of GOO horse-power ; the engine has two cylinders, the first 24 x 48 
Ins., and the second 48 x 48 ins. in size. The main shaft of engine is 14 ins. 
diam., and weighs 15,000 lbs. Ou this shaft is a fly wheel (which is also a 
band wheel, carrying a belt by which the batteries are driven) 18 ft. in 
diam. , and weighing IG.^ tons. On the extreme end of the main driving 
shaft is coupled a shaft" 11 ins. diam. , extending into the amalgamating 
room, and driving the pans, agitators, &:c. Engine weighs about 50 tons ; 
there are 8 boilers, each 54 his. diam. and IG ft. in length. The smoke 
stacks are 4 in number, 42 ins. diam. and 90 ft. high. 

In the new stamp mill of this company (100 ft, long and 58 ft. wide) 
there are GO stamps, each weighing 800 lbs,, the whole requiring one car 
load (1800 lbs, ) of ore to be sent out from the shaft every 5 minutes during 
the day and night. The stam])s are driven by a belt from the main band 
and fly wheel ; the belt is 24 ins. in width, and IGO ft. in length ; speed 
3600 ft. i>ev minute. This runs the counter-shaft in front of the batteries, 
and from the pullies on this counter-shaft there are belts 14 ins. wide and GO 
ft, long, which run each battery of 10 stamps. The batteries are fed by the 
Tulloch self-feeders, one feeder being required for every 5 stamps, and two 
men only are required to oversee the whole, without any handling of the 
ore. Tli'ero are 32 amalgamating pans, each pan holding about 2000 lbs. of 
pulp from the batteries, and there are 8 settlers to each pair of pans. The 
monthly loss of quicksilver alone in the mills of the company is estimated 
at from" s<?60,000 to 680,000. The owiiers have to-day 11 mills, ranging from 
15 to 80 stumps, making altogether a battery force of 375 stamps, the 
largest stamp capable of pulverizing 5 tons of ore every 24 hours. The 
whole liuman force employed in these mills numbers G22 men, when the 
mills are running to their full capacity. 

From 500 to 700 men are employed and divided into three shifts, each 



940 



HEIGHT OF MINES. 



shift working 8 hours. One shift .ccocs on at 7 a.m., one at 3 p.m., and 
another at 11 p.m. Order is respected in every thing ; there are superintend- 
ents, foremen, engineers, miners, timbermcn, -watchmen, pumpmen, picli- 
boys, &c. Each employee in the mine has his duties assigned liim, wliich 
must be performed, and each is confined to his own level, and there only. 



I VST DRY 
2 

3 

4- 

5 

6 

7 
8 

10 
II 
72 

13 

14 

\5 
/6 

n 



■i. iiiB' iiiii m 
1. ,1111111, iiiiiiii 



■I iiiii Hi ^iiiii: 




28SF: 





___ I iiiii 11 iii iiiii ii 

iii'iil.iiil .11111 liB iiii iiii 



'llli.lliil^ 

■iiliiiiii 



iiiiiiii.ilH 
■^■■■.liii 

Iiiii im iiii iiB||||iiif .iiiii as 

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WASMJA/CrOA/ 



Fig, 4.— Diagram Illtjstratixg Height of Mixes. 

To describe the mine, Ave vrill in imagination compare it to a house of 
enormous altitude and vast dimensions on the earth ; this house Avould 
require to be 2000 ft. high, Avith 20 .stories or floors, each 100 ft. apart. It 
is safe to say that such a building was never constructed, and never Avill be 
in this Avorid. To an observer in Wall street, or on Broadway, NeAV York, 



MIXEES FAINTING FROM HEAT. 



941 



Trinity Church presents an imposin^;:; spectacle, but our imaginary building, 
representing the Consolidated Yirgiiiia mine, would be nearly 7 times higher! 
In the mines on the Comstock lode there are £0) miles of'^drilts, galleries, 
cross-cuts, shafts, winzes, &c., and as one mine co meets with another, there 
are Avhat might be called streets, 3 miles long. Tne main workings are all 
lighted with lamps and candles which are always kept burning. Quite a 
number of engines are in operation in the lower levels hoisting timber to the 
miners, elevating ore at the Avinzes, operating Burleigh drills, aiid driving fans 
or bloAvers (like those used in a foundry) to supply fresh air to the workmen 
■who are panting with the heat in distant i)arts of the mine. These engines 
are run by compressed air, furnished by poAverful compressors at the sur- 
face, as owing to the high temperature at these profound depths steam 




Fig. 



5.— Mi>"EKS Faixting fkom Heat in the Lower Can^als of the 

COilSTOCK. 



engines could not be tolerated a single hour. When at work the miners are 
naked to the waist, and some from the middle of the thighs to their feet. 
The only garments worn arc a pair of thin pantaloons or overalls, stout 
shoes, and a light hat or small felt caj) to protect the head from the falling 
sand. Notwithstanding all this many faint outright from the effects of the 
heat. 

One month's supplies for this mine may be estimated as follows, viz. : 
500,000 ft. of timber, 550 cords of Avood, 350 boxes of candles, 2 tons of 
giant-powder, 100 gals, of coal-oil, 200 do. of lard oil, 800 lbs. of tallow, 
20,000 ft. of fuse, 37 tons of ice, 3000 bush, charcoal, 1^ tons of steel, 5 tons of 
round and square iron, 4 tons of hard coal, 50 kegs of nails, (tc. Monthly 
wages, $90,000. Miners receive $•! per day, engineers, carpenters, machin- 
ists, blacksmiths, &:c., from $^5 to $7 per day. 

The Savage and Hale and ITorcross mines on the Comstock lode l;ave 



942 



THE SUTRO TUNNEL. 



shafts G X 20 ft., .iiid 2500 ft. deep. The Savage Company intend to sink 
their present shaft to a depth of 4000 ft. Their great hoisting cable of steel 
-wire is 4000 ft. long, weighs 25,190 lbs., and is Avound and unwound on a 
cone-sliaped reel 15 ft. long, with a diam. of 22 ft. at the large end and 13 
ft. at the small one. The reel is suspended on a cast-iron shaft 16 ins. in 
diam., the ends of which revolve in ponderous bearings sustained by foun- 
dations of cut stone resting on the solid rock. The engines for driving the 
huge reel are two in number, of 200 horse-power each, and are capable of 
hoisting from 480 to 500 tons of ore every 24 hours. The hoisting car used on 
the lower incline is made wholly of iron and steel, runs on an iron track, and 
holds about 5 tons of rock. The incline begins at the foot of the vertical 
shaft, 1300 ft. below the surface, and runs to "the lower levels of the mine. 
The hoisting cages on the mines of the Comstock are all sui^plied with safety 
appliances, which operate instantaneously in arresting the descent of the 
cage in the event of the cable breaking. 




Fig. 6.— SUTRO TiTNNEIi. 

As shov/ing the vilst sums of money disbursed by capitalists when full 
confidence exists of obtaining remunerative returns from mining operation?, 
it may be interesting to note the following items regarding the outfit of a 
mine which has not as yet produced a cent's worth oi ore. The works will 
be, when finished, a boiler house 102 ft. long, 50 ft. wide, containing 10 
boilers, 54 ins. diam., IG ft. long ; one main hoisting room, 151 ft. long, 40 
ft. wide, 48 ft, high ; a carpenter shop, 50 ft, wide by 100 ft. long, for fram- 
ing the timbers for the shaft, a machine shop, 50 x 100 ft., and a black- 
smith's shop, 40 X 60 ft. 

At the shaft is a double cylinder, high pressure, direct-acting engine, both 
cylinders being connected Avith one shaft 'carrying two reels for winding the 
ropes. It is of 1200 horse-power, ;ind capable of hoisting 10 tons of ore 
from a depth of nearly, if not quite, one mile. The craiik shaft Aveighs 
nearly 40 ton?, and is one piece of wrought iron. The intended piston ppeed 



THE SUTEO TUNNEL. 



943 



is 960 ft. per niiiuitc, -vtIucIi ■will take :i " cr.ge " throusJi the shaft at rail- 
way speed. The cables used in the shaft are made of annealed steel -wire, 7 
inches wide and 2 ins. thick, and are wound on the reels like a ribbon on a 
spool. The reels are 15 ft. diani., will hold 4000 ft. of cable, and each 
is fitted with powerful brakes and safety appliances to regulate tlic move- 
ments of the cages. The engine foundations arc solid masonry, 5(> ft. long, 
33 ft. wide, and 22 ft. deep, to whicli the engines are bolted Avith 80 3-in.and 
3.^-in. bolts, reaching the bottom of the stone Avork. Tlic piston rods and 
all the valve rods are of steel, and the valves of hard brass. 

The pumping engine is a horizontal compound condensing engine, direct 
acting. The cylinders arc of the following dimensions : The initial cylinder 
is 33 ins. diam. and 12 ft. stroke. The expansion cylinder is GO ins. diani. 
and 12 ft. stroke ; engine shaft 20 ins. in diam., about 18 ft. long, and has a 
fly-wheel on each end 30 ft. in diam., and each wheel weighs I'O tons. The 
engine and line of pumps for 1200 ft. weigh 749 tons. The cost price of 
engine and pumps before erection was $CO0,O0O. It is to drive two lines of 
14 inch i")nmps of 10 ft. stroke. Its Aveb of cams, rods, cut-off gear, air- 
cushions, drop-weights, &c., display the highest skill ha workmanship. 



H? okviesoN 




rig. 7.— Longitudinal Section of the Comstock Lode, showing the 

DIFFERENT MINING CLAIMS LOCATED THEKEON, THE OEE BODIES EX- 
TRACTED, AND THE INTERSECTION OF THE SUTRO TUNNEL WITH THE 
LODE AT B., ETC. 

The Sutro tunnel, a work without a compeer in mining enterprises on 
this continent, was begun October 19, 1869 ; the object being to penetrate 
the mines on the Comstock lode at a point nearly 2000 ft. below the surface 
of the earth, and thus form an outlet for the drainage and rapid transit for 
the miners and their supplies, together with quick transportation for the ore 
and mineral matter taken from the mines. It enters the mountains in the 
valley of the Carson river, at the town of Sutro, 3| miles below Dayton, 1^ 
miles from tlie river, 150 ft. above the river bed", and strikes the" 1640 ff. 
level of the Savage mine at a point 20,018 ft. from the mouth of the tunnel. 
The work was prosecuted day and niglit with a result of from 13 ft. to 16^ ft. 
per day, until on July 8, 1878, a connection was made with the above noted 
shaft. A wire-tramway, running from the Carson river to the mines, will 
soon be in operation through the whole length of the tunnel, with an outfit 
of rolling stock capable of transporting 1000 miners from the village of 
Sutro to the mines in 15 minutes. During the past years, nearly 3000 miners 
liavc been employed in these mines, and liours have been consumed at each 
shift in sending down the men in cages, a dozen or so at a time. 

The mines on the Comstock lode, and all other mines in the district, are 
compelled for all time, to pay the Tunnel Company S2 i^er ton for every 
ton of ore extracted and sent to the mills for reduction. The rates estab- 
lished for transportation is 25 cents per ton per mile over the 4 miles of 



944 



THE SUTKO TUXXEL. 



main tunnel, and 25 cents each way for persons. Tee, now koIcI to the mining 
companies at $20 per ton, can he supplied in unlimited quantities by the 
Tunnel Company from its ponds on the Carson river, at less than ^1 per 
ton. Cordwood, now sold in Yirsriuia city at Sl2 per cord, can lie passed 
through the tunnel, elevated nearly 2000 ft. through the main shaft, and 
laid down for $8 per cord. 




PRoniEorr 
6UTR0 TUMMO. 

{.'•.•■.'I nmu 

COMBlSHIMn] 



Fig. 8.— Geological Cross Section of the Couxtry from the extraxci: 
OF the Sutro Tunnel to and beyond t^e Comstock Lode ; also 
THE Four Shafts on the Tunnel Line. 

The notable sanitary uses subserved by the tunnel has already dissipated 
the i)oisonous gases in the lower drifts of the Savage mines, and lowered the 
temperature of the 2000 ft. level from 120^ to 90° Fahr. A covered steam- 
tight drain is to be constructed the entire length of the tunnel (under the 
railroad track) to form an outlet for the drainage of the mine. Much of 
the Avater in the workings stands at a temperature of 1G0° Fahr., and if 
this was passed through the tunnel in an open channel, no living thing 
could exist, OAving to the hot, confined A-apor. It is further intended to 
utilize this Avater as a source of power for moving the long trains of cars 
used in transporting the miners, together Avith their necessary stores, tim- 
ber, ore, &c. The discharge of this water has heretofore been effected at 
an annual cost of S3, 000, 000. The drainage must pass through 10 pumps 
and tanks, through 2O0O ft. of iron pipe, from 12 to 16 ins. diam., before 
reaching the surface. The great iron pump rod, 2000 ft. in length, and hung 
at seA'eral points Avith immense balance bobs to j^revent it from being torn 
asunder by its own weight, is kept continually SAvaA-ing up and down at its 
round of duty. Henceforward this drainage will only require to be eleAated 
to the tunnel level in order to fmd an outlet. The Tunnel Company have so 
far expended on the tunnel, with the immense shafts, buildings, machine 
f^hops, engines, &c., connected thercAvith, the A'ast sum of $3,200, COO, and 
tlio projected branches and extensions toAvards the various mines will still 
.'ibsorb a large additional sum. In carrying out this wonderful enterjDrisc 
the obstacles presented by nature were of the most formidable discription 
and Avell nigh insurmountable, but they Avere finally overcome bA' the un- 
tiring energy and indomitable perseverance of Mr. Sutro, who brought to 
the execution of this herculean task, an iron will, and a rare combination of 
executive abilities. 

Many rich deposits of maiwellous extent have been found on the Comstock 
lode, but on the 1500 foot level has been discovered AAdiat appears to be the 
central mass, a body of ore unparalleled in extent and A'alue by any thing 
iiitherto known. This has enjoyed world-wide fame under the name of the 
'• Big Bonanza" (a Mexican term denoting a large and rich body of ore — pros- 
l)erity. Borrasca is the very opposite of bonanza, and signifies barren-rock 
— bad luck — adversity), and measures 900 ft. in length, 550 in depth, and 
fro:n ."0 to 203 ft. thick. 



DYNAMICS OF VOLCANIC FORCE. 945 

The immense chasm, rent, or fissure in the rocks, which is filled by the 

" vein-matter,"' or gaugue (pronounced </ajif/) forming the Comstock lode, 
extends from the east country rock (prophylite) to the "west country rock 
(syenite), a distance of from iCOO to 1200 ft. The gangue is composed of 
quartz, porpliyrj- and clay, ■wliich incloses the ore. This chasm, known to be 
about -1 miles long and about 1200 ft. "wide, was undoubtedly formed during 
ages inconceivably remote, by means of volcanic action, and immense frag- 
ments of rock appear to have broken aAvay from the edges of the chasm, 
fallen into the crevice, and thus prevented its closing. In mining nomen- 
clature these are termed "horses ; " they still remain in the vein, and the 
ore, quartz, &c., has filled up all the space around them. Some of the 
" liorses " are of great extent, being from 50 to 100 ft. in length, with pro- 
portionate thickness, while others are at least 1000 ft. in length, and from 
L'OO to 400 ft thick. The fragments from the west side of the crevice are 
syenite, those from tbe east side are prophylite, usually termed porphyry by 
the miners. 

The charging of this enormous crevice with what now forms the mineral 
contents of tlio Comstock lode, is manifestly the work of subterraneaji forces 
combined with hot mineral water, steam, gases, &c., from boiling springs 
beneath, which have filled up the vein with its rich sulphurets and other 
ores of silver. Traces of hot springs are everywhere visible on the neigh- 
boring hills to the eastward of the vein, and the noted steamboat springs, 
onh" a few miles distant, arc even now in full blast, engaged in the formation 
of a metallic lode by the emission of hot mineral Avater, steam, and enormous 
volumes of heated gas, tlirough a crevice over a mile in length. AVho will 
not say that here we find one of the instrumentalities of creative poAver in 
tlie very act, as it were, of replenishing the earth with the gifts of a benef- 
icent Providence ? 

The action of boiling springs is due, 1. To the access of subterranean 
waters to heated rocks, producing steam, which seeks exit by upward vents : 
2. To cooler superficial waters descending channels to where the steam 
prevents further descent, and gradually accumulating until the channel is 
filled to the top : 3. To the heating of these iipper waters by the steam 
from below, to near the boiling point, Avhen the lower portion of these upper 
Avaters becomes converted into steam, and the eruption, or jet of water 
results. 

The dynamics of volcanic force is an interesting study. The roar of 
Niagara is a gentle zephyr compared with the bellowing of a volcano. The 
power required to rupture a battery of steam boilers is as nothing compared 
Avitli the inconceivable energy necessary for the upheaAal of mountains, the 
rending of rocks, the raising of islands from the ocean's bed, and forcing 
out the melted lava from beneath the gneiss and granite. Very frequently 
large fragments of these rocks are broken off and thrown outAvTth the lava*: 
Cotopaxi, nearly 20,000 ft. high, has projected a stone 109 cubic yds. in vol- 
imie to the distance of 9 miles, and has thrown matter (K)C0 ft. above its 
summit This of itself would require a force of nearly 1500 atmospheres, or 
22,500 lbs. to the square inch ! In 1660, the amount of laA'a ejected by 
Mount Etna Avas 20 times greater than the Avhole mass of the mountain, and 
in 1669, when 77,000 persons Avere destroyed, the lava covered 8-4 square 
miles. In the eruption from Skaptar Jokul, in Iceland, during 1783, two 
streams of laA'a floAved in opposite directions, one of them 50 miles long and 
12 broad, and tlie other 40 miles long and 7 broad ; both haviuir an average 
thickness of 100 ft., which Avas sometimes increased to 500 or 600 ft. ; twenty 
villages and 9000 inhabitants were destroyed. The seat of volcanic power 
must be deeply seated beneath the earth's crust, Avhere the heat is extremely 
intense ; lava ejected over 100 years ago from JoruUo, in Mexico, 1600 ft. 
high, is not yet cool. The lava thrown out of Etna in 1819, AAas in motion 
months later at the rate of a yard a day, and lava from a previoiis" erui)tioii 
of the same mountain Avas in motion after the lapse of 10 years. 



946 THE MINERAL WEALTH OF THE AV'ORLD. 

Not only do very many mountains and mineral lodes owe their origin to 
volcanic action, but numerous islands as well. The Sandwich islands, of 
which Hawaii, the largest, contains 4000 square miles of surface and rises 
18,000 ft. above the ocean ; Teneriffe, 13,000 ft. high ; the Madeira, Iceland, 
Sicily, Bourbon, St. Helena, Java, Sumatra, Tristan d'Acunha, Faroe and 
Azore islands, with much of Celebes, Jai)an, &c., are mainly composed of 
lava and rocks, as sandstone and limestone, upheaved by volcanic action. 
Sucli are some of the effects of that tremendous power which in the liands 
of Omnipotence has j)layed so important a i)artinthe formation of the liabit- 
able globe. 

Daring the most ancient times, and in the divinely framed language of in- 
spiration, silver is used as the primary symbol to denote truth. Truth is as 
an ocean, vast and inexhaustible. Of a verity the symbol is in this instance 
true to its original, for such a thing as an exhausted silver mine has never 
been known Avithin the memory of man. Pliny speaks of silver-mines being 
worked during his time to the depth of a mile and a half. The old Spanish 
mines, opened long before the time of Hannibal, are still worked with enor- 
mous profits ; the Hungarian mines, worked by the Romans long prior to 
the Christian era, are still productive; the South American silver mines have 
yielded great profits during 300 years. The silver mines in theHartz moun- 
tains, and at Freiberg, Germany, discovered during the 11th century, and 
worked constantly ever since, yield a steady increase. The Mexican silver 
mines have yielded, since the Spanish Conquest up to 1860, $2,039,100,000, 
and are even now enormously rich. In Sweden and Norway, silver mines 
worked before the discovery of America arc still yielding profitable returns. 
The Cerro de Pasco mines, Peru, discovered in 1630, from which 5,000,000 lbs. 
of silver have been taken in 45 years, are still productive, Tlie entire silver 
yield of Spain is at present about 100,000 lbs. troy per annum. In Bolivia, 
S, A. , the annual production of silver is at present about 450,000 lbs. ; here 
are situated the famous mines of Potosi, formerly belonging to Peru, which 
are said to have yielded $1,200,000,000. Of the silver lode mining dis- 
tricts of Mexico and South America, the Sierra Madre mines have A'ielded 
$800,000,000 ; Veta Madre, $235,934,636 ; Rio Grande, $650,000,000 ; Royas, 
$85,421,015 ; Valencia, $31,813,486 ; Santa Anna, $21,347,210 ; Biscania, 
$16,341,000. The Russian mines in the Urals, according to Marshall, yielded 
in 10 late years, 65,330 lbs, of gold, 412,246 lbs, of silver, and 6067 of pla^ 
tina, from the serpentine rocks. 

According to approximate estimates by the best American and German 
autliorities, the total j^roduct of all the gold and silver mines in the world, 
from the year 1500 to 1874, is as follows : Pounds of gold, 17,000,000, valued 
at $6,450^000,000, Pounds of silver, 364,000,000, valued at $8,175,000,000, 
Total pounds of gold and silver, 381.600,000,000, valued at $14,625,000,000. 
In 1810 the annual supply of bullion to Europe was estimsted at $40,000,000, 
of which one-third was used for manufactures ; at the present day the an- 
nual supply is much greater. The wealth of France is about $ 40,300,000,000, 

Among civilized nations the greater part of this enormous mineral wealth 
is absorbed by the coinage. The British mint has 8 melting furnaces, 2 
cranes, and 2 pouring machines. The furnaces are used three times per day, 
and as each pot is about 420 lbs. they melt 10,080 lbs. in a day of 10 hours. 
The gold pots are about 100 lbs. and melt it in an hour. Thegold bars arc 
rolled cold to the thickness of the coin, and the silver bars hot. The 8 
presses in the mint strike 60 blows per minute, and produce 3600 coins jier 
liour for 10 hours, or at least 30,000 per day, making 240,000 for the 8 presses. 
Good steel dies make 300,000 to 400,000 impressions before wearing out. 

A lb. troy of gold yields 465^5 sovereigns, a lb. troy of silver yields 60s. 
(the alloy is extra), andtlierearc 107.520 halfpence in a ton of copper, worth 
£224. Griffin estimates the wealth of the United Kingdom at $39,200,000,000. 

The ores of silver, tin, copper, lead. &c,, are generally found in what are 
called " lodes," which resemble deep fissures in the earth, filled up with ore 



DETAILS OF MINING. 



947 



and vein stuff. There are no ores of gold, but it is found to pervade simlijir 
lodes in quartz roclc. Tliesc lodes arc known to penetrate the eartli to pro- 
found depths, and most frequently assume the form of a wedge, with the thin 




Fig. 9. 

end uppermost, widening as it descends downwards to an unknoAvn dis- 
tance. In some cases these lodes enter the earth ATith a slight incline and 
they are known to extend to a distance of several miles in a horizontal direc- 




tion, with a width ranging from less than 1 inch to many feet. Fig. 9, repro- 
duced from Wcale's admirable series, represents two lodes, the flrst,'(/, h, to 



948 



EXPLOITATION IN MINES. 



the ri<;ht, enters the earth at au angle ; c, d, represents a lode underlying to 
the left ; /, represents a cross-cut ; r/gg, a shaft, at first perpendicular, after- 
■\vards upon the lode. 

Fig. 10 represents a longitudinal section of a mine in ^vhich the shaded 
part represents the excavations penetrated by two perpendicul shafts, a b, 
the adit level, c d, c d, c d, other levels, usually 10 fathoms or 60 ft. below 
each other ; e e, winzes, or small shafts connecting two levels, and used for 
the purposes of ventilation and exploration. 

A shaft may be vertical or inclined. It is styled a tunnel when it forms 
with the horizon an angle less than 45 degrees. 




Underhand Stoping 



Overhand Stoping. 



Fig. 11 represents the process of stopinf/ or exploitation in veins of the 
Rake species, by which the ore is extracted from the workings. Stoping 
may be classified under two heads: 1st. Overhand stoping ; as shown on the 
right side of the figure, by which the ore is extracted by working from below 
upwards. Overhand stoping is the method in general use in this country ; 
by this method of working in ascending steps, the ore, as detached, falls by 
its own gravity. 2nd. Underhand stoping ; as shown on the left of the cut, 
by whicii the mineral is taken from the vein by working in descending steps 
from above downwards. 

In the cut, !B A is the hoisting shaft, C D and E F are air shafts, S is the 
sump or well at the bottom of the shaft, and D F a tunnel, level, or gallerj^ 
in the mine. Imagine the ore in the vein to be laid out in rectangular masses 
as exhibited in the cut ; these steps or benches, generally 15 or 20 ft. long, 
6 or 8 ft. high, and as wide as the vein, form in consecutive succession the 
ground from whence the ore is extracted by stoping or working in steps. The 
miners, in overliand stoping, use temporary stages from which they attack 
the vein by n)eans of drills, picks, &c. ; the ore and rubbish are blasted 
down and piled behind the miners on a strong scaffolding of timbers, from 
whence the ore is discharged through suitable apertures called mi7?s or i^asscs 
(located at proper distances apart) to the level below, to be conveyed by cars, 
&e., to the mouth of the level, or to the hoisting shaft, for elevation to the 
surface. The worthless rubbisli is sorted out and used for filling material 
to occupy the vacancies and to support the mine. When this material is de- 
ficient it must be supplied from the surface, especially w^hen the ore deposits 
are of great extent and the vacancies large. The filling should be tamped solid. 
In tho vicinity of the working shaft and otlier suitable places, pillars of vein 



HOISTING MACHINERY. 



949 



stone may "be allowed to remain with good results. In Mexico, very exten- 
sive mines are wholly sustained by pillars of ore, tlic number, size, distance 
apart, &c., of which are clearly defined by law. 

The first process iu opening a mine is to find the lode, then a hole is 
usually driven straight down into the earth so as to strike the lode, as rep- 
resented in Fig. 9. This is termed *' sinking the shaft," which is then 
carried down upon it as shown in the cut, although it frequently happens 
that the shaft is carried down on the lode from the surface. As the shaft 
descends the adit level is driven ; this is merely a tunnel dug from the 
nearest valley or water-course right into tlie mountain or hill in which the 
lode is located, so tliat all the water above the level Avill flow away of itself. 
In going deeper other levels are driven to the right and left, extending to 
great distances from the shaft, but always following the direction oftlic 
lode, and these levels are interpenetrated at suitable distances by smaller 
shafts, called winzes, which are of great use in promoting proper ventilation 
in the mine. As the workings are extended other shafts are dug from the 
surface as necessity may require, but the}- should be at least £00 ft. apart ; 
and Avhere a mine has more than one lode, a gallery or level, called a " cross- 
cut," is driven to it as shown at/, in Fig. 9. The size of shafts vary accord- 
ing to the duty required. To accommodate pumping and winding ]nachinery 
for elevating the '' kibbles," or buckets of ore, b}' steam power,"it should be 
from G to 8 ft. in widtli and from 14 to 20 ft. in length. Square sliafts are 
usually lined in whole or in part with timber, and circular shafts are gen- 
erally "built up Avith stone. For a depth of from 50 to 100 ft. the elevation 




Fig. 12.— WINDI.AS8. 

of the ore may be effected by means of a windlass, as shown in Fig. 12 ; in 
sinking a " winze " from level to level, but not ])enetrating to the surface, 
the same means are used, but in deeper excavations it is usual to raise the 
ore by what is styled a " whim," worked by horse-power, as shoAvn in Fig. 
13, in which the cable Avhich elevates the ore is wound around a vertical drum. 




Fig. 13— HoKSE Whim. 
The next illustration, Fig. 14. represents an insrenious miner's hoisti«p: 
power constructed by Eeynolds, Rix &, Co., of San Francisco, Avho claim that 



950 



HOISTING MACHINERY. 



it will do the work of a steam engine at one-tentli the expense, as one horse 
can easily hoist bj-^ it 1000 lbs. at a depth of 500 ft. 




Fig. 14. — Miner's Hoisting power. 

For deep mines the horse whim is generally superseded by reversible 
winding engines, Fig. 15, in which the chain or wire-rope passes around a 
horizontal drum, which is driven with great rapidity by steam-power, but 
this costly machinery is seldom applied to mines unless it is settled beyond 
a doubt that they will become of j)ermanent value. 




Pig. 13.— The Griffith & "Wedge Winding Engine. 

Water-power, if available, can also be used to good advantage for lower- 
ing into the mine timbers, tools, supplies, &c., and for elevating ore, pump- 
iwg, &c, 



HOISTING MACHINERY. 



951 



Fij:. 16 represents a "kibble," or large iron bucket used in raising the 
ore ; it will hold a ton, more or less. Fig. 17, at a, represents a contrivance 
running on wheels (on rails or guides of wood or metal) called a " skip," 
6&, represents the guide, cc, timbers of the shaft, dd, rock through which 




Fig. 16.— A Kibble. 




Fig. 17.— A Skip. 



the shaft is sunk. The skip has the lower end of one side hinged like a 
door, and will hold 2 tons or more if required. Formerly these contrivances 
were elevated by means of hemp ropes or iron chains, which in many cases 
caused dreadful accidents through frequent breakages. Of late years wire 
ropes have displaced tlie ropes and chains of former times, the tensile 
strength of wire rope being much greater, and its tendency to rupture being 
much less than that of ropes or iron chains, which are liable to part quite 
suddenly without the slightest warning, often causing fearful loss of life. 
Wire ropes never break without giving previous warning. 





Fig. 18. Fig. 19, 

Fig. 18 represents the manner of timbering tunnels when the rock is of 
a soft, crumbling nature, with a liability to cave inward, the cross pieces oa 



952 



TIMBERING OF MIXES. 



the tunnel bed beinj:^ placed against the vertical posts to enable them to 
Avitlistand the inward pressure. Fig. li) represents the method of timber- 
ing where the tunnel is composed of solid rock on the one side and loose 
material on the other. 




Fig. 20. Fig. 21. Fig. 22. 

Figp. 20, 21 and 22 represent the underground timbers of a mine ; the 
first two show the position of timbers to sustain a vertical pressure from 
above, the third figure represents an inclined timber to sustain both vertical 
and side pressure. 

In the lofty excavations on the Comstock lode such supports as the above 
noted would be utterh" inadequate, hence the plan of timbering in square 
sets was contrived and adopted. This consists of square 14-inch timbers 
framed and put together in the form of cribs, as shown in Fig. 23, four by 
five or six feet in size ; these cribs are piled one upon another to any desired 
height, and firmly framed together so as to fill up and support the roof and 
sides of any sized" cavity or excavation, while the interior vacancies may be 
packed solid with waste rock. They also serve to sustain the stulls or tim- 
bers (frequently in very lofty positions) which are occupied by the miners 
while at work extracting the ore. 

A tunnel is to be regarded as a shaft when it forms with the horizon an 
angle exceeding forty five degrees (45°), A common size for tunnels is 3 
ft. wide at the fop, oh to 4 ft. wide at the bottom, and ft. high, but the size 
is quite often determined by the size of the vein in which it is driven, the 
size of the one being generally made to conform to that of the other. Asa 
rule, shafts and tunnels should be wrought in the lode. 

The item of timbering the various shafts, tunnels, excavations, &c., of 
mines is one of immense cost, but it is of paramount importance that the 
work be efficiently performed by competent workmen, otlierwisc loss of 
life and serious damage to the works will certainly result. The timber 
should be left as round as possible, be stripped of its bark, and to ensure 
safety against rot, be kept well saturated w^itli water by means of little 
spouts or pipes in connection with the cisterns. 

In some mines tlie pillars of rock, ore, &c., left standing at suitable dis- 
tances for the protection of the mine, preclude the necessity for props of 
timber. In addition to the above, the refuse rubbish which accumulates in 
the mine after the extraction of the ore, is piled up against the supports to 
fill up the excavations so as to sustain the immense masses overhead. 

lu mining operations, penetration is effected by means of rock drills, 
manual tools, gunpowder, fire, nitro-glycerine, &c. ; the hand tools for drill- 
ing and blasting are, a sledge, borer, clnying-bar, scraper, needle or nail, 
and a tamping-liar. The borer is of iron, tijiped with steel, shaped like a 
stout cliisel, and well tempered. The hole being drilled, a cartridge is in- 
serted in it, or a quantity of gunpowder is rammed in and fired. To in- 



HOW TEXETKATIOX IS EFFECTED 



953 



crease the force of the powder, the upper part of the aperture above the 
powder is (after the fuse is properly inserted) filled uith sand or clay, 
which is rammed down hard by means of a tampiiuj bar, formed of hard 
wood, or of iron with a copper tip, which is struck with a heavy hammer. 
In many instances lamentable accidents have occurred by the use of iron or 
steel tamping bars causing premature explosions by striking fire agaiust the 
sides of the hole ; hence the uecessity for the use of wooden, or copper- 
tipped tamping bars, which never, under any circumstances, strike fire by 
concussion against the rocks. The hole being tamped, the projecting end of 
the safety-fuse is ignited, and while the combustible matter which fills the 
interior of the fuse is slowly burning towards the end inserted in the 
powder, the luen withdraw to a sheltered place to avoid danger from the fly- 
ing rocks projected by the explosion. As nearly as can be computed the 
amount of powder employed in blasting should be just enough to split the 
rock ; iu some cases this is effected by the action of fire witliout blasting. 




Fig. 23.— Timbering OF Mines on the Comstock Lode. 

In using nitro-glycerine for blasting in mines, the advantages are, that 
it requires a smaller hole thau gunpowder ; it dispenses with tamping, as 
water only is used (to fill the holes), in Avhich it is easily ignited ; it is much 
cheaper than gunpowder, and has, taken volume for volume, twelve times 
greater explosive force. See page G66. Lastly, it can, with proper pre- 
cautions, be easily manufactured on or near the spot wliere it is required 
for use, the main conditions being, that syrup of glycerine shall be slowly 



954 



QUAKTZ MACHINERY. 



dropped in a compound formed of equal quantities of nitric and sulphuric 
acids contained in a strong vessel surrounded by ice, with a thorough agita- 
tion of the mixture after each addition of the syrup. The nitro-glycerine, 
of an oily composition, is removed from the surface and repeatedly washed 
with clean water. It is liable to explosion during the process of manufac- 
ture, if not kept cold. 

Tiie disadvantages of nitro-glycerine are, that it is poisonous, and exhale- 
l)oisonous vapors after being exploded, thus rendering its use impossible ii> 
confined worliings under ground ; it explodes at a temperature of 300"^ 
Fahr. ; when pure it explodes bj"^ concussion alone, and when impure it i- 
liable to spontaneous explosion. 

In quartz mining the grand primary step in beginning should be to deter- 
mine, beyond doubt, the value of the vein or mine. In "prospecting" :j 
vein of the Rake species, a shaft should be sunk on it to a depth of at least 
100 ft. aiid a tunnel driven to correspond. If the ore on being worked yield? 
favorable results, the inference is that it is safe to invest money on a larg« 
scale iu the erection of suifcible machinery for extensive mining operations. 



QUARTZ MACHINERY. 

Among the appliances for this purpose may be mentioned ore-breakers, 
stamp batteries, grinders, amalgamators, concentrators, separators, cruci- 
bles, retorts, &c. The ore-breaker is used for crushing mineral substances 
into fragments small enough to be passed into the stamp batteries. 

The following cuts represent the Blake Ore Breaker, a machine widely 
known as having earned for itself the highest character for efficiency where- 
ever it has been brought into use. 





Fig. 2 i.— Breaker at "Work. Fig. 25.— Sectional, view of Breaker. 

Its principal features are a heavy frame, in which are set two upright 
jaws, one of which is usually fixed, while the other has a .flight vibratory 
movement imparted by a rotating shaft. These jaws are wide enough apart 
at tlie top to receive the ore to be broken, but converge towards each other 
below, so that at the bottom the opening is only wide enough to permit the 
fragments to pass Avhen broken to the required size. The working parts 
are made enormously strong and massive to withstand the strain and wear 
to which they are subjected in crushing rocks and minerals, some of which 
will yield only to a pressure of 13| tons (27,000 lbs.) to the square inch. 
One of these machines, weighing 11,600 lbs., and requiring (5 horse-power, 
with a feed opening of 15 x 9 ins. area, will reduce 100 to 150 tons of rock 
per day to a size suitable for the batteries. These machines are made of 
various sizes ; some of them will take in a stone weighing half a ton and 
reduce it to fragments in 5 seconds. The crank j*hould make about 180 
revolutions per minute. For macadamizing purposes, a 15 x 9 machine will 
produce 100 cubic yds. of road metal per day, the fragments being 1|: ins. 
in diam. and less. The distance between the jaws r.t the bottom, which 



THE STAilP BATTERY. 955 

limits tiie size of the fragments, may be regulated at pleasure, and the 
wearing parts, when worn out, may be replaced by new plates at slight cost. 
There are other ore breakers in the market, as Alden's, Bullock's, &c., 
which give very good results, and are in every respect reliable machines. 

THE STAMP BATTERY. 

Fig. 26 presents a view of the method of wet-crushing by stamp batteries, 
with a row of Hepburn and Peterson's amalgamating pans in front. In the 
rear is the engine which supplies the motive power to operate the stamj^s. 
which are raised by cains secured to the horizontal shafting shown in front 
of the vertical stamp stems. The liquefied mass of ore passes from the bat- 
teries through the perforated sheet-iron, or wire screens, into the sluice 
boxes displayed in front of the batteries. The battery comprises the frame 
(usually formed of .strong timbers), stamps, mortars, stamp-stems, cams, 
cam-shaft, tappets, shoes^ dies, guides, and screens. 

In operating on a large scale, mortars are usually arranged to accomo- 
date three, four, five, or six stamps each, but mill men of long experience 
prefer the five-stamp mortar, and round instead of square stamps. The 
wvm-shaft is a round bar of iron, nsuallj^ about 4Mus. diam., turned, finish- 
ed, and with the cams secured on it by means of keys, is frequently used to 
operate from 5 to 60 or more stamps standing in Hne. The lift of the 
stamjis is effected by the cams operating on tappets which project from the 
stamp stems. The latter arc of Avrought iron, turned, finished, and fitted 
into the stamp head, which is formed of the toughest cast-iron, and armed 
with a. "shoe" formed of the best cast-steel or Avhite iron, on the lower 
part, next the mortar die. The shoes may be removed and replaced by 
new ones when they are worn out. The mortar dies should bo formed of 
the .-^ame material as the shoes, and well secured on solid timber foundation.s 
Avith one die under each stamp. The stamp guides are usually formed of 
the hardest wood procurable, and are fastened by iron bolts to tlie cross ties 
of the battery timber frame. 

The screen in general use for working ores by the icet process, is formed 
of tlie best Russia sheet-iron, perforated by punches ranging in size from 
the number nine to the number one sewing needle. In working ores by tlie 
(In/ process, the screen is generallv made of wire, ranging in fineness from 
900 to 10,000 meshes to the inch. 

The capacity of a stamp weighing 65(ybs., with 90 12-in. drops in a min- 
ute, is equivalent to the reduction of 2^ tons of hard, tough ore in 24 hours, 
and the power used is nearly ^ horse-power per ton of ore. To obtain the 
best results in feeding the rock intx) the battery, the rule among ])ractical 
mill men is to grade the supply of rock so that the blows of iron to iron will 
be heard every 10th or loth stroke of the stam]>, and the weight of water to 
rock required for the reduction of gold or silver ore is as 4^ to 1. 

In constructing a stamp-mill, the primary object should be to secure a 
site of at least 21 or 22 ft. elevation, in order to so arrange the different 
lloors that the material under manipulation shall pass by its own gravity 
from one stage of the process to another, and the location should, if possible, 
be in close proximity to the mine from Avhich the mineral products are ob- 
tained. The foundations under all the machines must possess ab.solute 
.'Stability : if the bed-rock, owing to its depth, is not available for founda- 
tion purposes, brick or stone work, or timber mud-sills must be substituted. 
For stamp batteries, veitical timbers, strongly bound together, resting on 
the bed-rock, or otherwise properly secured, will be foinid in every respect 
t > form the best possible foundation for the mortars. The veitical ]:)osition 
gives easier access for making repairs, the removal of defective timbers, 
&c,, together Avitli less concussion from the blows of the stamps th:in when 
tlie foundation timbers occupy a horizontal position. 




<^ • I 



pq 'i 



U 



Oi^e 



ARRANGEMENT OF GOLD AND ilLVEE MILLS. 957 

The entire appliances of the mill, consisting of the batteries, rock- 
breaker, grinders, amalgamators, concentrators, &c., are operated by means 
of shafting, Avhich transmits the power to the various machines bj- means of 
])ulleys, belts, or gearing, the prime mover being either Avater or steam 
jjower. 

In the arrangement of a silver mill, the rock breaker, or ore crusher 
is tlie first in order, and the stcunj) batteries follow at a distance of 12 or 
more feet, the feed lloor of the latter being 10 ft. , more or less, below the 
lloor of the ore crusher. The rock fed into the batteries being triturated 
sufficiently fine to pass through No. 4 or No. 5 perforated Russia iron 
screens, the fluid mass passes from the stamps into the settling tanks, which 
are generally placed so that their tops are level Avith the upper side of the 
battery frame sills. 

The tanks should be arranged in successive series in order to accord 
ample space for the water to deposit the suspended ore before passing off. 
A good size for tanks is 5 X 7 ft., Avith a depth of 3 ft., which aauU afford 
capacity for between 4 and 5 tons of crushed ore. 

Next in order, near tlie tanks, follow the f/rinders and amalgamators, 
Avith their upper rims level Avith the tops of the tanks. After passing the 
tanks the ore is worked in charges, and reduced in these machines to a 
slimj'^mass, and one of these contrivances, Avith muller 4 ft. diam., requir- 
ing about 5 ft. fall and 7 ft, run, the muller malciug 75 revolutions per min- 
ute, Avill reduce 5 tons of ore in 24 hours Avith 5 horse-poAver. 

The separator follows in close proximity to the grinder and amalgama- 
tor, its sides being frequentlj'- under the platform of the latter, and some- 
times removed from under it and slightly elevated above it. Wlieeler and 
Randall's Conoidal Separator, 7 ft. diam., Avith a capacity for Avorking 10 
tons of ore p'er day with 1 horse-power, requires of itself 4 to 5 ft. fall and 
U ft. run, including platform. 

The concentrator is the next in order, receiving the ore as it passes from 
the separator, tlie denser and richer portions flowing off at the suljihuret 
l^ipe into the tank, and the less valuable part passing away at the discharge 
end. The Tabular Concentrator requires aboxit 3 ft. fall and 10 ft. run, and 
is capable of Avorking from 5 to 10 tons of ore per day with one-half of a 
horse-power. 

The appliances of a gold mill include the rock breaker, sfcimps, 
grinder and amalgamator, separator, &c., as noted above in the descrip- 
tion of a silver mill, with the sole exception that they are subject to greater 
modification of arrangement, Avhich is determined in every case by the 
character of the gold and the rock to be operated upon. 

The A'arious machines, as arranged in the silver mill just described, may 
be rendered available for operations on gold where the latter is fine and 
equally diffused through the rock, only a larger number of concentrators 
and amalgamators should be used, the latter just after the stamp batteries, 
and as amalgamators only. 

Amalgamators, grinders and separators should not be emploj-ed Avhere 
the gold is quite coarse and clean in the rock. 

"What is known as the " continuous process " is the one best adapted for 
Avorking rock where the gold is coarse and coated. 

Where the gold in the rock is largelj^ combined Avith sulphnrets, the 
best method is to use the concentrators and amalgamators immediately 
after the batteries, the approved Avay being to reduce the concentrated por- 
tions of the rock in the grinders and amalgamators, Avork in separators, and 
lastly, treat by means of another series of concentrators. 

The best authorities prefer amalgamating in the batteries, but this must 
be done with the utmost care, for" if too little quicksilver be added the 
amalgam will become dry and granular, and Aoav aAvay Avith the current of 
crushed ore ; if too much be added the resultant amalgam will liquify and 
be carried off by the stream. The practical rule is to feed the quicksilver 



958 



MEXICAN ARASTRA. 



into the batteries in small quantities, and feed frequently, sprinkling or 
expressing it through buckvskin or other porous material, so that tlie amal- 
gaui, after emerging from the screens, may be indented by a slight pres- 
sure between tl\e fingers ; if the consistency is such that it will retain the 
finger marks it is just right. The quantity of quicksilver required varies 
witii the amount of gold in the ore ; 1 oz. of quicksilver to 1 oz. of gold is a 
common allowance ; when the gold is very fine, 1^ to 1^, and even 2 ozs. to 
1 of gold may be added. 

In amalgamating in the battery, the sides of the enclosure containing the 
stamps is fitted the entire length of the battery with amalgamated copper 
l)lates from 3 to 5 ins. wide, arranged with a pitcli of 35° or 40° toward the 
dies. One of the plates is placed at the feed side and the other at the dis- 
cliarge side of the stamps, and the amalgamation is effected by rubbing 
quicksilver on the plates, as described on page 454. With ore containing 
heavy gold, from 60 to TO per cent, may be saved in the battery by the 
amalgam plates, but with light gold, from 300 to 400 fine, not so much, as 
it is liable to become entangled with the light scum of foreign matters and 
pass away with the current. 




Fig. 27.— MEXICA^'^ Arastka. 



Amalgamation of Gold in the Akastra. — The arastra is composed 
of a circular granite-paved bottom, from 6 to 20 it. in diam., surrounded by 
a wooden enclosure over 2 It. high, witli a vertical wooden shaft in the cen- 
tre, provided Avith two or more projecting arms to which muUers (composed 
of large blocks of granite) are attached by means of chains, as shown in 
Fig. 27. This primitive, but effective machine is operated by mules when 
water-power is not available ; the mullers making from to 10 revolutions 
per minute, Avitli a capacity of grinding from 1^ to 2 tons of rock (the frag- 
ments being broken as small as a hen's egg, or less) in 24 hours. Of the 
arastra, Mr. Kustel, a high authority, writes as follows : 

" When in motion, the arastra is'charged with 200 lbs. of ore, with some 
water. One-quarter of an hour afterward the balance of the whole 
charge, from 400 to 500 lbs., is introduced. As soon as the ore is turned 



TREATMENT OF GOLD ORES. 959 

into mud 1 or 2 ozs. of quicksilver .are pressed through a dry cloth over the 
thick pulp. A sample is taken from time to time -with the horn spoon, 
washed, and examined. "When free gold is perceived, after the amalganui- 
tion has gone on for some time, some more quicksilver may be added. The 
first charges require a little more quicksilver. After 4 or 5 hours the pulp 
is diluted with water and discharged. The next charge is treated in the 
same way, and so on till 100 or 150 tons arc worked through. The quick- 
silver must be used always in proportion with the gold — 1 or li ozs. to 1 oz. 
of gold. The am.algam imbeds in the crevices of the bottom, and must be 
always dry. The use of too much quicksilver makes the amalgam thin, 
causes an imperfect amalgamation, and a loss in quicksilver, which is often 
found beneath the bottom rock." AVhen the reducing and amalgamating 
process is finished the slime is washed off, and the amalgam cleaned up, 
squeezed, and retorted. 

Amalgamation of Gold by the Pan Process. — In this process the 
ore, as it comes from the stamps, is still further reduced by being thor- 
oughly ground (with sufficient water to form a thin paste) in iron pans, in 
combination witli quicksilver. Some maintain that the process is acceler- 
ated by means of heat, applied by passing steam into chambers underneath 
the pulp, or into the charge in the pan, but extended experiments do not 
confirm this view. The quicksilver is generally added as the pans com- 
mence running, and, to avoid excessive trituration of the quicksilver, the 
addition is often made with the muller slightly elevated, after the grinding 
of the ores. After the process is finished the charge is withdrawn and 
Avashed, leaving the amalgam in the separators. With the Wlieeler & 
liandall grinders and amalgamators (4 It. muller), the proportions of the 
charge is, ore 2000 lbs., quicksilver, 30 to 70 lbs., revolutions of muller, CO 
to 05, time of reducing, generally about 3 hours. 

The pan process, if Avell conducted, will secure as much as 95 per cent, 
of the gold detected by a fire assay, but it is not Avell adapted for treating 
raw ores containing the compounds of sulphur, iron, bismuth, tellurium, 
antimonj', arsenic, lead, or zinc, until such ores have been roasted or 
smelted, and the i:)ernicious substances thoroughly expelled. 

Treatment of Gold Ores by the Chlorination Process. — In this 
process the effective agent is chlorine gas, evolved by heating sulphuric 
acid, per-oxido of manganese, and salt in a leaden generator. The aurif- 
erous ore, after being well pulverized, roasted, cooled, and wet with water, 
is placed in Avooden tubs about 7 ft. diam. iind 25 or 30 ins. deep, provided 
Avith false bottoms. The chlorine gas is conveyed from the generator under 
the false bottom by lead pipes, and permeates the Avhole mass in a few 
hours, transforming the gold into a terchloride of gold. When the greenish 
tinge of the gas becomes visible on the surface of the mass, the tiab is cov- 
ered close by a wooden cover for the space of 10 or 15 hours, after which it 
is removed and clean water is poured on the ore, Avhich leaches through it 
and carries off the dissolved gold through a discharge pipe below into glass 
vessels. The addition of sulphate of iron, in solution, is used to precipitate 
the gold, Avhich falls in the form of a black-brown powder, and may be col- 
lected, melted, and run into bars. Ores containing lime and talc should be 
roasted with salt before being treated by this process, and iji every case the 
gas should be purified from muriatic acid by being forced through clean 
water before being used. Any silver in the 'metallic state present in the 
ore treated by this process, is'transformed into chloride of silver, which is 
soluble only in a hot solution of salt, but the chloride of gold is soluble in 
water, as described above. 

Retorting of Gold Amalgam. — The retorts in common use are cone- 
shaped cast-iron vessels Avith circular bottoms. The cone is attached to the 
upper part by a clamp and Avedge (the joint between being luted Avith clay) 
and is provided Avith an exhaust pipe in syphon shape, the shorter arm of 



9G0 METALLUBGY OF SILVEJR. 

wliich is screwed into the cover, while the longer one joasses through a ves- 
sel lilled with cold water (or a wrapping of wet cloths may he used instead) 
daring the time of operation. The interior of the retort should be dusted 
with whiting, meal, or any other suitable substance, to prevent the amalgam 
from adhering, and then filled not over two-thirds full, this precaution being 
necessary to prevent the apparatus from rupture by the choking of the ex- 
haust pipe, or from any other cause. Apply the heat first of allto the upper 
ixirt of the retort and the short arm of the pipe, then to the lower part, in- 
creasing the heat gradually to all parts, but never going much higher than 
a bright cherry red. 

The quicksilver, volatilized by the lieat, passes over and down the long 
arm of the pipe, through the condenser, and into the receiver, which is 
usually a vessel filled with water. 

Crucibles. — Crucibles are used for melting metals, compounding alloys, 
reducing ores, assaving, &c. For full directions for making crucibles, con- 
sult pp.^491 and 502. 

Ingot Moulds. — These are formed of cast-iron with a trough-shaped 
cavity, slightly wider and longer at the upi^er i^art than at the lower, so as to 
permit the easy dislodgement of the ingot. This is further promoted by oil- 
ing the interior of the mould previous to use. 

In estimating the capacity of an ingot mould, it is usual to rate each cubic 
inch for gold at $125, and for silver at $4.25. 

Flux.^— In metallurgy or chemistry a flux is a substance or mixture 
used to promote the fusion of metals or minerals. Black flux is used by in- 
troducing slowly in small portions, into a crucible heated to a very dull red 
heat, a compound of either equal parts of cream of tartar and nitre, or two 
parts of cream of tarter and one of nitre. White flux is compounded of one 
part of cream of tartar and two parts of nitre. 



METALLURGY OF SILVER. 

The methods in common use for the extraction of silver from the ore may 
be classified as follows : 1. Amalgamation of unroasted ores in iron i^ans. 

2. Amalgamation of roasted ores in barrels, iron pans, steam tubs, &c. 

3. Patio process of amalgamation in heaps. 4. Smelting with lead ores, or 
lead, and final separation of the silver by cupellation. 

Amalgamation of Unroasted Ores in Iron Pans. — This method, 
known among miners as the " wet process," is in quite extensive use for 
grinding the unroasted ore (after passing through the stamps and settling 
tanks) with water into an impalpable slime. The. limited capacity of the 
first pans proved a barrier to extensive operations bj^ the wet process, the 
small quantity of ore operated on, and the long time required to Avork the 
charge, being serious drawbacks to rapid progress. Figures 28 and 29 pre- 
sent a view of the common iron pan, in which a is a Avooden cross in which 
wooden blocks, &, Avith iron shoes, c, are fastened by the bolts, d ; each shoe 
has a pin, e, fitting into the wooden block, in order to prevent its moving ; 
on the shaft, r/, is the yoke, /; the two ends of the yoke fit in the holes, li, 
of the cross, o, but not too tightly, so that the muller can descend as the 
shoes wear awa3^ Steam is passed into the slimy charge of ore through the 
pipe, I; kk are discharge pipes ; m is a false bottom oi iron, formed in one 
piece, and 2 inches thick. In these pans the muller revolves with a grinding 
action, like a millstone, reducing the previously pulverized ore to the finest 
slime, and intermixing the quicksilver with the mass. - 

The Wheeler & Randall Excelsior Grinding and Amalgamating Pan, rep- 
resented by Fig. 28, takes high rank as an efficient machine. It is of cast- 
iron, has the couoidal form, the centre rising as high as the rim. and moulded 



METALLURGY OF SILVER. 



961 



SO that its vertical section forms tlie tractory curve, or curve of equal wear, 
securing perfect uniformity in the Avearing of tlie shoes on the muller 
and the dies. Tl\e muller is propelled by a centre shaft, the upper part of 
which is a screw to which the muller is attached, and is propelled by gear 




Fig. 28.— Common Amalgamating Pait. 




Fig. 29. 

wheels on the under side of the pan. The muller is attached by a large nut 
and secured to its place by a key which enters a slot cut upon one side of the 
screw. The bottom is provided with a steam chamber or false bottom ; the 
distance between the muller and the dies is regulated by a screw on the out- 
side of the pan, which, by means of a bent lever at the bottom, raises the 
vertical shaft, lifting the muller from the surface when required. 

In charging, the muller is raised a little, so as to revolve freely, water is 
admitted through the hose or pipe, the ore. rs it ronrcs from the rtnmps.'Mid 



962 



METALLURGY OF SILVER. 



settling tanks (ores containing much antimony should be roasted) is shovelled 
in, and steam is introduced through the steam chamber in the bottom, or 
directly into the pulp, the latter method giving the Jiigher temperature. 
Keep the heat at or near 200° Fahr., turn oli" the steam if the pulp becomes 
too thin, and allow it to thicken b}' the evaporation of the water Avhile the 
temperature is maintained by means of the steam chamber. Do not pass 
the exhaust steam, charged with oil from the engine, direct into the pulp, as 




Fig. 30.— Wheeler and Ra^-dall's Amalgamating Pan. 

it prevents amalgamation ; use live steam from the boiler for this purpose, 
but the former may be used in the steam chamber if desired. The pulp, if 
too thick, causes a waste of power, if too thin it will not amalgamate well. 

After commencing to grind, the muller should be gradually lowered ; in 
2 hours the ore should be reduced to a fine pulp ; at this period quicksilver 
is sui)plied by pressing it throngh canvas, so as to scatter it througli the puln 



METALLURGY OF SILVER. 



963 



in a jfinely divided state ; the muller is then slightly raised from the bottom, 
to avoid grinding the quicksilver, which weuld flour it, and the action is 
continued for 2 iiours longer. 

The proportions used to charge one of these pans witli 4 ft. muller, are : 
ore to the charge, 2000 lbs., quicksilver, 30 to 70 lbs., varying with the quality 




Fig. 31.— Agitator. 




Fig 32.— Wheeler's Agitator. 

of the ore ; revolutions of muller per minute, 60 to 65. Many chemical com- 
pounds have been used in treating raw ores containing sulphide of silver, in 
order to promote the decomposition of the ores, but their use was more prev- 
alent of late years than at the present time. A number of practical receipts 
for making them will be found below. 



964 METALLURGY OF SILVER. 

The grinding and amalgamating being completed, the pulp is diluted 
with water and discharged into the separator, when it is thoroughly washed 
in plenty of clean water. During the iirst twenty minutes but little water 
should be added to tlio slime in the separator ; after that time it may be 
filled nearl}^ to the brim by a small stream of pure water kept running for 
'JO minutes or more if necessary ; then one after another, beginning with 
the highest, draw the _])lugs from the holes and allow the pulp to run off 
slowly, clean water bemg allowed to flow into the machine at the same time, 
in the conoidal separator (capacity, 10 tons of ore iii 24 hours) the amalgam 
is deposited with the quicksilver in the bowl and spiral groove at the cir- 
cumference. The bulk of the quicksilver is withdrawn through a hole in 
the bottom of the bowl, and is treated by being washed, squeezed, and re- 
torted. In silver amalgam containing lead, squeezed at a temi^erature of 
IW — 180" Fahr., the lead passes off with the mercury, but if squeezed at a 
lower temperature, it Avill remain in the bag. The pulp is conveyed from 
the separator into agitators, or other inventions used for the purjjose of col- 
lecting the stray amalgam or quicksilver which may be discharged along 
with the coarser sand from the separator. 

The agitator is usually a tub, 2 or 3 ft. in diam. and about 12 ins. high, 
fitted with an upright, on which are arranged 4 projecting arms carrying 
stirrers. See fig. 31. 

Wheeler's agitator, represented by fig. 32, is about 8 ft. in diam.; the 
sides arc formed of Avooden staves from 25 to 30 ins. high, and the bottom is 
composed of cast-iron, dipping towards the centre, ending in the cavity h, for 
the accumulation of the quicksilver ; this is always kept full, and when the 
pans are discharged the suriilus quicksilver passes away by the syphon 
shown in cut. The tailings pass away continually through a pipe f ths of an 
in. ill diam. and 4 in. from the bottom, shown at Jc, and the lower pipe, I, 
1 in. in diam., is the discharge i)ipe when the agitator requires to be cleaned; 
another discharge hole is represented at o. 

Chemicals used in Various Mills i:s Treating Silver Ores by 
THE Pan Process. — The following practical receipts are transcribed from 
Guido Kustel's valuable work, entitled, '^Processes of Gold and Silver Ex- 
traction." The allowance in each case is for 1 ton of ore. «. Chloride of 
copper, 13 lbs. ; common salt, 60 lbs. 6. Chloride of iron, 13 lbs. c. Sul- 
phiate of iron, 1 lb. ; sulphate of copper, 8 lbs. ; common salt, 60 lbs. d. 
Sulphuric acid, 3 lbs.; sulphate of copper, 2 lbs. ; salt, 15 lbs. c. Sulphuric 
acid, 2 lbs. ; alum, 2 lbs. ; sulphate of copper, 1^ lbs. /. Sulphate of cop- 
])er, 18 ozs. ; sulphate of iron, 16 ozs. ; sal ammoniac, 8 ozs. ; common salt, 
2 lbs. r/. Alum, 1^ lbs.; sulphate of copper, l^lbs.; salt, 40 lbs. h. Muri- 
atic acid, 30 ozs. ; i^eroxide of mauganese, 8 ozs. ; blue vitriol, 10 ozs. ; green 
vitriol, 10 ozs. i. Common salt, 15 lbs.; nitric acid, 1 to 2 lbs. : sulphate of 
iron, 1 to 2 lbs. k. Common salt, 25 lbs. ; blue vitriol, 2 lbs. ; catechu, 2 lbs. 

Note. — a, b. c, are calculated for ore containing 250 to 500 ozs. of silver in sul- 
phurets. All chemicals, except salt, are used in solution. The salt is charged 
half au hour before the chemicals are put in. These chemicals are not well 
ad'apted for treating ores containing sulphur, arsenic, or antimony ; they should 
be roasted. 

Description OF the Machine. — A, Driving shaft ; B, Cylinder; CC, 
I^cvers to stuffing boxes ; D, Lever for pressing upper shoes uiion the cj'lin- 
ders ; E E, Upper shoes or dies ; F, Inside of cylinder ; G, Concave bottom 
of casing ; 1 1, Outside of casing. 

Instructons for using Beath's Amalgamator and Separator. — 
Two of the amalgamators being in operation with one separator, each amal- 
gamator is to be charged with 800 or 1000 lbs. of ore as it is collected from 
the batteries ; at the same time add sufficient water to keep it at a thick, 
pulpy consisteuc}'^ ; you then add fom 10 to 50 lbs. of quicksilver, according 
to the character and richness of the ore. The machines are kept in opera- 
tion until the reduction and amalgamation are complete, which time will 
vary from 2 to 4 houiY, according to the character of the ore being rcdncod. 



ROASTING OF SILVER ORES. 



065 



After the ore is sufficiently reduced and aroalgamated, tlie pulp is dis- 
charged into the separator, and the machine is immediately re- charged 
without stopping. 

After the pulp is received by the ueparator, it is to be thinned \yith water 
to a consistency that Avill allow the quicksilver and amalgam to precipitate 
and still retain sufficient body to keep the coarser particles of the pulp sus- 
pended in the water with the slum. 

m 



3 

k 
I 




Roasting of Silver Ores.— Argentiferous ores are more productive 
when roasted than when worked raw." The volatile components of the ores 
must be expelled by heat, and this is effected in two ways, viz. : in heaps 
or in furnaces. Bv'thc former method the ore, generally as it comes from 
the mine, is piled in alternate layers with fuel, the bottom layer being of 
wood piled in angular form in order to permit free circulation of air. For 
the upper layers coal or wood may be used, the proportion of ore to fuel 
varying from 1 to 6, to 1 to 18 ; fine ores, or ores abounding in sulphiir re- 
quiring less fuel than coarse ores, or ores poor in sulphur. Antimonial or 
or arsenical ores, with little or no sulphurets, should contain an rd'dition of 



906 ROASTING OF SILVER ORES. 

2 or 3 per cent, of calcined green vitriol before being roasted. The fire is 
i,::;iiited through vertical openings extending downwards through the 
lieap to the ground layer ; these apertures are closed when the fire is 
thoroughly kindled, and the smouldering process is continued for weeks 
and months, the sulphur in the ore supplying fuel to the fire, while the 
intensity of the heat may be controlled to any extent by closing or opening 
the draft holes or chimneys. It sometimes occurs that ores similarly inter- 
stratified with fuel are roasted in inclosures resembling kilns, provided with 
side openings. The roasting process trairsform* the silver into a chloride, 
easily decomposed by the quicksilver, and therefore rapidly amalgamated. 

The leading reactions which take place in roasting silver ores with salt, 
are mainly as follows : In submitting iron pyrites and other sulphurets to a 
red lieat in contact with air, they become, in a great measure, transmuted 
into sulphates, part of the sulphur becomes sulphuric acid, which combines 
witli the metallic oxides, while another portion disappears as sulphurous 
acid. As this part of the process requires a low degree of lieat, no decom- 
position of the salt will take place, but on the formation of the sulphates 
and the disappearance of all odor of sulphurous acid, the temperature 
must be increased and the decomposition of the salt will begin. This takes 
place in two ways: — 

First. — In roasting, the sulphates of iron and other sulphates give off vap- 
ors of sulphuric acid, which, in union with salt forms sulphate of soda, while 
the chlorine escapes in a gaseous form and combines with any native metals iu 
the mass under treatment, decomposing the sulphurets in such a manner 
that one part of the chlorine gas combines with the sulphur as chloride of 
sulphur, which exhales, while the other part forms a coloride with the liber- 
ated metal. 

Second. — By the other method of decomposition the salt and sulphate 
mutually decompose each other. The sulphate of silver, being compounded 
of sulphuric acid, oxygen, and silver, being heated in contact with common 
salt (which is composed of chlorine and sodium), the silver combines with 
the chlorine, the result being chloride of silver, while the oxygen and sodium 
forming soda, is, with the sulphuric acid, converted into sulphate of soda. 
When the vapor of water is present, during these various reactions, muriatic 
acid is formed in addition. The quantity of sulphurets and earthy mat- 
ters present in ores should be determined by inspection previous to roast- 
ing them. A surplus of lime in the ore, will, by combining with sulphuric 
acid, form sulphate of lime, which will remain unchanged throughout the 
process. To effect decomposition in such ores, sulphates or quartzose ores 
must bo added in quantity sufficient to change all the lime into sulphate. 
Talcose ores must be treated in a similar way, the primary use of the sul- 
phurets in the ore being to decompose the quantity of salt required lor chlo- 
rinatioh. 

Guido Kiistel, in his admirable work on the *'P7%ce55C5 of Silver and 
Gold Extraction," writes ; "In Freiberg (Germanj^) it was the rule to sub- • 
jcct only that ore to roasting which contained enough sulphurets to give 
25 to 30 per cent, of matt (sulphide of iron) when assayed for that purpose. 
If less matt was obtained, tlie ore had to be mixed with other ore, or so 
much iron pyrites was added that the required. quantity of sulphurets was 
obtained. The second class ore of the Ophir and Mexican claims in the 
Comstock lode, consisting of pure decomposed quartz, contains silver sul- 
phurets, with a small proportion of iron pyrites, yielding from G to 8 per 
cent, of matt. The roasting with salt, however, gives a satisfactory result, 
which must be attributed chiefly to the pure quartzose condition of the ore. 

" If the ore contains an abundance of sulphurets, the roasting must be 
performed without salt, for about two hours, till the greatest part of the 
sulphur is driven off, otherwise it would bake, and cause an imperfect 
roastmsr. 



TREATMENT OF SILVER ORES. 967 

" T\\G quantity of sulpliurets lias a great influence on the result of f cast- 
ing:. Ore liUc thiit of the Ophir or Mexican mines, containing silverglanoc, 
polybasite, brittle silver ore, native silver and gold, some iron, and but little 
copper pyrites, -will give a good result by roasting, even Avhen less attention 
is paid to the time and diligent stirring, than, for instance, -with the so- 
called 'base-metal ore,' which abounds in copper pyrites, zinc-blend, sul- 
pliuret of lead, etc. The presence of base metals causes a higher loss in 
silver. The chloride of silver is not volatile, except at a high temjoerature. 
But it has been observed that, in the presence of base-metal chlorides, the 
chloride of silver volatilizes also. The increased heat increases the volatil- 
ization, but decomposes the base-metal chlorides. By keeping a low heat, 
the loss of silver is less if the zinc-blend is not argentiferous, the latter 
requiring a higher heat to effect decomposition. But in roasting at a low 
heat, the base-metal chlorides remain in the ore, and cause more loss of 
quicksilver in the subsequent amalgamation, and require more metallic iron 
in the barrels ; besides, the bullion contains a great deal of base metals. 
In treating such ore in the roasting-furnace, the application of steam is 
advantageous, creating hydrochloric acid by the decomposition of chlorides, 
at the same time becoming a decomposing agent for the sulpliurets. The 
hydrogen of the steam decomposes also the chloride of silver, which, upon 
being reduced to a metallic condition, by its affinity for chlorine, in turn 
decomi)oses the hydrochloric acid. The silver may thus change repeatedly 
from metallic condition to the chloride, while the base-metal chlorides are re- 
duced to oxides, and in that state do not interfere with the amalgamation." 

Roasting, Calcining, and Chloridizing Silver Ores in Furnaces. 
— Of the many furnaces, and for this purpose, the reverbatory kind is by far 
the best. The interior surfaces should be constructed of the best fire brick, 
placed edgeways, the exterior walls may be of stone or common brick, and 
the whole structure should be throughly braced with iron rods and well- 
seasoned previous to being used. The reverberatory furnace is constructed 
either with pne, or two hearths, as may be desired ; the calcining and 
chloridizing being effected on the lower hearth, while the roasting and 
sulphatization is done on the upper one. On the upper hearth the pulver- 
ized ore is placed to a depth of from 2 to 4 ins., the heat is maintained at a 
low temperature, not over a brown or dull red, with frequent stirring of 
the ore, and the supply of air should be abundant. To promote oxidation 
and control the temperature, a jet of steam should be used. When the ores 
contain arsenic, powdered charcoal in small quantities may be used to good 
advantage, and if the ores are poor in sulphur, from 2 to 3 per cent, of the 
sulphate of iron may be added. The roasting and sulphatizing will be com-, 
pleted in from 4 to 5 hours, when the ore is permitted to drop through an 
aperture in the upper hearth on to the lower one, where for some time it is 
kept at a temperature but slightly higher than that previously noted, but is 
.afterwards raised and maintained at a cherry red, and should never exceed 
a bright red, the ore being stirred meanwhile, during the calcining and 
chloridizing processes. When the calcination is effected, which will be in 
from 4 to 5 hours, a melted and well pulverized mixture of common salt, 
and 7 parts of cold calcined ore, are added to the hot ore on the hearth 
(calculated at 15 parts), and the whole mass is completely intermixed by 
vigorous stirring. This latter, called the chlorination ijrocess, will usually 
occupy about 35 or 20 minutes. 

Amalgamation in Dr. Veitch's Steam Tubs. — The primary difference 
between this process and the last noted consists in the employment of tubs 
instead of barrels and the use of steam directly in the pulp. Tlie tubs are 
about 4 ft. deep and 4 ft. diam. The bottom is made of cast-iron with three 
circular apertures for the reception of cast-iron perforated plates ; below 
are the steam- chambers. The holes are about 2 ins. apart, and very small. 
lu the centre of the tub is a vertical shaft, suspended in a box outside of the 



i)()8 AMALGAMATION V.Y PATIO PROCESS. 

tub.* There arc three arms attached to it, each having three arms of copper 
or iron plates hanging perpendicularly in concentric lines. Tlie movable 
cover has an orifice in connection witli a Hue by which the steam and some 
quicksilver are conveyed into cooling tanks. 

In operating, tlie steam is projected through the perforated plates into 
the pulp, and impels the quicksilver in spray, or globules of every size, in a 
stream through the entire mass, causing an intimate blending between the 
ore and the mercury. The nine iron plates (or if there is much copper in 
the ore, copper plates should be used) pass through the ore edgeways, with 
a circular motion, and agitate the ])ulp, the decomposition of the cliloridc;i 
meantime progressing very rapidly by means of the heat and impact againi^t 
the plates, which present a surface of nearly 3G00 sq. ins. of surface to COO 
or 800 lbs. of ore. If the ore has beeu properly roasted amalgamation will 
be effected in 5 hours. Argentiferous ores, intended to be treated either by 
this, or the barrel amalgamation process, should be free from metallic gold, 
or it must be extracted previous to roasting the ore, for subsequent to roast- 
ing, the gold is not, like silver, in a soluble state, but in a metallic condition, 
usually coated with an oxide (especially if in contact with sulphurct of 
lead), which renders the amalgamation oi the gold extremely difficult. 




rig. 34.— AMAliGAMATIOX BY PATIO PROCESS. 

Amalgamation by the Mexican" or Patio Process.— The Spanish 
word Patio denotes a yard. The ores best ada^Dted to this treatment arc, 
ruby silver, brittle silver ore, polybasite, stromeyrite, iodyrite, silverglauce, 
and chloride of silver. Silver ores containing gold are unfit for treatment 
unless that metal has been previously extracted by some other proceps. 
Argentiferous zinc-blend, pyrites, and a few other combinations cannot bo 
treated unless perfectly roasted. Silver ore combined with antimonj'- and 
copper should be slightly roasted previous to treatment. Argentiferous 
lead ores and gold ores are utterly unsuitable for treatment. 

The amalgamating yard is levelled off, paved Avith granite blocks or 
bricks, encompassed by high walls, and is generally left exposed to the 
atmosphere. Over this pavement, the silver ore (previously dissolved to r.n 
impalpable slime, by means of arastras, stamps, or other machinery) \» 
deposited and spread to a depth of from 7 to 12 ins., and surrounded by low, 
close curbs. Next, salt, in quantity to conform witli its quality and the 
richness of the ore, is added to the mass and thoroughly intermixed by being 
turned Avith shovels and trodden by horses, mules, or oxen. See iig. C4. 
The chemical action of the salt produces chloride of silver and desulphur^ 
izes the sulphides. The mass is then allowed to rest one whole day. 

Magistral, i. c, copper pyrites, roasted and pulverized, are added to the 
mass one hour after the treading, turning, &c., begins, the quantity varying 
with its quality, the temperature of the season, and the richness of the ore. 
the i)rimary effect of the magistral being to revive the silver by depriving it 
of chlorine. 



SMELTING OF SILVEK OEES. 969 

Tlie next addition is quicksilver, -which is tisnally added in three charges 
to the ore by being sprinkled through cloth, buckskin, canvns, &c. ; after 
the first charge the mass is tlioroughly mixed, and formed into lieaps of 
about one ton each, smoothed off, and let stand 24 hours. Tlien during the 
morning, every other day, the treading, turning, and heaping processes is 
repeated for the space of 5 to 6 hours. The second charge of quicksilver is 
added and the treatment repeated, and by washing a sample of the mixture 
it is determined whether or not the first cliarge has been properly blended 
with the mass. The third charge is added after the due incorporation of 
the second, in order to absorb any stray particles of silver, and to render the 
amalgam more suitable for separation. 

Lime is added to cool, and magistral to heat, as the temperature of the 
ore may require. With too much heat the quiclvsilver becomes pulverulent 
and of a dark shade, with scattered brown spots upon its sui-face ; Avith too 
little it retains its natural appearance and fluidity. With the proper tem- 
perature the amalgam Avill present a grayish white tint and yield easily to 
gentle pressure. An excess of quicksilver, magistral, or lime* is inimical to 
tlie process ; an overplus of salt will cause a loss of quicksilver but no 
further injury. 

For ore valued at $50 per ton, a proper proportion of the above noted 
ingredients would be, to each ton : salt, of prime quality, 80 lbs. ; magistral 
(containing 10 per cent, of the sulphate of copper), in summer, 20" lbs., in 
Avinter, 10 lbs. ; quicksilver, first charge, 14 lbs., second charge, 5 lbs., third 
charge, 7 lbs. ; lime, more or less, 15 lbs., as may be required. The time of 
treatment varies from 12 to 60 days, according to the state of the weather, etc. 

The separation is effected by washing the mass with plenty of water in a 
capacious, deep, circular vessel, essentially the same in principle as the 
common separator or settler, whereby the lighter portions are caused to flow 
slowly away, leaving the amalgam to be gathered last of all by itself, to be 
removed and retorted at the refining works. 

Smelting of Okes. — This is effected by various contrivances, such as 
" Cupola " and " Reverberatory " Furnaces, '*' Backwoods hearths," " Scotch 
and American hearths," &c., the object being to reduce the ores to the metal- 
lic state by means of fire, assisted by fluxes of limestone or lime, carbonate 
of soda, iron, and fluor spar. Lead ore, granulated lead and litharge are used 
as fluxes for gold and silver. The size, form, capacity, &c., of the furnace 
may be made to conform to the requirements in each case : the Castilian 
furnace is of an annular shape, Avhile the McKenzie Cupola is more of an 
elliptical form. The fuel and ore are intermixed in proper proportions in 
the cupola, being iutroduced through the charging door, several feet above 
the bottom of the cupola. The furnace is vertical in position, about 15 ft. 
in height, with an interior area through its largest horizontal section of 
about 12 sq. ft., varying more or less according to size. See page 684 for de- 
tails of furnaces, modes of operating, blast, &'c. 

The fire, urged by the blast, consumes the fuel, and imparts its heat to 
the ore, which is arranged in alternate layers with the fuel. The fluxes, 
Avhich have an affinity for some part of the mineral xnider treatment, either 
induce its dissipation or form with it a fusible compound or slag, whieli' 
being lighter than the metal, is frequently separated from it, either by being 
drawn off from the surface, or permitted to rest until the metal is with- 
drawn from below. The kind of flux to be used depends largely upon the 
variety at hand and the character of the ores and gangues to be treated. If 
the gangue of the ore is composed of different earths, with the oxides of 
base metals, litharge, quartz and carbonate of soda may be used as fluxes. 
If quartz forms the gangue of tlie ore, lime, the oxides of the base metals, 
and carbonate of soda may be used, wliile such fluxes as metallic iron and 
litharge, lime, and carbonate of soda are well adapted for the treatment of 
ores containing much sulphide. 



970 TREATMENT OF SILVER, ETC. 

A primarj' condition in almost every form of smelting silver ores is the 
use of lead in one or more of its various forms ; if lead is not combined 
with the ore under treatment it must be added thereto. In smelting silver 
ores the notable uses subserved by lead and its compounds, are these, viz. : 
On the fusion of lead with the sulphate, oxide, or sulphide of silver, the 
latter is reduced to the metallic state, and forms an alloy with excess of 
lead ; in fusing sulphate of lead with sulphate of silver argentiferous lead is 
formed ; a blast of air directed upon u fused compound of silver and lead 
has an oxidizing effect on the lead, but effects no change on the silver ; lead 
has a greater affinity for silver than for any of the inferior metals ; under 
treatment in the fui*nace, the sulphide or sub-sulpliate of lead and the sul- 
phate of lead react upon each other, and absorb the silver, if any be present. 
Further ; three parts of sulphate of lead and one part sulphide of lead 
react on each other and produce litharge. Again ; sulphide of lead and 
copper, antimony, zinc, or metallic iron in a fused state, react upon each 
other and produce, on the one basis, sulphide of iron, and on the other, metal- 
lic lead, &c. Similar results will take place if the sulphide of lead at the 
^ame time contain the sulphide of silver, and the lead and silver combine 
togetlier in an alloy, while the iron or other metals noted is formed into a 
sulphide. 

In smelting ores containing gold and silver it is not necessary to change 
or vary the process by reason of the presence of the former metal. 

TBEATMBlfT OF SlLVER ObES BY SlLESlAN PROCESS IN A CuPOLA 

Furnace. — The raw argentiferous galena and the necessary iron-flux are 
first broken into small pieces and thoroughly mixed, when they are passed 
into the cupola so that they will occupy the rear of the chamber, while the 
fuel is placed in the front part. The blast is applied so that a gradual fu- 
sion results and the cupola hearth becomes overspread witli molten lead and 
floating slags, owing to the reactions of the sulphur and iron combined with 
oxygen. At proper intervals, the lead, all ready for cupellation, is with- 
drawn through an orifice in the bottom of the furnace and the floating slags 
through a higher aperture ; the more valuable portion of tlie slags, or 
matt, being composed of the sulphide of iron and lead with silver in min- 
ute quantity, are put through an additional treatment of roasting and 
fusion. The proper proportions of a charge are : argentiferous galena, well 
broken, 100 parts ; broken slag from iron forge, 14 parts ; cast-iron, 12 parts; 
coal, 126 parts. 

In THE Rammelsbebg Process of Cupola treatment the ores of argen- 
tiferous galena loaded with a large surplus of impurities and foreign matter, 
are first treated either in Heaps in the open air or in Beverberatory 
Furnaces. In Heaps, ores rich in sulphides of zinc, copper, and iron are 
thoroughly intermixed with galena, and graded according to the dimensions 
of the blocks, the largest below and the smallest at top, in a fabric erected 
to a height of several feet upon a thick substratum of wood. The whole is 
covered with a layer of granulated roasted ore, to exclude an excess of air. 
The wood being kindled, ignites the sulphides throughout the ore, which in a 
heap containing about 150 tons, will keep smouldering away for from 4 to 6 
months. This constitutes the first roasting, which is to be followed by a 
series of roastings, to continue until the volatile components of the ore are 
expelled. 

In the Reverheratory Furnace the ore is first roasted in the nsual manner 
to the proper degree of oxidation. The furnace door is then closed, the 
lieat raised, and the charge fused. The silicates of lead, lime, &c., are 
generated, and with the sulphate, oxide, and sulphide of lead are spread 
upon the floor of the furnace, cooled off, and broken into lumps about the 
size of oranges, the dimensions best adapted for treatment in a cupola 
funiace. 

lu charging the cupola the right proportions are : roasted ore, 140 parts ? 



BARREL AMALGAMATION, ETC. 97l 

highly silicious slags, 40 parts ; litharge, 1 to 2 i)arts. The ore, intermixed 
witli the slags, and pieces of old cupels, should be reduced to the size of 
ordinary jwtatoes, and well mixed. Apply a vigorous blast, fuse and treat 
the slags, matt, and lead as noted under the preceding process. 

Cupola Treatment of Silver Ores. — Mexican Pi'ocess. The ore, 
uncontaminated with lead, and largely composed of sulphide of iron and 
quartz, sulphide of silver, &c., is well mixed with half its weight of charcoal 
and roasted in kiln-like enclosures exposed to the atmosphere. Sometimes 
dry wood is substituted for charcoal, and the roasting is accomplished in 
circular structures with an interior diam. of 4h ft. ; iieight the same, built of 
adobe, or sun-dried brick, with a capacity (including fuel) of 1 ton of ore 
each. The roasted ore (from these kilns), with the proper fluxes, being 
thoroughly mixed, the cupola is charged in the following ratio ; charcoal, 
50 to 75 parts ; roasted ore, as above described, 75 parts ; litharge, 100 
parts ; matt of former operations, 25 parts ; lead slags, 16 parts ; cupel 
bottoms, IG parts ; native carbonate of soda, IG parts. Tlie blast being ap- 
plied, fusion takes place, and the metal drawn off at stated periods is cast 
into ingots ready for cupellation, while the matt secured is finally returned 
to the furnace to aid in the fusion of future charges of ore. 

Amalgamation by the Foster-Firmin Process. — In this process the 
quicksilver is atomized by steam, compressed air, water, or other equivalent 
medium, and forced, after the manner of the well-known sand blast, through 
a stream of falling ore which may be either wet or dry. While in tlie act 
of entering the amalgamator the ore is impinged upon by a stream of mer- 
cury which escapes from a small receptacle at the rear of the hopper (con- 
taining the ore) through an inner pipe. The flow of ore and mercurj- is 
broken up and carried forward by steam or air pressure. The ore which 
flows into the amalgamator is discharged into the washer, where it is heated 
by steam and Avorked for a short time until it is mulched sufficiently to 
floAv evenly. Water is then injected into the chamber at the bottom of the 
washer, when the bulk of the mercury is withdrawn and the waste flows 
into the first settler of the series, and the water passes on until it finally 
escapes from the lower settler. The mercury is deposited in the central 
conical space in the vessels, from which it is removed occasionally through 
the discharge cocks. One of the settlers is provided with amalgamated 
copper plates, which are vibrated by the action of the water, thus effecting 
the arrest of the fine particles of gold or mercury carried in the water as it 
passes between them, while any gold leaf which may float on the surface is 
retained by partition. 

The inventors claim that with their apparatus thej'^ have obtained the 
entire quantity of metal contained in the ore and have recovered from 98 to 
100 per cent, of the mercury used, the whole operation from the commence- 
ment to the production of the amalgam being completed within one hour, at 
a very low cost, thus rendering th.e Avorking of poor ores profitable. During 
a recent i^ublic trial of this apparatus, silver ore was passed through a single 
amalgamator at the rate of 3000 lbs. per hour ; 99 per cent, of silver and 97^ 
per cent, of the mercury were recovered witliin an hour. During another 
similar trial ore was j^assed through at the rate of 3,600 lbs. per hour, 97.5^8 
per cent, of mercury aud silver together were recovered in 45 minutes, and 
within half an hour (IJ hour from the start) 07 per cent, of the silver was 
crucibled ; subsequently an additional quantity of amalgam was collected 
and treated, bringing up the result to fully 99 per cent, of silver and 99^ per 
cent, of mercury recovered. 

Barrel Amalg.\mation of Silver Ore.— The following account of the 
treatment of silver ores by barrel amalgamation, at Halsbruecke, near Frei- 
berg, is from Phillip's Metalhivgy, and closely resembles similar methods 
DOW used in Nevada : — The usual components of the ores there treated are 
eulphur, antimony, ar.senic, silver, copper, lead, iron, and zinc, which are 
more or less mixed with various earthy minerals, besides sometimes cou- 



972 BARREL AMALGAMATION. 

tainiii.i? small quantities of bismuth, gold, nickel, and cobalt. In the selec- 
tion of these ores, they are so assorted as not to contain above 7 per cent, of 
lead, or 1 per cent, of copper, as from combining with the mercury added 
these metals give the amalgam a pasty consistency, and tliereby render, the 
treatment extremely difficult and expensive. The mixture of the different 
ores obtained from the mines is so arranged that the charges of the furnaces 
shall contain 75 to 80 ounces of silver to the ton of mineral; it is also essential 
that tliey sliould contain a certain proportion of sulphur. This nsually ex- 
ists in the form of iron pyrites, which, on being roasted, gives rise to the for- 
mation of the sulphate and oxide of iron necessary to the success of the sub- 
sequent operations. If, as is sometimes the case, tlie amount of ])yrites 
naturally occuring in the ores is not sufficient for these purposes, addititm 
is made either of this mineral, or, in some instances, of ready-formed sul- 
phate of iron. 

The ore, when thus prepared, is laid on a large floor, 40 feet in length and 
about 12 in width, and on the top of it is thrown about 10 per cent, of com- 
mon salt, which is let drop from an upper room through a spout placed in the 
floor for that purpose. The heap, wlien it has been thus made up of alter- 
nate strata of ore and common salt, is well mixed by being carefully turned 
over, and is subsequently divided iuto small parcels called roast-posts, each 
weighing from 3^ to 4-^ cvvts. The salt annually employed for this purpose 
at tiie Halsbruecke works amounts to 300 tons, and is sui^plied by the Prus- 
sian salt-mines. 

The mixture of ore and sa,lt is now roasted in reverberatory furnaces pro- 
vided with fume-flues for the reception of any pulverulent matters which 
may be mechanically taken over by the draught. The prej^ared charge is 
spread on the bottom of the hearth, Avhere it is at first very gently heated, 
for the purpose of exjielling the moisture, which to a greater or less extent 
it variably contains. During the process of drying, which usually occupies 
two hours, the charge is kept constantly stirred by a log iron rake, and 
when this operation is considered sufficiently advanced, the heat is so far in- 
creased as to cause the ignition of the sulphur, and to render the ore red-hot. 
" The furnace is kept at this temperature for about four hours, during 
which time the metals become oxidized, and sulphurous acid gas is rapidly 
given off, whilst tlie ore is by constant stirring prevented from becoming 
agglutinated in masses. The temperature is now still further raised, and 
sulphurous acid is again given off, together with vapors of chloride ol iron 
and hydrochloric acid. The hydrochloric acid generated at this stage of 
the operation is due to decomposition of the chloride of iron, by the action 
of oxygen and watery vapor. This last firing, which occupies about three- 
quarters of an hour, is continued with constant stirring until a sample taken 
from the furnace ceases to evolve any odor of sulphurous acid, and has for 
its object the decomposition of the sea-salt by the metallic sulphates pro- 
duced. During this process the ore increases considerably in volume, and 
assumes a deep brown color. When the roasting is terminated the chaigo 
is raked from the furnace to the floor of the establishment, from whence, 
after luiving been allowed to cool, it is removed for the purpose of being- 
passed through a set of fine sieves, by which the finer powder is separated 
from the agglutinated lumps. These are broken down to a proper size, and 
after being mixed with a fresh quantity of sea-salt are again roasted in the 
usual way. Tlie finer particles are, on the contrary, taken to a pair of heavy 
mill-stones, where they are reduced to the state of an impalpable powder. 
At the Halsbruecke works there are 14 roasting-f urnaces, and as many pair 
of granite mill-stones, which, together, are capable of preparing and grinding 
.about 70 tons of ore per week. The ore, alter passing through the mill, 
which makes from one 100 to 120 revolutions per minute, is sifted through 
a dressing apparatus, which renders it as impalpable as the finest flour, 

The amalgamation of tliis prepared ore is performed in 20 wooden casks, 
arranged in i'our rows, and each turning on cast-Iron axles, secured to the 



BARREL AMALGAMATION. 



973 



ends by means of bolta. These barrels, which are 2 ft. 10 ins. in lenp-th, 
and 2 ft. 8 ins. in internal diameter, are made of oak staves o^ ins. in thicli- 
ness, and are further strengthened by iron hoops and binders. On one of 
the ends of eacli tun is phiced a toothed Avheel, wliicli works into another 
toothed wheel, mounted on an axle, which receives its motion directly from 
a water-wheel. Above each of the tuns so arranged is placed a wooden 
case, into which is thrown the prepared mineral, and which is furnished 
with a leathern hose, for the purpose of introducing the powdered ore into 
the different barrels. With this view, each cask is furnished with a circular 
opening, and an iron or wooden pin, which is employed for runi:ing off, at 
th^ termination of the process, the argentiferous amalgam. 




Fig. 35.— Barrel Amalgamation. 
The basins, situated immediately above each tun, are of such a size as 
to exactly contain the amount of %vater necessary for one charge. Below 
the tuns, and a little above tlio surface of the ground, are placed triangular 
troughs, destined to receive the various elaborated products at the termina- 
tion of the operation. At the commencement of the operation, 3 cwts. of 
water are run into each barrel from the reservoir, after which 10 cwts. of 
the finely-ground and sifted ore are introduced through the hose. To this 
are added from 78 to 100 lbs. of Avrought-iron, cut into fragments of about 
an incli^ square, and three-eighths of an inch in tliickness, and which, in 
proportion as they become d.issolved by the action of the substances by 
Avhich they are associated, 'are replaced by fresh pieces. The casks are now 
tightly closed by screw-stoppers, and as soon as they have all been charged, 
the apparatus is thrown into gear by the means of a screw, and the sliding 
block, which cause the tuns to rotate Avith a rapidity of from 18 to 20 turns 
per minute. At the expiration of two hours the machinery is again stopped, 
and the tans are opened for the purpose of examining the state of the 
metalliferous paste which they contain. If the charge is too firm, a little 
water is added ; but if, on the contrary, it is found to be too liquid, a small 



974 



BARREL AMALGAMATION. 



quantity of powdered ore is thrown in. When this has been attended to, 6 
cwts. of mercury are poured into each cask, and the tuns, after being se- 
curely closed, are again thrown into gear, and kept constantly revolving for 
KJ or 18 hours, at the rate of from 20 to 25 turns per minute. During this 
time they are, however, twice examined, for the purpose of seeing whether 
the paste wliich they contain be of the proper consistence ; for if it be too 
thick, the i)articles of mercury are not sufficiently brought into contact with 
the silver contained in tlie ore, and if too mucli water has been added, they 
remain at the bottom of the cask, and are not sufficiently mixed witli the 
different constituents of the charge. In the first case it is necessary to add 
a small quantity of water, and, in the second, a little powdered ore. After 
the introduction of the mercury, the temperature of the casks becomes con- 
siderably raised by the chemical changes constantly- going on within, so that, 
even in winter, it sometimes stands as high as 104° Fahr. 

At the expiration of 20 hours the amalgamation of the silver is ordinarily 
complete, and the tuns are now entirely filled with Avater, and again made 
to turn 2 hours, with a velocity of only 8 revolutions per minute. The amal- 
gam is by this means separated from the slimy matters with which it was 
mixed, and collects in one mass at the bottom 'of the tuns. AVhen this ag- 
gregation of the amalgam has been accomplished, the different casks are 
successively thrown out of gear, and are stopped Avith their apertures im- 
mediately over the spouts. A small peg in tlie bung is now removed, and 
the liquid amalgam flows out and is received in the triangular spont ; the 
workman closely watches this period of the operation, and the moment any 
of the earthy matters begin to fiowjfrom the orifice, it is again tightly closed. 
Tlie mercur}'^ is now runoff through the iron tube, into the gutter, by which 
it is conducted into a receiver prepared for that purpose. 




Fig. 3G.— Bakrel Amalgamation. 

The casks are now turned w4th their apertures upward, and as soon as 
the bungs have been removed, they are again brought back to their former 
position, and the muddy residuum is discharged into a spout from which it 
'Hows into large reservoirs situated at a lower level. This residuary ore is 
found to be stripped of its silver to witliin about 5-^ ozs. to the ton, and is 
therefore often subjected to another amalgamation. The emptying and dis- 
charging of the casks occupies about two hours, and the whole process is 
therefore finished in less than 24 hours. In 14 days IGO tons of mineral are 
treated in this establisliment, every 5 tons of which require an expenditure 
of 15 lbs. of metallic iron, and 2 lbs. 12f ozs. of mercury: so that every 
pound of metallic silver produced is obtained at an expense of 0.95 of an 
ounce of mercury. 

During the first 2 hours that the casks are set in action, and before the in- 
troduction of tlie mercury the sesquichloride of iron contained in the ore is 



BARREL AMALGAMATION, ETC. 975 

decomposed by the metallic iron present, and converted into protochloride. 
If, instead of operating in the way described, the mercury Avere immediately 
introduced into the casks, it would, by reacting on the prochloride of iron, 
become partially converted into calomel, which, not becoming again reduced 
during the subsequent .stages of the operation, would be productive of a 
considerable loss of this valuable metal. This inconvenience is, however, 
completely avoided by the action of the metallic iron, as the protochloride 
thus formed is entirely "witliout action on metallic mercury. The chloride 
of silver contained in the roasted ore is held in solution with the chloride 
of sodium, and, becoming reduced to the metallic state by the constant 
agitation with the metallic iron, combines with the mercury to form a liquid 
amalgam. The chlorides of lead and copper are decomposed at the same 
time as the chlorides of silver, and enter into the composition of the amal- 
gam produced. 

When the residual earthy matters are drawn off from the casks, the 
pieces of metallic iron are retained by means of a grating, whilst the slimes, 
after being run into proper receivers, are conducted into piig-tuhs, where 
they are constantly kept stirred with a large quantity of water. 

These tubs are furnished Avith openings at various distances from the bot- 
tom, by Avhich the muddy water is successively drawn off, Avhilst a certain 
quantity of amalgam is found collected at the bottom of the vessel. This is 
collected at the close of tlie operation, and added to that obtained by tapping 
directly from the amalgamation tubs, as before described. 

The mercurj'^ and amalgam obtained from the casks is afterward filtered 
tlirough close canvas bags by which the liquid quicksilver is separated from 
the pasty amalgam, which is retained by the closeness of the web, whilst the 
mercury i)asses tlirough into reservoirs prepared for that purpose. The pasty 
amalgam Avhich is retained in the bags consists of a mixture of six parts of 
mercury and one part of an alloy composed of about 80 per cent, of silver, 
and 20 of a mixture of copper, lead, bismuth, antimony, gold, nickel, zinc, 
and some other metals. This mixture is subsequently heated in a distilla- 
tory furnace, and is thus freed from the adhering mercury, whilst the non- 
volatile constituents of the alloy are obtained in the solid form. 

Mr. Kostel remarks : " The amalgamation in barrels is not adapted to 
ore containing gold. Unroasted ore has been tried witli chemicals unsuc- 
cessfully. The construction of the barrels does not differ much in the differ- 
ent works of Nevada Territory. They have a cylindrical shape, the diameter 
and depth being nearly equal. The staves are 3 or 4 inches thick. There 
are two sizes in use. The smallest, callable of receiving from 1000 to ISOO 
pounds of ore, are 32 inches each Avay ; the larger, receiving a ton of ore, 
measure from 44 to 48 inches in the clear. 

Ayer's Process of Treating Silver Ores. — By this process the ore, 
as received from the mine, is subjected to the action of intense heat in a fur- 
nace, and afterwards thrown, while still hot, into alkali water or brine, which 
has the effect of crumbling it into small pieces ; the fragments are suljjected 
to additional reducing processes, and afterwards amalgamated. 

Fig. 37 represents Kenffi'method of arranging barrels for amalgamating. 
The amalgamation is effected by the rotary motion of the barrels, after 
which the mass is discliarged through large spouts into the agitator below, 
where the amalgam accumulates at the bottom. The following is Mr. Kent's 
account of his improved process of treating gold and silver ores. 

" By this ' improved mode of preparing ores,' the ore is not only desul- 
phurized in the best and cheapest manner, but the base metals are converted 
into soluble chlorides, which are not readily decomposed by heat, and may 
be subsequently removed by washing the prepared ore, or by tlie water used 
in the process of amalgamation, and the gold is tlius left free and bright, and 
in the best possible condition for combining with the mercury uged in that 
process. 

" To effect this object, the crushed ores or tailings are simply mixed with 



970 



KENT S AM.ALGAMAT12<^G PKOCESS. 



a solution of common salt, and made into cakes, lamps, or bricks, which 
are then calcined in a common kiln, such as is used lor burning lime or 
bricks. In this process, the sulphur in the ore is oxidized by the oxygen of 
the atmosphere, and the sulphuric acid thus produced immediately combines 
-with the soda in the salt, forming sulphate of soda, and liberating the muri- 
atic acid, which in its turn attacks the base metals, forming chlorides of 
copper, zinc, antimony, etc., together with chloride of silver, and leaving 
metallic gold. All the acid used in the process is prepared in the process it- 
self, and the chemical changes are produced in tlie nascent state, which is 
the most favorable condition for effecting them, and tlie sulphur being thus 
combined with the soda, a smaller proportion escapes into the atmosph^e 
than when ores are simply roasted alone. 




Fig. 37.— Kent's Amalgamating Barrels. 

" Bj the application of the salt in solution, one bushel will make suflS- 
cient for a ton of ore ; and bj' making the ore into bricks, which may be done 
with one machine, at the rate of 25 tons per day, the use of expensive rever- 
beratory furnaces, as used at Freiberg, is avoided, and 25 tons of gold or 
silver ore, in a common lime-kiln, or 1200 tons in a brick-kiln composed of 
the caked ore in the form of bricks, may be calcined at one operation, in the 
cheapest and best manner, Avithout any furnace at all, by the ]mssagc of a 
current of hot air through the interstices of the brick so formed. 

" After the chemical decomposition of the ore is thus effected; it becomes 
.•JO soft that it may be ground Avith common burr-mills, at the rate of 40 
bushels per hour, for amalgamation in barrels, or it may be ground and 
amalgamated at the same time, by the nse of the "Washoe pans. When two 
different kinds of ore are mixed together, in suitable proportions, before 
caking, which is sometimes of very great advantage, and the calcination and 
amalgamation are done in the best manner, about five times as much gold 
or silver as from crude ore, or from seventj'-five per cent, to the full assay 
value, may be obtained." 

ExTKACTiox or Stlvek by Hot Process ry Copper Kettles. — ^This 



MIXTUIiKS OF ORES, ETC. 977 

process is mainly used in South America, on ores ricli in native silver, or in 
the chloride, iodide, or bromide of silver, which are first finely pulverized 
and concentrated by Avashing, and then iilaced in kettles fitted uith copper 
bottoms ■where they are boiled with a considerable volume of water. From 
10 to 15 per cent, of salt is then introduced into the boiling mass and thor- 
oughly stirred. Next, quicksilver, of less weight than that of the silver 
present, is added to the pulp, with continued .stirring, adding more quick- 
silver whenever a test discloses the slightest dryness in tlie amalgam, 
lastly, the amalgam and gangues are separated by washing ; the amalgam 
is squeezed, retorted and refined, while the gangues, if desired, may be sub- 
mitted to the Patio process. 

In the Parke Process, lead containing silver is fused in massive cast-iron 
pots, and melted zinc is added and Avell intermixed. The fire is then Avith- 
drawn from under the pot, and the mixture is allowed to rest for u brief 
period, while the silver and zinc, separating from the lead, rise to the sur- 
face of the molten metal, and are skimmed off as long as the alloy con- 
tinues to rise. Next, the scum alloj'- combined with some lead is heated in 
a liquation retort ; the silver and lead fuse, and are then in latge proportion 
conducted into jirepared moulds. The alloy thus obtained is afterwards 
cupelled, and the alloy of zinc and silver remaining in tlie retoit is sub- 
mitted to distillation in order to effect a partial separation, while the silver 
thus obtained is deprived of its impurities by cupellation. The prt)portions 
used in charging the pot are : argentiferous lead, 6 to 7 tons ; quantity of 
silver to the ton of lead, 10 to 15 ozs. ; estimated quantity of zinc to each oz. 
of silver, 1.5 to 2 lbs. The alloy should be stirred from iO to 15 hours after 
the addition of the zinc, and the proportion of silver (to the ton, of alloy) 
when ready for cupellation should be 1000 ozs. 

The Liqrcatioii Process is based on the principle that an alloy of lead and 
copper, melted together, separate if slowly cooled, but cohere in intinrato 
union if quickly cooled. A compound of copper and lead, if slowly heated 
to near the melting point, will also separate, and the silver, if any be pres- 
ent, will go with tlie lead. In practice, an alloy of copper and silver, or 
copper matt (as it comes from the smelting furnace) containing silver, is 
melted with about four times its weight of lead in a cu^wla, and cast in 
annular plates, which are rapidly cooled. These circular plates are termed 
liquation cakes, and are arranged in a liquation furnace, on their edges, 
with alternate layers of charcoal. The latter being lighted, the heat 
is raised to a degree slightly less than the melting point of t-opper, when the 
silver and lead fusing, are conducted to a receiver, while the copper, in a 
honey-combed condition, remains in the original form. If the separation 
proves defective the cakes may be submitted to the further treatment of a 
higher degree of heat in the sweating furnace. The separation of the silver 
from the lead is finally effected by cupellation. 

The following mixtures of ores and fluxes are noted in Mr. Kustel's excel- 
lent work, as possessing reliable proportions for smelting p'urposes. 

No. 1. Mixture for Ores without Roasting, a-sd hefore Litharge 
is Obtained from the Manipulation. — Silver ore, 100 lbs. ; Granulated 
lead (or 200 lbs. lead ore), 85 lbs.; Soda ash, 25 lbs. ; Iron, 25 lbs. ; Lime 
(and 25 lbs. slag, when obtained), 3 lbs. 

No 2. Mixture for Roasting Ore. — Silver ore, 100 lbs. ; Gra-wulated 
lead, 85 lbs. ; Soda ash, 20 lbs. ; Iron, 8 lbs. ; Lime, 3 lbs. 

No. 3. Mixture of Silver Ore after Products of Smelting abb 
at Hand. — Silver ore, 100 lbs. ; Granulated lead, 25 lbs. ; Litharge, 75 lbs. ; 
Hearth, 10 lbs. ; Soda ash, 15 lbs. ; Charcoal, 5 lbs. ; Iron, 8 lbs. ; Lime, 3 
lbs : Slag, 25 lbs. 

When the melting is executed with an addition of lead ore, Nos. 2 and 
3 do not require granulated leacf, but it is always very useful to add suffi- 
cient litharge. The quantity of flux required depends much on the quality 
of the ore. If the slag is too tbiu it is uot uecessarj^ to use so much soda- 



978 TREATMENT OF SILVER ORES, ETC. 

ash. The inixture is introduced witli a shovel when the furnace is at a 
white heat, and spread about 5 or 6 ins. deep, to about luilf the length of the 
flux, between the door and the crucible. The door is closed, and the firing 
continued so that the flame reaches the end of the flux. The ore will soon 
begin to melt and run into the crucible, when a new charge must be intro- 
duced as soon as the melting ore makes room for it. Stir the charge 
thoroughly witli a long iron bar, and continue the process until the crucible 
is filled. Use the furnace illustrated on page 983. 

Treatment of Silver Ores by Solution. — Auf/ustvi's Process. The 
principle on which this process is based is the solubility of chloride of silver 
in a hot concentrated solution of common salt. The ores, wliich should be 
free from zinc, antimony and arsenic, are first submitted to dry crushing by 
stamps, and further pulverized by grinding in suitiible mills, after which 
they are roasted in a reverberatory furnace at a low temperature, with a 
free admission of air. A thorough, uniform roasting, at a dull red heat, 
])romotes the formation of various sulphates of the different metals present. 
This object being attained the heat is increased to a cherry red, by which 
the aforesaid sulphates (with the sole exception of the sulphate of silver) are 
decomposed. The sulphate of silver is next converted into chloride of silver 
by adding common salt, previously melted, ground, and intermixed with 
cold ore, to the hot ore in the furnace, with wliich it is thoroughly incor- 
porated by vigorous stirring 

The apparatus for the hurried portion of the process consists of the fol- 
lowing, arranged in the order of mention, viz. : 1 spacious heating reser- 
voir, a set of dissolving tubs, 2 large settling cisterns, 4 preciintating tubs to 
each dissolving tub, and 2 roomy receptacles, all- arranged on descending 
steps. The aforesaid tubs are nearly circular in form, and are arranged 
with filters composed of straw and broken sticks, covered with cloth. Each 
tub is divided into two unequal divisions by means of a vertical partition 
placed on the filter. 

Tiie chloridized ore being placed into the largest divisions of the dissolv- 
ing tubs, a hot salt solution, sufficient in quantity to completely satunite the 
ore, is conducted into the tubs from the lieating reservoir aforesaid, and 
allowed to remain one hour. The outlet cocks of the lieating reservoir and 
tabs are now opened, and the hot salt solution is permitted to filter through 
the ore in the tubs, and pass off through the smaller compartments through 
apertures at first above the level of the ore, and afterwards through 
orifices near the base of the tubs, into the large settling cisterns above 
noted. The current is shut off when it is ascertained by a piece of clear 
copper that no trace of silver exists in the filtrate. 

The next step is to place copper (coj)per cement) in each of the upper two 
precipitating tubs in the different classes of four, and wrought scrap iron in 
each of the corresponding lower two, and conduct the cliloride solution 
slowly from the settling cisterns by filtering it through the various precipi- 
tating tubs into the large receptacles below. The chemical effect is to pre- 
cipitate the silver by means of the copj)er in the upper tubs, and the copper 
in solution, if it be present in the ore at first, is precipitated by the iron in 
the lower tubs. The silver is removed every three days from the precipitat- 
ing tubs and refined, while the filtrate in the large receptacles is pumped 
into the heating reservoir for future operations. 

The ore, previous to roasting, should contain at least 20 per cent, of 
sulphur, and the proportions of the charge to the furnace, should be, of ore 
for roasting and calcining, 500 lbs. ; melted salt, pulverized, 35 lbs. ; roasted 
ore, cold, and mixed with the salt, 220 lbs. ; time of roasting on upper hearth 
of furnace, 4 to 4^ hours ; calcining on lower hearth, 4 to 4^ hours ; time 
occupied in chloridizing, from 15 to 20 minutes ; heat of salt solution, 131" 
Fahr. The depth of copper in the precipitating tubs should be about G ins., 
of iron in do. (provided the ore contains copper in quantity worth saving), 6 
ins. The time for dissolving and precipitating will occupy 20 to 24 hours ; 
solution of salt run through each tub to 1000 lbs. of ore, 200 to 250 cubic feet 



TREATMENT OF SILVER ORES, ETC. 979 

Treatme>-t of Silver Ores by Sulphuric Acid. — Fveibevf/ Process. 
The argentiferous copjier mutt, as it coincs from the furnace, is thorouglily 
pulverized, roasted and chloridized as in the last described process, in tubs, 
and submitted to the action of hot sulpliuric acid. By this means the cop- 
per and iron (if any is present) are dissolved, while the silver remains 
intact. TJie copper solution is conducted into vats, and crystallized into 
sulphate of copper, while the intact remainder, containing the silver, 
is smelted with lead and cupelled. 

Treatment of Silver Ores by Solution. — Zien^of/el's Process. 
The ore, of the class described under Augustin's process, is effectually i)ul- 
verized, roasted and calcined to decompose the sulphates of iron and other 
inferior metals, the sulphate of silver only remaining unaffected. The test 
of complete calcination being a slight blue color given out by a small quantity 
of the roasted ore when thrown into water. The process is predicated on tlie 
solubility of sulphate of silver in hot water, the sulphatized ore being 
treated in every way as the chloridized ore in Augustin's process, with the 
sole exception that pure water, at a temp, of 149*? Falir., is used instead of 
the hot salt solution. 

Treatment of Silver Ores by the Rammelsberg Process. — Argen- 
tiferous granulated copper ore is placed in tubs exposed to the atmosjihere, 
and submitted to the action of hot sulphuric acid, which is slowly llowed 
over it in a small stream, converting it into sulphate of copper. The solu- 
tion of dissolved copper is conducted through an arrangement of troughs, 
in which it is deposited in the shape of rough crystals, Avhile the liquid por- 
tion is returned and reheated, to be again poured over the ore in the tubs. 
The next step is to wash the rough crystallized salt deposited in the troughs, 
. conduct it into vats, and allow it to recrj-stallizc. The silver present in the. 
ore will be found in the dissolving tubs, and is finally smelted with lead and 
cupelled for its silver. 

Pattinson's Process. — 1st. This process is founded on these facts : If a 
melted alloy of silver and lead is stirred while cooling slowly, crystals 
of lead form and sink, which may be removed by a. drainer. A large por- 
tion of the lead may thus be separated from the silver. 2nd. Cast-iron 
pans, capable of holding about 5 tons each, provided with fire-places, nre 
arranged in a series, as A, B, C, D, E, F, G, in a straight line. 3rd. The 
metal of ores containing silver and lead as it comes from ordinary smelting 
works, is melted, for instance, in pan D, and then allowed to cool very 
slowly. The metal, while cooling, is stirred, especially near the edges of 
the pan with an iron bar. As soon as crystals form and sink to the bot- 
tom they are taken out with an iroii drainer, raised to a temperature some- 
what higher than that of the metal bath. From one-half to two-thirds of 
the charge is thus removed to pan E, and the balance taken to pan C. 
Other charges of D are similarly treated, and disposed of in like manner, 
except that the crystals of E go to F, and the balance to D, and the crystals 
of C go to D, and the balance to B. Thus, after successive meltings and 
drainings, the alloys, rich in silver, pass to A, while the lead, almost entirely 
deprived of silver, goes to G. The alloys obtained in pan A are then sub- 
jected to cupellation. 4th. The lead of an alloy treated by this process 
often contains less than $1 in silver to the ton. The silver of tlie enriched 
alloy should not exceed $600 to the ton. — Quartz Operator's JIand-Book. 

To Purify Mercury. — Quicksilver, to be in prime condition for amalgam- 
ating purposes, should bo free from impurites and foreign substances, as zinc, 
bismuth, lead, &c., which impair its power for combining with the precious 
metals. To effect this the impure quicksilver should be distilled in a common 
covered retort, or if this is not available a retort may be readily improvised 
by using a common quicksilver flask and an iron pipe bent in the shape of a 
syphon, the short leg of the pipe being inserted in the flask in the orifice r.t 
the top, while the long leg, a yard or more in length, extends downwards 
below the bend, and nuist, while iu operation, be kept cold by means of wet 



980 



CUPELLATIOX FURNACE. 



cloths and cold wrvter. Fill the retort two-thirds fall with the impure quick- 
silver, apply tlic heat first of all to the short leg of the sj^phon and the upper 
part of tlie retort, then to all ])arts of the flask alike, keeping the dischai'go 
end of the syphon in cold water, within the receiver. Keex> the heat regular 
and do not hurry the distillation. 

Lastly, treat the distilled quicksilver, m thin sheets, by frequent agitation 
with 2 parts of pure water and 1 part nitric acid, maintaining meanwhile a 
temperature of 120^ Fahr. for several hours. The operations may he re- 
peated until the impurities are removed, when the quicksilver may be poured 
off for use. 

To Restore Quicksilver WHEN "Floured," or "Sickened." — "When 
quicksilver becomes inoperative through being "floured," or "sickened," 
or in a state of minute division, or in the scum form, the trouble maybe rec- 
tified by the addition of 1 part of sodium to 2000 or 2500 parts of quicksilver 
by weight. With a very slight degree of heat sodium and quicksilver com- 
bine with a powerful afllinity for each other, forming sodium amalgam, 
which possesses an energetic chemical attraction for the precious metals and 
some other substances. Its use is of unquestionable value in extracting gold 
or silver from sweepings, in the treatment of gold-beariug quartz in batteries, 
barrels, pans, arastras, &c., or in amalgamating silver ores in which the sil- 
ver has been reduced to a metallic condition. 




CupELLATioN OP Gold and Silver.— This process is based on the re- 
fractorj' nature of these precious metals and their afiinity for lead in a state 
of fusion, conjoined with the well known tendency of the latter metal to ox- 
idize while being subjected to the action of heat. The alloy, composed of 
lead, gold, and silver, or lead and gold or silver, is fused in \a furnace con- 
structed with apertures for the admission of a blast of air, and the exit of 
the litharge, vapors, &c., dissipated by the heat. Figs. 38 and 39 represents 
a furnace of this kind. The -iron pan is 4 ft. iu diam. with a throat, /, 10 



REFIXIXG OF GOLD AND SILVER. 



981 



inches long: and 12 wide for the escape of the litharge, Avliicli falls upon the 
cast-iron plate, g. The i^an is filled with wood-a.shes, marl, bone-ashes, or a 
combination of pnlverized limestone and clay, well beaten together. The 
bars of lead are passed in at i, where a fire-tile is placed inclining slightly 

1 inward, and the blast, introdnced at I, is directed on the snrface of the f nsed 
alloy on the hearth. This connects the melted lead into an oxide of lead or 
litharge, which is partially absorbed by the porous substance of the cupel 
and partially dissipated by the heat. If copper, or other inferior metals bo 
present in the alloy, they 'will also be oxidized. The base metals being thus 
dissipated, absorbed, and oxidized, the gold (and silver, if any is present) 
Avill remain a brilliant mass on the hearth of the furnace in a nearly pure 
condition. If any lead remain it can be removed by the humid method of 
assay. 

Refining of Gold and Silver. — If, after cnpellation as above described, 
the metal obtained be an alloy of gold and silver, it is submitted to, 1st. 
Quartation : This consists in the alloying of one part of gold with three parts 
of silver. 2d. Granulation: This is iierfornied by passing the prepared 
melted alloy through the fine meshes of an iron sieve into water, or upon a 
bundle of wicker or small branches lying in the water. Parting : This is ef- 
fected by submitting the granulated metal to the action of boiling nitric acid 
or concentrated sulphuric acid. For this jiurpose use a glass vessel and 141) 
parts nitric acid of specific gr. 1.32 to 100 parts of silver. This dissolves the 
silver and any base metals tliat may be present out of the allo\', leaving the 
gold pure. Reduction : In this process the gold is removed from the dissolv- 
ing vessel and further treated by boiling in nitric acid, then washed, dried, 
and melted in a crucible with a flux of nitre and cast into ingots. The silver 
in the parting solution may be precipitated hy means of copper i>lates or by 
a solution of salt. In the former case the i^recipitate is purified by washing 
in water, then iiressed, melted with saltpetre and pulverized borax, and cast 
into ingots ; in the latter case the chloride of silver is melted with a flux of 
carbonate of soda or other suitable flux, then run into bars. 

Fluxes for Reducing Photographic Wastes.— 1. Blaclc Fhix — Cream 
of tartar 8 ozs., saltpetre 4 ozs. Place the mixture upon an iron pan and ignite 
it with a red-hot coal. When the combustion is completed, the black mass should 
be powdered and sifted while still hot, and placed in a closely-stoppered bottle 
to prevent the absorption of moisture f roni the atmosphere. Is both a fusing 
and reducing agent. 2. Fluxes for Chloride of Silver— Common rosin, flnely 
pulverized and intimately mixed with the chloride, is an excellent flux. Pul- 
verized castile soap, molasses, or sugar, are also reliable fluxes for chloride of 
silver. 3. Flux for lieducing the Ashes of Paper Clippings and Filters— CarhowaXo 
of potash 8 ozs., carbonate of soda 2 ozs. Mix the ashes (previously powdered 
and sifted through a line flour sieve, to cleanse them from impurities and foreign 
matters) thoroughly with their own weight of the flux ; fill a Hessian crucible 
about three-quarters full of the compound ; scatter a thin layer of salt over the 
mass, and place on the fire. 4. Flux for Developer Drainings — When these have 
been prepared by adding a solution' of salt (after the black powder has been 
thoroughly dried), it may be mixed with its weight of the following flux, placed 
in the crucible, and submitted to the fire; carbonate of potash 10 ozs., saltpetre 

2 ozs. Aiwexeellent flux. 5. Flux for Collodion Film Ashes — Carbonate of potash 
16 ozs., carbonate of soda 2 ozs. Use 4 ozs. of flux to every 5 ozs. of ashes, and 
proceed as with the last. 0. Flux for lioasted Sulphide of 'Silver— Carhonato. of 
potash "^2 ozs., carbonate of soda 5 ozs. Use 14 ozs. sulphide to 10 ozs. of flux, 
and treat as before described. 7. Flicx for Toning lint h Precipitate— Gold pvQ~ 
cipitate (dry) 8 ozs., saltpetre G to 7 ozs. Fill the crucible not over half full, bring 
to a bright red heat, and the gold obtained will be nearly pure. 8. Flux tor 
Chloride of Silver — Carbonate of potash 8 ozs., powdered rosin 1 oz. Mix the 
chloride (well dried) with half its weight of the flux, tamp the crucible nearly 
three-quarters full, with a thin layer of salt on top, and submit to the fire. 9. 
Flux for Old Collodion /^t/ms— Saltpetre 8 ozs., carbonate of potash 4 ozs. Use 
half as much flux as ashes. To obtain the best results from these fluxes, they 
must be kept ia well-stoppered bottles. 



•982 



DESCRIPTIONS OF TURNACES, ETC. 



DESCRIPTIONS OF FURNACES USED IN 
ROASTING ORES. 

Fi^s. 40 .and 41 represents the ground plan of a furnace used for roasting 
silver-ores in which a is tlie hearth-bottom, composed of the hardest bricks, 
placed compactly edgewise. The ore to be roasted is introduced at the aper- 
ature, e, Fig. 41, and after being treated is discharged through the orifice, b, 
Fig. 40, in the hearth of the furnace. The space between the arch and bot- 
tom near the bridge, c/, is 21 ins., converging to 8 ins. near the fiue, c. The 
lino is conducted, either directly or through dust-chambers, into a chimney, 
the capacity of which for a single furnace should be from 16 to 18 ins. sq. 
and from 25 to oO ft. high, and the bridge, r/, should be formed of material 
sufficiently refractor}^ to withstand the action of the fire and the llriction of 
the hoes used in turning the mass of ore. 




Fig. 40. 




Fig. 41.— Furnace for Roasting Orks. 

Figs. 42, 43 and 44 is a plan of a furnace suitable for the smelting of sil- 
ver ores, for refining silver, or melting retorted amalgam ; the cast-iron 
pan, a a, 15 ins. deep and 37 ins. diam., is lined with fire-proof material to 
form the hearth, and is supported by fire-bricks to permit access of air under 
and around the bottom and sides in order to temper the heat. The fire- 
proof material is formed of old fire-brick pulverized and mixed with one- 
third its bulk of good clay, or of 3 pts, jmlverized white quartz (pure) with 1 
pt. clay ; is beaten with rammers so as to project G ins. above the verge of 
. the pan, and is finally moulded into proper shape with a curved tool. The 



DESCKIPTION OF FUEXACES. 



983 



flue-plate, d, is first lined with a floor of fire-brick, and finally coated 
with a mortar of the fire-proof material carefully smoothed down. The ore 
is passed in at k, whence it descends to the hearth, //; the slag is discharged. 
<it the orifice, o, and the metal and matt at the tap-hole passing through the 
hearth, represented at b, Fig. 43. The ore, carried by the draft into the dust 
chamber, p, is removed at intervals through the aperture, b. The fire-place, 
n, is adapted for coal : the capacity of the chimney should be from 18 to 20 
ins. square inside, 40 to 50 ft. high, and lined with 'fire-brick. 



3 



c! 

O 

H 

o 
>■ 



^ 

n 



A 



/^ 



3 
(p* 




Fig. 45 represents a reverberatory roasting furnace in which the stirring is 
performed by the iron stirrers, /?, and mechanicallj' by the rotation of tlio 
hearth. The iron liearth-stoue, a a, is 12 ft. iu diam. with sides, b, 10 ins. 



984 



DESCRIPTION OF FURNACES. 



high, composed of fire-tiles ; the bottom, 4 ins. thick, is formed of fire- 
bricks ; the ore is introduced through the funnel, p, and discharged through 
the opening, d, 39 ins. long and 4 wide, with a hinged iron door, into the fun- 
nel, c, which carries it outside the furnace. The cog-wheels by which the hearth 
is rotated, and the balls and rollers on which it rests, are shown at g and h. 




Fig. 45.— FuKNACE FOB Roasting Oke. 




Fig. 46. F'jRyACE FOE Oferati>'g Crucible. Fig. 47 » 



DESCRIPTION OF FURNACES. 



985 



Fig. 48 represents a furnace adapted for operations with a crucible. Tlie 
crucible is supported on a piece of lire-briclc on the grate, composed of mov- 
able iron rods ; a, is a sliding door at the top ; tlie furnace is 15 ins. square 
and is lined with tire-bricic. 




Fig. 48.— FtJKXACE FOR Distilling :Mekcurt. 

Figs. 47 and 48 shows the plan of a furnace used for the distillation or re- 
torting of the quicksilver from the various gold and silver amalgams obtained 
in the treatment of ores. Fig. 47 represents a front view ; the cover, a, Fig. 
48, of the retort being removed. The retort has two wings, b 6, Fig. 47, by 
which it is supported on brick work so as to leave three "ins. clear on each 
side ; it is formed of cast-iron, 4 ft. long, 11 ins. wide, and 9 ins. high. The 
fire has a full sweep over the whole surface of the retort both above and 
below ; the fire-place is fitted with grates 2 ft. long, and may be made longer 
if required, to conform to the kind of fuel used. The condensing pipe, k, in 
terminated by a funnel, I, while a constant stream of cold water is kept flow- 
ing around the pipe. The funnel is wrapped around witli cloth, p, which 
reaches into the water. The water in the vessel, «, should be kept at a level 
about half an inch below the funnel. 

Figs 49, 50, and 51, represent furnaces employed by the Colorado Gold 
and Silver Separating Co. in treating ores b^' the Hagan process. 

Description OF THE Furnaces. — A, Furnaces ; B, Blast-holes ; C, Deliv- 
ery-openings; D, Perforated steam pipes ; E, Superheated chamber ; G, Flue, 
0x8 ; J, Dampers ; L, Bridgewall of Furnaces ; M, Flue, 18x18 ; N, opening, 
24x24; O, Ash-pits ; P, Stone walls to save brick ; Q, Brick walls ; R, Wood 
furnaces; S, Coalfurnaces ; T, Pipes for for superlieated steam over furnaces; 
M, Grate-bars ; V, Steam pipes for controlling the action in the reducing 
chamber. 

Working Directions. — Fill the furnace with ore broken 6 to 8 inches 
square, put fire under, and work very moderately for 24 hours ; then make 
the fire strong, and let the ore remain in 48 hours longer . At the expiration 
of that time, commence to draw out, taking out 2 tons per hour, at the same 
time putting in a like quantitj^ ; thus keeping the furnace always full, and 
bringing the ore gradually from a temperature of about 300° at the top to a 
temperature of about 900*^ as it falls to the bottom of tlie furnace. 



930 



DKSCHIPTIOX OF FURXACES. 



Let ill steam iittlio bottom of the furnace, for 10 minutes, cacli time be- 
fore taking out ore, wliich cools it. After taking the ore out of the furnace, 
it should bo run through some griuding process to bring it down to find t-and. 
It should then be run through the second process, which should have a 
strong wood fire and good supply of hydrogen gas, as the time running 
tlirougli would be very short ; after which it should be put in rome amal- 
gamating process, such as Beath's, which grinds to fine powder as it amal- 
gamates, and clears off the oxides at the same time. 



r 




1 1 


1 


^ 


^ 


1 




J_ 






«=r = 


r 




M 




9. 




L-l 


P'^ 


TTT* 


!( 




' T 


r 






? - 


Z' 


r 
1" =■ 1 






•S^ 




1 




i..H-^ 





Fis. 49. 



Fl?. 50. 



Fig. 51. 



" The following is an explanation of the rationale of the Hagau proceps 
for disintegrating and desulphurizing gold and silver ores. Superheated 
! tyxm is introduced into the fire in such a manner tliat, in a gaseous form, 
th3 steam impinges npon the ignited coals or wood without admixture of 
atmospheric air, and thus effects the decomposition of water into oxygen 
and hydrogen gases. The oxygen unites immediately with the carbon of 
the burning coals or wood, while the liberated hydrogen passes from the 
fire and burns in the presence of the oxygen of tlie air. The hydrogen flame 
and the resulting gases being brought into contact with the heated gold and 
silver ores, the sulphur, arsenic, antimonj', etc., arc dissolved, and are car- 
ried off with the products of combustion. The powerful effect of the flame 
of hj^drogen, in dissolving pyritous sulphur, arsenic, antimony, etc., and in 
attacking oxygen, is well known, but the expense of producing it has hither- 
to prevented its application to the disintregration and desulphurization of 
gold and silver ores. Not until the invention of Dr. Hagan's cheap and 
simple method of decomposing Avater and thus furnisliing hydrogen gas and 
llame abundantly, has it been at all possible to apply it to this pur])ose ; but 
now so economically can this powerful agent be produced that the cost of 
treating ores by it is only one dollar per ton. 

" The treatment of gold and silver ores by the Hagan process requires a fur- 
nace of very simple and inexpensive construction, which maybe built of ma- 
terials at hand in every miner's locality, costing net over ^2000, for working 



DESCRIPTION OF FURNACES. 



987 



50 tons per day. The ores care fed in fit the top of the furnace as they come 
from the mine, and are drawn out at the bottom as soon as they become dis- 
integrated and desulphurized, and thus the operation is kept up, day and 
night, uninterrupedly, the ore requiring 48 hours to pass through. 

" The ores thus treated become soft and friable, and their character will 
be destroyed, so that they will crumble into jwwder under slight pressure. 
The sulphurets of iron, copper, and other base mineral compounds, will be 
converted into oxides. The finest particles of metallic gold will be liberated 
from their inclosing matrix, and the silver ore will be put in a chemical con- 
dition suitable for perfect amalgamation, so that botli tlie silver and gold may 
be easily sejiarated without the great waste and losses attending the old meth- 
ods of working the ores. 

" When properly manipulated, the ores can be made to render all the 
precious metals they contain, or, say, within five per cent, of the assay— 
whereas by the ordinary method, the miners of Colorado have only obt?ined 
S25 per ton Xroiu ores' actually containing from $100 to $500 or more per 
ton." 




FUKXACE FOR EXTEACTI>^G QUICKSILVER. 



Fig. 52 represents furnace used for the extraction of quicksilver from the 
ciunabar at the New Almaden mines. It is constructed of bricks with a ca- 
pacity for holding from 60,000 to 110,000 lbs. of ore, according to its grade. 
The fuel used is wood, fed into a lateral furnace which supplies heat to the 
chambers containing the ore, but separated from them by a wall pierced 
with numerous apertures formed by the omission of bricks at proper inter- 
vals. The iieat is conducted among the ore and through all the chambers 
exhibited in the diagram, until the mercury is thoroughly condensed, Avhile 
the draft is conducted through inclined stacks to the top of a distant emi- 
nence where the deadly emanations of the furnace are discharged. The fur- 
naces rest upon double arches of brick- work and the whole is arranged with 
effective appliances for securing the condensed quicksilver. The oreis hand- 
broken to remove the barren rock ; no flux is employed, the lime associated 
with the ore being all-sufficient for the decomposition of the sulphurets. 

The metal begins to run in from 4 to 6 hours after the heat is applied, and 
thepTocess is complete in about 60 hours. The mercury is conducted by 



988' 



HONNIEE S DESULPIIURIZIXG TROCESS. 



iron pipes through various condeusiug chambers, and finally discharged, in 
a pure condition, into large kettles. 

Fig. -52 represents Brucliuer's furnace for roasting ores. The contrivance 
is formed of an iron cylinder suspended by chains, which by means of a ro- 
tary motion mixes and stirs tlie ore while under treatment. These furnaces 
are made of two sizes, one 6 ft. long to contain 800 lbs., and the other 9 ft. 
long to hold 1400 lbs., the first noted requires three-fourths of a horse-power 
to drive it and the other one horse-power. They are eminently suitable for 
localities difficult of access as they can be transported on the backs of mules. 




Fig. 53.— 'Bruckner's Furnace. 



Monnier's De.su lphurizikg Process. — This process is adaptable to 
cupriferous or nickeliferous ores, as also where gold aud^t^ilver occur with 
the sulphides of copper and iron, one of the primary features being tho 
utilization of the eliminated sulphur for the manufacture of oil of vitriol by 
the conversion of the sulphurous fumes into sulphuric acid. The extraction 
of the silver, copper, nickel, or cobalt, as either of these metals may be pres- 
ent in the ore under treatment, is effected by means of sulphate of soda, 
the gold remainiiig in the residue and desulphurized oxide of iron in a state 
permissive of easy amalgamation. The ore, mixed with sulphate of soda, 
is first pulverized by means of ore-crushers so as to pass through a sieve 
with 20 holes to the inch, and afterwards calcined in a muffle-furnace HO ft. 
in length and 6 ft. wide, the hearth of the muffle (upon which the ore is 
placed) being .built of tile 4J ins. thick ; the heated gases traverse the entire 
length of the furnace from the fire-chamber to the end of the structure un- 
derneath, without communicating with the muffle. Access to the ore is 
gained by side-doors along one side of the furnace, through which it is 
turned and stirred once every hour, being gradually worked onwards from 
the rear end of the furnace towards the front, where it is recharged through 
a hopper into the muffle towards the front, where it is charged." 

The ore is thus gradually heated, and, by the presence of the sulphate of 
soda, most of the sulpliur is eliminated and a large amount of sulphates of 
tlie oxides of iron and copper (silver, nickel and cobalt) produced. When 
the charge reach-es the front of the muffle, in the immediate vicinity of the 
fire box, and where the temperature is most elevated, the sulphate of the 
oxide of iron is decomposed, producing oxide of iron, .«;ome bi sulphate of 
f :)da. and completely converting the copper (silver, nickel and cobalt) into 



MOXNIER S DESULPHURIZING PROCESS. 



989 



soluble sulphates. This stage of the operation requires care iu the manage- 
ment of the temperature, since, by too low a degree of heat the iron may 
not all be converted into insoluble oxide, or, bj' too great an elevation of 
temperature, some of the other metals may be rendered insoluble bva de- 
privation of their sulphuric acid. If it be the object of the operation to 
manufacture oil of vitriol as well <ns to extract the metals, the register 
placed at the end and above the fire-box, must be regulated so as to admit 
the quantity of atmospheric air requisite to the oxidjition of the s-ulphur in 
Its passage througli the length of the muffle— the exit pipe for the sulphur- 
ous acid gas leading from the rear e;ul of the muffle, close to the charging fun- 
nel, into the oil of vitriol chamber. The ore thus calcined is lixiviatecTwith 




Fig. 54.— FURXACE? rSED IN Mo>'XIER'S PROCESS. 




Fig. 55.— SECTIOXAL DKAWiyO Of PURXACE. 



990 



LIXIVIATI2^G TUBS, ETC. 



water to extract the sulphates of copper, silver and soda (cobalt and nickel), 
and the insoluble residue consists of oxide of iron and earthy matters, and 
contains, if the ore treated has been auriferous, all the gold. The method 
of lixiviation [see Fig. 56] is the same as that practiced in soda works for 
what is called " black ball ; " that is to say, the calcined ore is placed in a 
series of tanks [a. a. a.] having false bottoms, serving as filters. The warm 
water, introduced at the top, percolates through the mass, dissolving the 
sulphates, and, passing through the filter, is raised through a leaden pipe 
(placed vertically through the ore and communicating with the space 
under the false bottom or filter) into another similar tank charged with 
the calcined ore, and thus through the series, becoming more and more satu- 
rated with the soluble salts. If the residue [collected in agitator, c] after 



piiill 




Fig. 56.— Lixiviating Tubs, Monnier's Process. 

lixiviation contains only oxide of iron and gangue, it is thrown away ; but 
should the ore treated have been auriferous, the insoluble residues contain . 
the whole of the gold, perfectly free from sulphur, which may easily be ex- 
tracted by first re-grinding the mass in a Behr mill, and then passing it 
through a series of three Tyrolean amalgamators. The preliminary grind- 
ing requires but small power as the calcined ore is very friable . With three 
amalgamators the operation is perfect, as has been demonstrated on a large 
scale in North Carolina . The solution containing the swlphates is treated 
according to the metals present. If cobalt and nickel are present in suf- 
ficient quantities, the operation becomes exceedingly complicated. The 
liquor containing the sulphates of soda, copper and silver is treated as fol- 
lows : the silver is first precipitated by means of plates of copper, and sub- 
sequently this added copper, as well as that existing in the ore, is removed 
from the solution by cast-iron, after which it is evaporated to dryness to 
recover the sulphates of soda, which may thus be repeatedly used for the 
calcination of fresh ore. The metallic copper and silver so obtained arc 
separately Avorked in the usual way. The copper is so pure that it requires 
only a single fusion to produce ingots of the first quality. The precipitation 
is made in a reverberatory furnace of peculiar construction. In a wooden 
trough (54 feet long, 10 feet wide and 2^ feet deep) is a leaden pan (of 10 
pounds to the square foot) of the same dimensions, the bottom of which is 
covered by a two-inch floor of wood, and the sides of which are protected by 
a nine-inch brick wall, extending one foot above the sides of the leaden jian, 
and the whole covered with a low arch and well braced. Along oue side 
and above the leaden pan is placed a number of working doors, through 
which the copper is removed after precipitation. The plates of cast-irou 
(2 feet long, li^ feet wide and one inch thick) are placed across the furnace, 
at intervals of one foot, so as to form partitions. At a distance of two feet 
from the end of the furnace is constructed the fire-box, which connects by 
an arch with the arch of the precipit^ating furnace, and the gases from wliich 



BLOW-PIPE ASSAY, &C. 991 

are discliargccl from .a stack in the latter arch. The liquid to be precipitated 
is then introduced into the furnace to the height of the leaden pan, and 
removed after the precipitation of the copper by means of a large plug at 
the bottom of the furnace. The fire is very moderate, the object being to 
create a reducing atmosphere, to prevent the oxidation of the protoxide of 
iron, the presence of Avliich would cause a loss of cnst-iron. The evaporator 
is of similar construction, except that the arch is close to the upper edge of 
the leaden pan, so as to compel the heat to travel as close as possible to the 
surface of the liquid to be evaporated, but at a distance of ten feet from the 
fire box commences gradually to raise, in order that tlie fire may be admit- 
ted at about 3 ft. above the solution. The furnace is kept constantly full of 
water, in order that the leaden sides may not be melted. When nearly full 
of sulphate of soda, the fire is extinguished, the mother liquid removed, and 
the three working doors at the bottom opened. The solid and semi-fluid 
sulphate is discharged upon a wooden floor, and as soon as consolidated is 
placed upon the top of the furnace to dry. The dry sulphate, as above 
stated, is mixed with the fresh ore, ground, and used repeatedly in the de- 
snlphurization. The precipitating and evaporating furnaces might be 
constructed of brick, but the difficulty in preventing leakage through the 
brick, and cost of material, will nearly counterbalance the expense of the 
lead, which preserves at all times its value. In tlie old metliod of manufac- 
turing sulphuric acid from pyrites containing a small quantity, the residue 
has been submitted to a smelting process. In this method water does the 
work, and an ore containing }iot more than 3 or 4 per cent, of copper (which 
lias hitherto been refused by smelting works in this country) can be suc- 
cessfully and profitably treated. A residue, with no greater content of cop- 
per than above given, and perfectly free from sulphur, is worthless to smelt- 
ing establishments in this country ; but by the application of the process 
Ave have described, the whole is extracted by water at but small cost, saving 
concentration and waste of ore, and enabling mines scattered over the coun- 
try, now considered valueless, to become profitable and dividend paying.-- 
Abridr/ed from Miner's Hand-Book. 



BLOW-PIPE ASSAY, FLUXES, HYDROSTATIC 
WEIGHING, CUPELLATION, &c. 

In the oxy-hydrogen blowpipe, 2 volumes of hydrogen to 1 of pure oxy- 
gen generates the greatest heat and light ever produced. The most refrac- 
tory substances are fused, melted, and dissipated immediately. Before it 
opal and flint dissolve into enamel ; quartz and rock crystal are reduced to 
glass ; the diamond and gold are volatilized ; brass wire and platina burn 
with a green flame ; emerald, blue sapphire, lapis lazuli, and talc are con- 
verted into glass ; copper melts without burning, and iron evolves a brilliant 
light. 

The common blowpipe is simply a bent, tapering tube of brass, from 7 to 
10 ins. long, with a very minute orifice forthe breath to escape. Small and 
simple as it is, however, it is of paramount utility to every miner and mill- 
man, as by its use every effect of the most intense furnace heat may be 
produced by concentrating to a point the flame of a candle or lamp by 
urging it with the breath upon a small particle of any substance. By this 
means the identity and value of most mineral substances may be ascertained 
and established by an operation requiring less than 30 minutes to ])erform it. 
A blow-pipe should be of brass, with an ivory or horn mouth-piece to secure 
ease of operation ; a chamber to retain the condensed moisture from the 



992 



BLOW-PIPE ASSAY, &C. 



breath, and a platinum tip, or point, to withstand immersion in tne acids 
required to ensure cleanliness. 

Besides the blov.-pipc, the assayer requires tlic following: apparatus : 1. 
An assay or blow-pipe balance. 2. A small hammer Avith slightly rounded 
face and a transverse sharp edge atthe other extrcmitj-. 3. A square, smooth 
piece of steel to use as an anvil. 4. A small porcelain or agate mortar, in 
■wliich to pulverize the assay. 5. A mixing scoop, in which to mix ore with 
fluxes. G. A small magnet to test ores for iron, &c. 7. A small magnifying 
glass. 8- A small drill to perforate cavities in the charcoal in which the 
paper tubes containing the ore is to be placed. 9. A small cylinder to make 
paper tubes in which to pack and melt the assay. 10. Cupels made of bono 
ash. 11. A cupel holder made of copper or brass. 12. A variety of lluxcs, 
charcoal, &c. 13. A steel forceps, or cutting pliers, for separating small frag- 
ments of minerals. 14. A small file, and glass tabes in lengths from 24 to 
36 ins., with apertures about three-sixteenths of an in. in the clear. Tliey 
are cut with the file into lengths of 4 and 8 ins., of which tlic shorter are 
open at both ends, and ready for use. By heating the 8 in. pieces over an 
alcohol lamp, with the fingers over each end, until they become red-hot, and 
then drawing them, they will part in two pieces, each with one end closed, 
a most coiivenieut form for many operations. 





Fig. 57.— Reducixg Flame. 



Fig. 58.— Oxidizing Flame. 



To obtain the best results from the blow-pipe in treating refractory- 
minerals, &c., it "is necessary that the blast should be continuous. To effect 
this, breathing and blowing should go together. Tliis may be difficult to a 
bednner, but is soon perfected by practice in breathing through the nostrils 
and bloAving through the instrument with the mouth at the same time. The 
mode of operating with the blow-pipe is exhibited by Figs. 57 and 58. 

The blow-pipe flame is formed of two cones ; an inner, of a blue tint, 
producing a most vehement heat, just beyond the verge of the blue llame. 
This is called the reduction flame, and should entirely envelope the assay, as 
shown in rig. 57. The outer, called the oxidation llame, is represented by 
jig. 58, and in this case the assay should be placed just beyond the verge of 
the outer flame, exposed to the action of the atmo.sphere. To produce the 
former, the point of the. blow-pipe must just touch the llame as shown at a. 
Fig. 57 ; to produce the last noted' the point of the blow-pipe must be inserted 
a little into the flame, as shown at a. Fig. 58. The exact adjustment of the 
blow-pipe, to produce the desired effect in each case, is well exhibited in the 
engravings. The flame may be supplied by a spirit lamp ; a candle witli 
a large wick, or by a lamn with.a large wide fed with olive oil. 

To sustain the mineral under treatment in the flame, a platinum wire or 
forceps mav be used, or a piece of .sound charcoal made from pine wood, 
witli a slight cavity for the assay (to prevent it from blowing away by the 
blast), will answer every purpose. For many minerals charcoal is the best 
support obtainable, as the carbon of the coal renders great assistance to the 



BLOW-PIPE ASSAY, &C. 993 

reducing process. Where no better can be had, mica, and the mineral 
kyauite, may be used as supports for the assay. 

The specimens of minerals, &c., selected for treatment in the blow- 
pipe flame should be very little, if aiiy, larger than those represented in the 
cuts. With many kinds of a refractory character very thin specimens should 
be selected, as thereby fusion is greatly promoted, where otherwise it would 
be impossible. The size of the whole assay should be less than the bulk of 
a small pea. 

Many minerals are absolutely infusible without a flux to aid reduction. 
The substances in common use as fluxes, are : carbonate of soda, borax, bi- 
sidphate ofpotiossa, and salt of piiosphorus or microcosmic salt. The carbon- 
ate of soda should be free from sulphuric acid, as any contamination will 
induce a reddish tmt in the glass obtained by the fusion of silica. To obtain 
the full energy of borax it should be vitrified by melting, on a sheet of iron 
or in a crucible, common borax into a clear, transparent glass, which is sub- 
sequently pulverized and set away in glass stopj^ered bottles for use as 
required. This must be kept where it will not absorb damp or moisture, which 
ruins it for use. To prepare bi-sulphateof potassa, mix in a porcelain cup 2 
ozs. pulv. sulphate of potassa and 1 oz, sulphuric acid ; heat over an alcohol 
lamp until the mixture assumes a quiet, clear, transparent appearance. It 
is then removed from the fire and poured ou a piece of sheet iron. It is 
used for testing ore for bromine and iodine. To prepare salt of phosphorus, 
dissolve 16 parts of sal-ammoniac in a small quantity of boiling water, then 
add 100 parts of crystallized phosphate of soda, boiling gently the whole, 
then set off to cool. The salt of phosphorus is deposited in small crystals. 
Too much heat while boiling will cause decomposition. 

The fluxes should be carefully pulverized and mixed with the powdered 
mineral m the mixing scoop previous to being iuseited in the paper tubes 
and placed on the charcoaL Tough silver ore may be treated in small 
j)ieces, and three times as much lead as silver should be used. Proportion 
of borax should be about 60-lOOOths, but more may be added if necessary. 
Soda, when used, may preferably be added in small successive quantities. 
The paper tubes for receiving the assay are formed by cutting note paper 
into strips l| ins. by 1, and winding the strips around the small wooden 
cylinder (above noted) so as to form a tube, in which the assay is packed 
previous to placing it on the charcoal. One part of the tube should project 
a little over the cylinder, and this projecthig part should be turned down so 
as to close one end. 

In addition to the apparatus above noted, the assayer should have on 
hand a quantity of fine platinum wire (bent at one extremity into a circle 
one or two lines in diameter) for holding the assay during the operation ; 
also, platimimfoil, for enveloping minerals that decrepitate. The following 
chemicals, etc., will also prove useful in many cases as reliable tests : 

1. Tin-foil, for using with various per-oxides of metals to reduce them to 
protoxides. By touching the assay, previously heated in the reducing-flame, 
with the extremity of the tin-foil, a very small quantity of a metallic oxide 
may at once be detected. 2. Anhydrous bisulphate of potash, used for de- 
tecting lithia. It should be kept (well pulverized) in a bottle where it will 
not absorb moisture. 3. Saltpetre is used in detecting manganese. It devel- 
opes the peculiar amethystine color when the amount of this mineral is too 
small to color glass without this re-agent. The heated globule is touched 
with the point of a crystal, just at the instant of suspending the blast. The 
fused mass swells, foams, and either turns immediately colored, or becomes 
so soon, upon cooling. 4. Boracic acid and iron wire is used for testing for 
phosphoric acid. 5. Nitrate of Cobalt (pure) in solution, is used for distin- 
guishing alumina and magnesia. Use a platinum wire inserted in cork 
stopper to apply a drop when required for use. 6. Gypsum and /wo?% as 
tests of each other. Two parts of calcined gypsum and one of fiuor, when 
intermixed and heated, fuse into a clear glass, presenting a milk-white en- 



904 



TEST TUBES, CUPELLATION, &C. 



amel on coolings. 7. Oxalate ofXickd, or Xlfrate of Nickel, is nsed to detect 
potash. It should be free from cobalt, for which it may be tested \)y treat- 
ing it -with borax ; the result should give a brown, not i blue bead. 

The behavior of different minerals before the blow-pipe is various. 
Some are so refractor}- as to be wholly infusible ; some specimens melt only 
at the edges ; others are easily fused, while some arc dissipated wholly or 
in part. Kobell's scale for representing the various degrees of fusibility by 
figures, is as follows : 1. Gray Antimony. 2. Xatrolite. 3; Cinnamon 
Stone (Yar. of garnet). 4. Black Ilornhlende. 5. Feldspar. 6. Chrondro- 
dite. The fusibility, when equal to that of natroliue. is represented by 2 ; 
or if like hornbleaide, by 4, etc. 




Fig. 59, 



Fia:. CO. 



The test tubes above noted are used to determine the presence of water 
and other volatile components of various ores. The mode of operation is 
exhibited by Fig. 59, in which A represents the tube, B the mineral under 
treatment in the flame of a spirit lamp, and C the aqueous or volatile pro- 
ducts as usually condensed on the iipper part of the tube. Acid fumes 
may be detected by inserting a strip of litmus or other test paper in the up- 
per part of the tube ; the fumes, if acid, will turn the paper red, 

CupELLATiOK. Tlie objcct of this process is to separate gold and silver 
from lead, by absorbmg and oxidizing the base metal while the other is left 
pure. Fig. 60 .represents the manner in which this process is performed 
by the blow-pipe, A is the assay under treatment, C is the cupel, and B is 
the cupel holder. A circular perforation, about ^ in. each way, is made in 
a firm piece of charcoal; in this cavity place some moistened bone-ashes, 
l>rcssed down smooth; dry, and on this place the assay, and submit to the ac- 
tion of the outer flame. Under this treatment fusion takes place ; the lead 
is eliminated as an oxide and is absorbed by the bone ashes, while the sil- 
ver is left as a small brilliant globule in the cavity. 

As usually performed, the assay is treated in a cupel made of bone-ashes 
(or in a small hollow on charcoal, containing bone-ashes, as above noted), 
where the air has free admission. The assay being melted, the action of 
the atmosphere effects the oxidation of the lead, which disappears in the 
porous cxipel, being absorbed by the bone-ashes. 



HYDROSTATIC BALANCE, &C. 905 

The specific gravity of a mineral is determined by the blow-pipe bal- 
ance, "vvluch is adapted for hydrostatic weighings, as represented by Fig. Gl, 
where A is tlic balance Avhose scales are suspended by threads of unequal 
length. To obtain a density l)y the balance, the mineral a must be placed 
in a sling suspended by a hair or a filament of sillc from the small hook 
below the scale b. The ore, thus suspended on the thread, is Avcighcd and 




Fig. 61.— Hydrostatic Bala^tce, &c. 

the contents noted. The mineral, still suspended, is next immersed about i 
in. below the surface of the water, in the glass vessel c. All adherent 
bubbles of air are carefully wiped away from the ore ; it is now weighed a 
second time, and the loss by immersion calculated. By the specific grav- 
ity, or density of a mineral, is understood its weight as com^^ared W'ith tliat 
of an equal bulk of distilled water, at the temp, of G0° Fahr. . 

The preceding instructions cannot fail to prove of immense utility to the 
operator in proceeding Avith the practical tests noted in the followiiig elab- 
orate details relating to minerals, etc. 

HOW TO IDENTIFY AND TEST METALLIC 
ORES : CONDENSED SYNOPSIS OF THE 
CHEMISTRY, GEOGNOSTIC SITUATION, 
&C., OF METALS. 

Characteristics of Metals. — Metals are distinguished by the properties of 
fusibility, niiilleability, ductilitj-, tenacity, elasticity, crj-^stalline texturc,and 
brilliancy, combined with the quality of conducting heat and electricity. 

GOLD. — This metal is seldom found in its native purity ; it is found 
only in its metallic state in combination with other metals, generally in 
veins pervading primary and secondary rocks, as granite, slate, hornstone, 
quartz, limestone, sandstone, gneiss, mica-slate, mica, and sometimes in 
graywacke and tertiary strata ; also in veins of silver, copper, antimony, 
zinc, lead, iron ore, barytes, &c. The attrition of the elements operating on 
the containing rocks and metallic lodes during uncounted ages, has washed 
thousands of millions into the beds of streams, the margins of rivers, and 
alluvium or drift deposits. In the primary rocks it is found mainly in 
schistose or slaty fissures. • i 

In external appearance gold is of a golden or orange yellow color, pass- 
ing into grayish or brass yellow, and is the heaviest of metals except phi- 
tina. It is the most ductile, tenacious, and malleable of all the metals. On 
being struck with a hammer it will flatten out : iron and copper pyrites, 
and yellow mica, which resemble it, will crumble under this test. Inter- 
nally it is bright yellow, shining, glistening and metallic. It lias equal axes 
like tlie cube, has no cleavage, has a hackly fracture, and often exists 
crystallized in cubes, octohedrons, rhomboidal dodecahedrons, and tetra- 
hedrons. 



996 SYNOPSIS OP METALLURGY, &C. 

Gold is fusible with the blow-pipe (use the reducing flame with carbon- 
ate of soda for flux), melts at 2590°, is soluble in nitro-muriatic acid, whicli 
is simply 2 parts muriatic acid and 1 part nitric acid, and remains unal- 
tered by exposure to simple acids, air, or moisture. Nitric acid (aqua- 
fortis) will dissolve any suspected brass filings in gold dust. Specific grav- 
ity 19.26 to 19.5. 

In Solutions of Gold (Peroxide), Ammonia produces a yellow precip- 
itate (aurate of ammonia or fulminating gold) ; Ferroajanide of Potussmm 
produces an emerald green color ; Oxalic Acid produces a precipitate of 
metallic gold ; Protosidphatc of Iron produces in concentrated solutions an 
instant precipitate of metallic gold. In dilute solutions a blue coloring is 
first perceived, followed by a brown-colored precipitate ; Potassa (in heated 
solutions), after a time produces a trifling reddish-brown precipitate, con- 
sisting of teroxide of gold mixed with terchloride of gold and potassa. 
Protochloride of Tin, to which a drop of nitric acid has been added, im- 
parts a reddish purple color to very dilute solutions ; in concentrated solu- 
tions a red-purple precijDitate (purple of Cassius) is formed. A Bar of 
Metallic Zinc precipitates metallic gold in the form of a brown coating. 

PLATINUM. — This metal is mainly found in alluvium or drift, some- 
times in granite, syenite, &c., combined with gold, silver, copper, iron, 
lead, &c., but always in the metallic state in round grains and rolled pieces 
about the size of peas, and like large iron filings. 

In color platinum is steel-gray, nearly resembling silver, but not quite 
so bright. In lustre it is shining and glistening ; in structure it is some- 
times lameller ; is malleable and ductile ; with hardness almost equal to 
that of iron. 

Platinum is infusible in the hottest furnaces, but melts readilj^ before 
the reducing flame of tlie compound blow-pipe at a temp, of 3080°. Dis- 
solves in nitro-muriatic acid, and is unaffected by exposure to air, mois- 
ture, or simple acids. Specific gravity 20.98. 

In Solutions of Platinum (Peroxide), Potassa produces a yellow crys- 
talline precipitate, consisting of the double chloride of platinum and potas- 
sium ; the addition of hydrochloric acid favors its formation ; it is insolu- 
ble in acids, but dissolves in potassa with the aid of heat ; it is very slightly 
soluble in water, and insoluble in strong alcohol ; Chloride of Tin, in pres- 
ence of free hydrochloric acid, imparts to solutions of bichloride of plati- 
num a deep-brown color without producing any precipitate ; Snbnitrate of 
Mercury produces a yellowish red precipitate. 

SILVER. — This metal is found native, as also combined with muriatic 
acid and sulphur in primary and secondary slates. Great quantities exist 
in the metallic state combined with gold, copper, arsenic, and lead, in 
rocks composed of mica-slate, gneiss, clay-slate, graywacke. 

Native Silver occurs in primitive and secondary rocks, irregular quartz, 
&c., with the ores of copper, silver, cobalt. In color it is white, sometimes 
a tarnished gray, or reddish shade. It occurs in plates and spangles, and 
crystallized in tubes, octohedrons, rhomboidal docahedrons and tetrahe- 
drons, dentiform, capillary, ramose, reticulated, rarely large, and generally 
disseminated. When broken it appears fine and hackly, with a bright, 
shining lustre. Its color and malleability are prominent characteristics. 

It is composed of silver with a little iron, antimonj^ copper, or arsenic, 
is soluble in nitric acid, is fusible into a globule, and melts at 1873? Fahr. 
Oxide of silver with borax in oxidizing flame, before the blow-pipe, forms a 
white opaque glass ; in reducing flame, with carbonate of soda, readily re- 
duces to metal. Specific gravity 10 to 10.5. 

Antimonial iSilver, composed of silver, 84 parts ; antimony, 14 parts ; oc- 
curs in granite and clay-slate, combined with the other ores of silver ; is 
found in curved lamina?, also in grains, in cylinders. Is massive; yields to 
the knife ; has a conchoidal fracture ; and is fusible under the blow-pipe 



SYNOPSIS OF METALLURGY. 997 

(evolving .intimonial vapors) into a button of silver. The characteristics 
are, the antimonial vapor, a silver or tin-wliite color, the want of ductility, 
and not giving a blue globule "with borax. 

Sul})huret of Silver, composed of silver, 85 parts ; sulphur, 15 parts ; a 
very productive ore ; occurs in the primary and secondary rocks ; is of a 
dark, lead-gray color ; frequently with an iridiscent thige, and exists in 
tubes and octohedrons ; also ramose, reticulated, amorphous, lamelliform, 
and in plates. The characteristics are, malleability ; imperfect cleavage ; 
Hat, conchoidal fracture ; can be cut witli a knife ; has less specific gravity 
than native silver, and fuses with intumcsence and a sulphurous odor un- 
der the blow-pipe. Specific gravity, 7. 

Brittle Sidj^hiiret of Silver, composed of silver, 66.5 parts ; antimonj', 10 
parts ; sulphur, 12 parts ; iron, 5 parts ; arsenic and sulphur, 5 parts ; is a 
very rich ore, and occurs in the primary rocks with other ores of silver. 
It exists in crystalline structure and diffused ; also in hexahedral prisms, 
and is of a dark, lead-gray hue, or bluish-gray, passing into iron-blaclc. The 
structure is foliated ; crystals mostly intercept each other, with a dull, me- 
tallic lustre. The ore is soft and brittle ; the fracture Is conchoidal. Solu- 
ble in nitric acid, and fusible, with the emission of sulphur, antiujony and 
arsenic, into a globule of silver surrounded by a slag. The character- 
istics, compared with other ores, are its dark color and brittleness ; from 
sulphuret of silver it differs in its lack of malleability. Specific gi-avity, 7. 

Sulphureted Aniimonial Silver {Red Silver), composed of silver, 60 jjarts ; 
antimony, 20.3 parts ; sulphur, 14.7 parts ; oxygen* 5 parts ; is an excellent 
ore, and is found in primary rocks, mainly in mica-slate, granite and por- 
phyr}^ It possesses a metallic adamantine lustre ; structure is imperfectly 
foliated, has a red color of various tints, passing into lead-gray and gra5'ish- 
black ; the powder is crimson red. It exists in masses and grains, also 
dentritic, capillary, membranous, and crystallized in hexahedral prisms, 
terminated by liexahedral prisms ; also in double six-sided pyramids ; is 
translucent, opaque. 

The characteristics are, malleability, differs from sulphuret of arsenic 
in leaving a globule of silver, and in possessing greater specific gravity-. Is 
fusible, witli emission of antimonial fumes. Sulj^huret of mercury volatil- 
izes under the blow-pipe. The red oxide of copper is readily reduced to the 
metallic state by the blow-pipe ; specular oxide of iron is rendered magnetic 
by the same process. Specific gravity, 5.20 to 0.68. 

Muriate of Silver {Horn Silver), composed of muriate of silver, 88.7 
parts; oxide of iron, parts ; alumine, 1.75 parts ; sulphuric acid (oil of vit- 
riol), 0.25 parts ; an excellent ore ; is found in the primary rocks, with other 
ores. In color is pearl gray, greenish or reddish-blue, yellowish or greenish- 
white and brown. In lustre is glistening and wavy. Is malleable ; feebly 
translucent ; becomes brown by exposure. Exists 'massive, investing other 
minerals, amorphous, reuiform, and crystallized in tubes, octohedrons, and 
acic'dar prisms. 

The characteristics are, the emission of muriatic acid fumes before 
the blow-pipe ; fusibility in the flame of a candle ; softness ; yields to the 
knife and to pressure. Abraded on damp or wet zinc it leaves a film of 
silver. Muriate of mercury volatilizes before blow-pipe without leaving a 
film of silver. Specific gravity, 5.5. 

MERCURY.— This metal rarely occurs in its native state. By far the 
greater part is found in the form of 

Sulphuret of Mercvry {Cinnabar), composed of mercury, 84.5 parts ; sul- 
phur, 14. 75 parts. It occurs mainly in new red sandstone ; occasionally in 
limestone, mica-slate, graywacke, gneiss, deposits of bituminous shale, com- 
bined with black mineral resin, alluvium, clay, gray sandstone and limestone, 
and in rocks of the coal formation. In color it is scarlet or carmine, shading 
off into cochineal red and lead-gray, occasionally with a yellow tint. Is 
translucent or opaque. Occurs massive and crystallized in acute rhomboids ; 



998 SYNOPSIS OF METALLURGY, &C. 

certain kinds with a yellow tint; is sometimes found iu thin plates or tubular 
crystals. Lustre is adamantine, varying to metallic ; occasionally shinuig 
silky. The fracture is granular or fibrous. 

The characteristics are, the emission of sulphur vapors, while the com- 
pound volatilizes before the blow-pipe, Tliis test determines the difference 
between this ore and red silver ore, arsenate of cobalt, red oxide of copper, 
and sulphuret of arsenic. Specific gravity, 8. 

COPPER. — Cojjper is found in primary and transition rocks, syenite, 
sandstone, coal strata and alluvial ground. It occurs iu beds and large 
bloclis. The ores of copper are the following : 

Native Copper is nearly pure, and is found in the veins of primary and 
secondary rocks. In color is copper-red, brownish-black ; tarnished exter- 
nally ; is malleable, fusible at 2548° Falir., and soluble in acids. Occurs 
dentritic, reuiform, capillary, amorphous ; also crystallized in tubes and 
octohedrons. Specific gravity, 8.5. 

Gray Copper, composed of copper, 52 parts ; iron, 23 parts ; and sulphur, 
14 parts ; is found with other ores of copper. In color is steel-gray, verging 
into black, with brownish streak. Is brittle, with metallic lustre, and small 
crystals. Specular oxide of iron gives out arsenical fumes when heated ; is 
magnetic, and softer than arsenical iron. Gray copper ore is fusible but 
very refractory. Specific gravitj^, 5. 

Copper Pyrites, composed of copper, 40 to 35.3 ; iron, 40 to 33; sulphur, 20 
to 35 ; a very valuable ore ; is found in beds and veins in primary and second- 
ary rocks as well as in other prominent formations. The color is brass- 
yellow, with metallic lustre ; lamellar structure ; tessular cleavage, and 
uneven fracture. Is the most abundant ore of copper ; yields to the knife. 
It occurs dendritic ; stalactical ; amorphous ; in concretions, and crystallized 
iu tetrahedrons and dodecahedrons. Is fusible, and tinges borax green. 
Iron pyrites does not tinge borax green. Lacks malleabilitj^ Native gold 
is malleable and. native bismuth is lamellated. Specific gravity, 4.3. 

Sulphuret of Copper, composed of copper, 76.50 i^arts ; sulphur 22, ; 
iron, 0.50 ; is found located same as the last noted ore. Exterior color is 
blackish steel-gray, occasionally iridescent ; internally is lead-gray. Has 
lamellar structure ; conchoidal fracture ; is easily sectile, with brilliant 
faces ; crumbles readily, and has equal axes like the cube. 

The characteristics are, fusibilitj^ with the emission of sulphur fumes; 
is also soluble in hot nitric acid. Is distinguished from gray copper ore 
by being softer, also by the latter decrepitating before the blow-pipe. A 
very productive ore. Specific gravity, 5, 

Blue Carbonate of Copper, composed of oxide of copper, 70 parts ; carbonic 
acid, 24 parts ; water, G parts ; is found in the primary and secondary rocks. 
The color is blue, fracture irregularly foliated, generally showing broad 
fibres. Occurs massive ; diffused ; stalactical ; incrusting, and crystal- 
lized. 

The characteristics are, solubility in nitric acid with effervescence, is 
refractory without a flux ; fused with borax yields a green glass ; does not 
become magnetic under the blow-pipe, and is insoluble iu water. Copper 
melts at 2548o. 

Red Oxide of Copper, composed of copper, 88.5 to 91 parts ; oxygen, from 
11.5 to 9 parts ; is found with other ores of copper. Is of a red color, lamel- 
lated structure, metallic, adamantine lustre ; is brittle, translucent, easily 
sectile ; has irregular and conchoidal fracture. Is fouud amorphous aud 
crystallized iu octahedrons and cubes. 

The prominent characteristics are, easy reduction and solubility ; is 
soluble iu nitric acid with effervescence and in muriatic acid without. Oxide 
of copper fuses iu the oxidizing flame, before the blow-pipe ; iu the reducing 
flame forms metal ; with borax, in the oxidizing flame, colors the glass 
green ; in the reducing flame, brown-red. Specific gravity, 4 to 5.9. 



SYNOPSIS OF METALLURGY, &C. 999 

IRON. — Occurs both iu primary and secondary rocks. The principal 
ores from whicli iron is extracted are the following : 

Brown Hematite. — This ore is found in primary rocks and occasionally 
in secondar}' formations. It yields a superior iron. In color it is brown, 
yellowish, or blackish-brown ; on the outside resembling black glazed earth- 
en-ware. It yields to the knife ; is fibrous in structure, witli silky and res- 
inous lustre. It occurs stalactical, tuberous, nodular, and amorphous. A 
variety of this ore lias a compact structure, devoid of lustre, with yellow- 
ish-brown streak, and conchoidal or earthy fracture. 

Specular Oxide of Iron {Iron Glance), composed of iron, 69 parts ; 
oxygen, 31 parts ; yields an excellent malleable iron, and occurs mainly in 
primary rocks, associated Avith magnetic iron, red hematite, quartz, &c. ; 
occurs also in secondary rocks. In color is steel-gray, with a highly polish- 
ed surface ; often tarnished. Occurs crystallized in pyramidal dodecahe- 
drons, hexahedral tables ; also massive, disseminated, iu concretions. Has 
a cherry-red streak, lamellar structure ; brilliant lustre ; is slightly attracted 
by the magnet ; infusible ; and insoluble iu acids. Affords a red powder on 
being heated, and becomes magnetic. Specific gravitj-, 5.52. 

Red Hematite, composed of oxide of iron, 90 parts; silica, 2 parts; lime, 
Ipart; yields a first-class iron for drawing and rolling; is found mainly in 
]^rimary rocks ; frequently in lead mines. In color is blood-red ; also steel- 
gray. Yields readily to the knife ; occurs massive, and in plates; also re- 
niform, globular, and pulverulent. It adheres to the tongue; the fracture 
is uneven and earthy. Is infusible, but becomes magnetic. Specific gravity, 
4.75. 

Spathic Iron {Clay Iron Ore), composed of oxide of iron, 58 parts; car- 
bonic acid, 35 parts; oxide of manganese, 4.25 parts ; magnesia, 0.75 parts; 
lime, 0.05 parts ; yields an iron well adapted for steel making ; is found 
principally in carboniferous limestone, arranged iu thick formations ; also 
in veins in granite, mica-slate, clay-slate, gneiss, and graywacke; associated 
with ores of silver, lead, and cobalt, but seldom iu nickel or bismuth ; more 
frequently with galena, iron pyrites, antimony ore, and copper ore. In 
other veins it is associated with brown, red, and black iron ore, quartz, and 
calcareous spar ; occurs also filling up amygdaloidal cavities iu trap-rocks. 

The colors of the ore are, yellow, brown, white, and black. It yields 
to the knife, is easily broken ; the structure is foliated or lamellar, with 
shining, vitreous lustre, and white, or yellowish-brown streak. It occurs 
massive, disseminated witli pyramidal impressions; also in granular distinct 
concretions ; nodular and crystallized. Crystals are usually small, and 
exist in groups. 

The chemical tests are : effervescence with muriatic acid ; is infusible, 
blackens, and becomes magnetic. Heated with borax, it makes an olive- 
green glass. It may be distinguished from earthy minerals by its weight, 
from other iron ores by its crystalline foliated cleavage, and from blende 
by its yielding magnetic iron. Specific gravity, about 4. 

Magnetic Oxide of Iron {Iron Sand), composed of oxide of iron, 85.50 
parts ; oxide of titanium, 14 parts ; oxide of manganese, 0.50 parts ; an ex- 
cellent ore, yielding from 50 to 90 per cent, of the best bar iron, is generally 
found imbedded in trai>rocks, and styled mountain ore. The color is iron- 
black ; is found in octahedral crystals, also in minute grains. The powder 
is black ; the fracture conchoidal ; intensely magnetic, and infusible by the 
blow^-pipe. 

Peroxide of iron remains unchanged in the oxidizing flame of the blow- 
pipe ; in the reducing flame, blackens and becomes magnetic ; with borax, 
in the oxidizing flame, forms glass bright-red while hot, pale dirty-red when 
cold ; in the reducing flame, forms glass varying from bottle-green to black- 
green ; with carbonate of soda, on charcoal, reduces to metal as a dark 
magnetic powder. Specific gravity, 6.22. 



1000 SYNOPSIS OF METALLURGY, &C. 

Tests for Iron. — Prussiate of potash added to iron dissolved in an acid 
causes a blue precipitate, and an infusion of galls a black precipitate. 

LEAD. — The principal ore from which the great mass of the lead of 
commerce is obtained is the sulphuret of lead, or galena. It is com- 
posed of lead, sulphur, lime, and silex, and is often combined with ores 
of silver, and frequently with ores of zinc, copper, and iron. It occurs in 
beds, veins, and imbedded masses in primary and secondary rocks ; fre- 
quently in the latter, and very often in limestone ; also in alluvial deposits. 

The shades of color are bluish-gray, lead-gray, and on the outside blackish- 
gray. Is soft ; yields to the knife ; has a lamellated structure ; metallic 
lustre, very brittle, and opaque Submitted to heat, it first decrepitates, with 
the emission of sulphur fumes, then melts into a globule of lead ; blende, 
molybdena and graphite, which resemble this ore, are infusible. 

Tests for Lead. — Oxalic acid produces in iteutral solutions of oxide of 
lead a white precipitate. Glauber's salts and an infusion of galls, give to 
a solution of this metal a white precipitate. Oxide of lead, in oxidizing 
flame before the bloAV-pipe, turns first blue, then fuses to .a glass of orange 
color ; with carbonate of soda, on charcoal, in the reducing flame, reduces 
to metal ; with borax, forms glass yellow while hot, colorless while cold. 

TIN. — The regular ore from which this metal is extracted is : 

Oxide of Tin ( Tinstone), composed of tin, 77.5 parts ; oxygen, 21.5 parts; 
oxide of iron, 0.25 part ; silica, 0.75 part ; usually occurs in primary rocks 
in veins, traversing gneiss, granite, mica-slate, porjihyry, and claj'-slate, 
and is generally found with iron pyrites, chlorite, quartz, topaz, fluor, &c. 
The metal obtained from ores thus located is called block tin. The grain 
tin of commerce is obtained from the stream tin ore found in alluvium and 
drift. 

The colors are black, brown, green, red, white, and yellow. It is brittle, 
gives sparks with steel ; has a lamellar structure, with adamantine or 
resinous lustre, and grayish-white streak. Occurs in crystals, and in masses 
from the size of grains to that of the fist. 

On a chemical test it decrepitates, but by the blow-pipe it may be reduced 
to the metallic state on charcoal. It may be distinguished from spathic iron 
by the latter leaving an iron button under the blow-pipe. Blende cannot 
be reduced, and is not so hard. Specific gravity, 6.7 to 7. 

Tests for Tin. — In solution of tin oxide, phosphate of soda Y^nodnces a 
white precipitate. A bar of metallic zi7ic pvecipitates tin in small grayish- 
wliite metallic spangles. To a solution containing the metal, present a per- 
fectly clean sheet of iron, the result is metallic tin. Oxide of tin, in the 
oxidizing flame, before the blow-pipe, presents a dirty-yellow color ; with 
carbonate of soda, in reducing flame, on charcoal, reduces to metal ; with 
borax forms a clear glass. 

ZINC. — One of the ores of zinc is : 

Blende (Mock Lead, False Galena, Black Jack), composed of zinc, sul- 
phur,^ iron, and silica ; is found in veins of primary and secondary rocks, 
usually united with iron and copper, with galena. It is frequently used 
after roasting in the preparation of brass, but is usually too much dissemi^ 
nated in its gangue to make its extraction profitable. 

The colors are brown, yellow, and black. It is brittle, yields to the 
knife, has a foliated structure, Avith shining, adamantine lustre. It occurs 
massive, disseminated, lamelliform, in granular concretions, and crystal- 
lized. It decrepitates when heated ; evolves the smell of rotten eggs when 
thrown into oil of vitriol ; is infusible, and does not tinge borax green. 
Specific gravity, 3.7 to 4. 

Calamine, composed of oxide of zinc and carbonic acid, is found in veins, 
often associated with oxide of iron, and occasionally with galena ; is also 
found in beds, nests, filling up or lining hollows, in conglomerate rock and 
secondary limestone. 



SYNOPSIS OF METALLURGY, &C. 1001 

The colors are sonictimes nearly white, at others gra}', greenish, or 
brown- j-ellowish. Is easily sectile. Occurs compact, amorphous, pseudo- 
morphous, crystallized, aud cupriferous. In chemical tests it dissolves 
with effervese'nce in heated nitric acid, or muriatic acid, and is infusible. 
Oxide of zinc, in the oxidizing flame, before the blow-pipe, exhibits a 
whitish-green color ; while hot this oxide is slightlj' yellow — when cold is 
white : with borax forms glass, which in an intermittant flame becomes 
milky ; in the reducing flame, on charcoal, reduced to metal, which readily 
sublimes. 

Red Ore of Zinc, composed of oxide of manganese and oxide of zinc, is 
found in primary and transition rocks, limestone, and iron mines. It is 
brittle ; yields to the knife ; has a foliated structure and shining lustre, 
becoming dull by exposure. The color is red ; it occurs massive and dis- 
seminated. In chemical tests it dissolves with effervescence in strong acids. 
Is distinguishable by its weight and infusibilitj^. Specific gravity, G.22. 

MANGANESE. — This metal in its metallic state is of no avail in the 
arts. The ore, which subserves all required uses without preparation, is 
called 

Black Oxide of Manganese. — It is composed of manganese, oxygen, and 
water ; is found in imbedded masses and veins in primary rocks, and often 
with ores of iron. The color is of a dark steel-gray, with metallic lustre, 
black streak, and conchoidal earthy fracture. It occurs massive, in fibrous 
concretions, and crystallized. In a chemical test is decomposed by being 
thrown into water, and turns the water greei)*^ O^ exposure to the air ab- 
sorbs so much oxygen that it falls into powder. Is infusible alone, but with 
borax yields a purple globule ; becomes brown by heat ; with borax, in the 
oxidizing flame, much oxide employed, the glass is black ; little oxide em- 
ployed, the glass is of an amethyst color — in the reducing flame, and on 
charcoal, this latter globule becomes colorless, and so remains if quickly 
cooled ; with soda in the oxidizing flame, aud on platinum foil, forms an 
opaque green glass. 

COBALT. — This metal is of no avail in its metallic state for use in the 
arts ; is in use mainly by painters and brouzers, aa zaffre, smalt, &c. The 
ore producing them is. 

Arsenical Cobalt^ composed of cobalt, arsenic, and sulphur, is found 
combined with silver, bismuth, nickel, arsenic, and copper, in veins trav- 
ersing primary rocks. The color is silver-white, with a reddish copper tint. 
Has a metallic lustre ; is brittle ; difficult to cut ; Avith conchoidal fracture. 
Occurs massive, reticulated, dendritic, stalactical, and crystallized in cubes 
and octahedrons. Fused with borax it yields a blue glass. Turns black, 
with the emission of garlic fumes, in the blaze of a caudle. The oxide is 
unchangeable by itself (before the blow-pipe), but with carbonate of soda, 
on charcoal, forms a gray magnetic powder ; with borax, both in oxidizing 
and reducing flame, gives a deep blue bead. Specific gravity, G.30 to 7.30. 

For full directions for preparing smalt, see page 283. 

NICKEL. — The ore from which this metal is derived is, 

Arsenical Nickel {Knpfer, or Copper Nickel), composed of nickel, arsenic, 
sulphur, lead, iron, and cobalt, is found associated with cobalt. It occurs 
massive, reticulated, and botryoidal. In color is copper red, with metallic 
lustre ; is cut with difficulty ; forms a green solution in aqua fortis, and 
emits garlic fumes when heated. Oxide of nickel (before the blow-pipe) is 
infusible alone ; in the oxidizing flame, with borax, forms an orange-red 
globule which becomes nearly colorless on cooling ; in the reducing flame, 
on charcoal, the bead becomes gray ; in the reducing flame, Avith soda, ou 
charcoal, reduces to a magnetic powder. Specific gravity, 6.60 to 7.70. 

BISMUTH. — This mineral is often found in its pure state fit for imme- 
diate use, but more frequently associated with cobalt, iron pyrites, galena, 
arsenic, silver, &c., in the primary rocks, especially in gneiss, quartz, and 
mica-slate, lu color is silver-white, with a reddish tint. Is softer than 



1002 SYNOPSIS OF METALLURGY, &C. 

copper ; tarnislies ; lias a metallic lustre, lamellar structarc, and melts at 
476^. Before the blow-pipe, bismuth fuses and gives off inodorous fumes. 
On charcoal it becomes surrounded with a dark brown oxide, which is pale- 
yellow on cooling ; the flame directed on the coating is not tinged ; ulti- 
mately tlie metal is wholly vaporized. The oxide of bismuth, with carbon- 
ate of soda, on charcoal, reduces to metal. Specific gravity, 9. 

ANTIMONY. — The ore from which commercial antimony is obtained is 
the 

Sulphuret of Antimony, composed of antimony, 74 parts ; sulphur, 26 
parts ; and found chiefly in granite, mica-slate, and gneiss, associated with 
ores of iron, copper, arsenic, blende and galena. It occurs crystallized arid 
massive, composed of delicate threads or needles. Is brittle ; yields to the 
knife ; has fibrous fracture and splendid lustre. Tested in a candle-flame 
it melts. The ores of antimony iafford fumes usually white on charcoal, 
which are inodorous. The oxides form, with soda on the platinum wire, a 
clear, colorless bead, which becomes white on cooling ; on charcoal they 
are reduced. In an oi)en tube, antimony gives white fumes, which coat 
tlie glass and vaporize easily on a new application of the heat, without 
fusion to globules. Specific gravity, 4 to 4.80. 

GRAPHITE (Black Lead, Plumbago), composed of carbon, 9 parts ; 
iron, 1 part ; is found in clay-slate, also in the coal formation. The Dixon 
Crucible Co., of Jersey City, N. J., obtain their graphite from the " Black 
Lead Mountain," near the village of Ticonderoga, Essex Co., N. Y. The 
ore is chiefl}'' of the foliated variety, interspersed in gneiss and quartz in 
veins. Graphite is also found in great abundance near Ottawa, Canada. 

ROCK SALT is found in secondary strata ; frequently associated with 
gypsum, marl, clay, &c. Near Goderi'ch, in Canada, at a depth of about 
1000 ft., there is a bed of rock-salt 14 to 40 ft. thick. The salt of Salina and 
Syracuse, N. Y., is obtained from wells of saltwater 150 ft. and upwards in 
depth, which are borings in saliferous rocks, which here are from 700 to 
1000 ft. thick. From 35 to 45 gals, of the water yields a bushel of salt, 
while of sea water it takes 350 gals, for the same quantity. 

PRECIOUS STONES. — Diamonds are found in association with sand or 
alluvium which contain grains of gold. In Brazil the diamond district is 
called Minas Geraes, 50 miles by 25, near Tejuco. The emerald, garnet, 
amethyst, tourmaline, chalcedonj-, topaz, chrysprase, chrysoberyl, sapphire, 
iolite, spinel, are always found in the primary rocks. The sardonyx, ja.'-- 
per, carnelian, cacholong, are often found in secondary strata, principallj' in 
the trap rocks. Cairngorm is a si3ecies of quartz. The exudations which 
form crystals are a very extensive mode of rock formation in all varieties. 
For hardness of precious stones see page 925. 

COAL. — Among the varieties of coal may^ be noted 

Anthracite {Blind or Glance Coal), sometimes called stove coal, is found 
in imbedded masses, veins and beds in primary and secondary rocks, fre- 
quently in trai>rocks, graywacke, slate, sandstone, &c. 

Black or Bituminous Coal occurs chiefly in the secondary rocks, some- 
times in sandstone, limestone, and clay. The various kinds are styled 
slate, coarse, foliated, and cannel coal. The coal beds vary in thickncs 
from a fraction of an inch to 30 or 40 ft., but seldom exceed 8 ft., and are 
generally much thinner ; 8 to 10 ft. is the thickness of the principal bed f.t 
Pittsburg, Pa. ; 29^ ft., that of the " Mammoth vein " at Wilkesbarre, Pa., 
37^ ft. that of one of the two great veins at Pictou, in Nova Scotia. The 
coal beds, taken together, make up not more than one-fiftieth part of the 
coal formation ; that is, tliere are 50 feet or more of barren rock to 1 foot of 
coal. An acre of coals 2 ft. thick yields 3000 tons, 3 ft. thick, 4840 tons, 
and 5 ft., 8000 tons. 

Lic/nite {Broicn Coal) occurs in secondary rocks, and occasionally iu 
alluvium. For facts relating to coal, fuel values, &c., see page 627- 

GYPSUM occurs in the new red sandstone and other secondary rocka, 



SYNOPSIS OF METALLURGY, &C. 1003 

LIMESTONE, composing most of the rocks below the drift, is a com- 
pact rock of grayisli and other dull shades of color to black. Consists es- 
sentially of carbonate of lime. When impure, and therefore p;ood for 
making hydraulic lime (lime that Avill set under -water), it is called hydraul- 
ic limestone. When composed of carbonate of lime and magnesia it is 
called dolomite. When containing fossils it is called fossil if erous limestone. 
The limestone rocks owe their origin to the organic remains of various 
species that have lived and died during past time. The best marble is 
found in the ujiper part of the jjrimary, and lower parts of the secondary- 
rocks. 

Lime (oxide of calcium), before the blow-pipe, is infusible alone ; with 
borax, effervesces ; with a comparatively large quantity of borax, forms a 
clear glass which becomes angular on cooling ; in the flame of the oxyhy- 
drogeii blow-pipe emits a dazzling white light, and fuses at the edges. 

BORAX {Biborate of Soda), before the blow-pipe intumeses and fuses 
to borax-glass ; with fluor-spar and bisulphate of potash, colors the flame 
green ; soluble in water ; the solution changes vegetable blues to green. 

ALUMINA {Sesqiioxide of alnmimim), before the blow-pipe, remains 
unaltered both alone and with soda ; fuses with borax with great diffi- 
culty, also Avith salt of phosphorus ; moistened with cobalt solution and 
brought to a high heat, becomes blue ; is not attacked by acids. 

SULPHUR, heated in an open glass tube, emits fumes of sulphurous 
acid ; heated with soda, the compound, moistened with -vN'ater, blackens sil- 
ver. 

TELLURIUM (Oxide), before the blow-pipe, colors the flame green, 
fuses and sublimes ; with borax, in the oxidizing flame, forms a colorless 
glass ; in the reducing flame the glass becomes gray ; its behavior with cjir- 
bonate of soda is similar as with borax ; on charcoal, readily reduces to 
metal. 

QUARTZ (Silicic acid), before the blow-pipe, undergoes no change 
<ilone ; with soda, readily fuses to a transparent glass. 

NITRE, before the blow-pipe, deflagrates vividly ; detonates -with com- 
bustible substances ; dissolves readily in water ; not altered by exposure. 

¥LVOR-S>FAR (Fluoride of Calcium), before the blow-pipe, decrepitates 
and fuses to an enamel ; the flame continued, the specimen assumes a cauli- 
flower ; heated with salt of phosphorus in a glass tube, it etches or rough- 
ens the inside of the glass. 

PHOSPHORUS, moistened -with sulphuric acid and heated, gives a green, 
tinge to the flame. 

CHLORINE. — A substance containing chlorine, combined with the salt 
of phosphorus and oxide of copper, on the platinum wire, colors the flame 
deep blue. 

SODA ( Oxide of Sodium), colors the flame deep yellow. 

ARSENIC (Oxide), before the blow-pipe, volatilizes in white fumes of a 
garlic odor ; heated to redness burns with a pale bluish flame. 

The following additional tests, &c., for the determination of gold and 
silver ores, is extracted from Mr. Kustel's incomparable work. 

Sec. 10. The use of the following systematic proceeding can be under- 
stood easily by an example : 

A silver mineral, for instance, approved as such by an examination on 
silver, must be observed first as to what lustre it shows, or whether it is 
dull. Suppose, then, the mineral has a metallic lustre. (See I.) The color 
must be observed next, and compared with those under I. The ore is fur- 
ther found to be " lead gray." We have then to proceed from the indicated 
letter, B, on the right side, to B on the left, and examine accordingly, 
whether the mineral gives a sublimate or not. If. for instance, no sublimate 
has been obtained, we must proceed to c, as indicated. On the described 
examination under c, the mineral appears tough ; it can be cut with a knife. 



1004 METALLUEGY OF GOLD AND SILVER. 

We go over to Section 10, and see the numbers 2 and 20, Silverglance and 
Hessite, The description of both will lead to the right determination of the 
mineral. 

I. — Lustre metallic or Siib-metallic. 

Color, white, greyish- white, yellowish-white, or yellow, see A 

Color, lead-gray, blackish lead-gray, or iron-black, B 

Color, light steel-gray, C' 

Color, reddish lead-gray, J) 

Color, pinchbeck-brown, — E 

II. — Lustre Resinous and Adamantine. 

Color, pearl-gray, yellowish-green, green, olive-green, lemon-yellow, or 
light yellow, see F 

m.—Dull. 

Color, red, dark red (sometimes externally lead-gray), G 

Color, blackish-blue, H 

Color, greenish-black, / 

A It can be cut with a knife, see « 

A Cannot be cut ; is brittle, & 

B In a closed tube, no sublimate, even under the plow-pipe, c 

B It gives a sublimate, with or without the blow-pipe, . . d 

C In a closed tube, no sublimate, ^ 

C It gives a sublimate, f 

D In a closed tube, dark-red, sublimate. See Sec. 16 (8 or 9). 
E In a closed or open tube, no sublimate. See Sec. 6 (4). 

F In a closed or open tube, no sublimate, r/ 

F Gives, with the aid of the blow-pipe, a slight sublimate, h 

G In a closed tube, red-brown or reddish-yellow sublimate. Sec. 16 (10). 

G It gives three sublimates — black, yellow, and gray. Sec. 16 (16). 

H In an open or closed tube, no sublimate. Sec. 16 (3 a'). 

J In an open or closed tube, no sublimate. Sec. 16 (11 a'). 

a It melts on charcoal to a metallic white globule. Sec. 16 (1). 

a It melts on charcoal to a metallic yellow or j^ellowish globule. Sec. 15 

(1). 
h It melts on charcoal to a globule of metallic lustre, coating the coal white. 

Sec. 16 (17). 
6 It decrepitates somewhat, giving, before fusing, a slight, very volatile 

whitish coating. Sec. 15 (4), or Sec. 16 (22 or 23). 
c It can be cut with a knife. Sec. 16 (2 or 20). 
c It cannot be cut ; is brittle. Sec. 16 (3 or 4 a or 6), or Sec. 15 (2). 
d In a closed tube, it gives a reddish-yellow sublimate. Sec. 16 (6 a'), 
e On charcoal it fuses, giving a yellow and white coating. Sec. 15 (3). 
f In a closed tube, by aid of the blow-pipe, a dark red sublimate. Sec. 16 

(11). 
g On charcoal it fuses, emits an acrid odor, and leaves globules of silver ; in 

a closed tube, with bisulphate of potassa, emits no colored vapors. Sec. 

16(12). 
fl It gives, with bisulphate of potassa, red-brown vapors. Sec. 16 (13 or 14). 
h In a closed tube, with bisulphate of potassa, violet vapors. Sec. 16 (15). 
DESCRIPTION OF GOLD AND SILVER ORES. A. Gold Ores.— 
Sec. 15. Gold appears mostly in metallic condition, but never free from 
silver. It is found generally in the form of grains, scales, dust, also in the 
shape of leaves, threads, or crystals. It is not ascertained but supposed that 
a part of the gold in iron pyrites does not exist in metallic state, but com. 



MEi'^iLLURGY OF GOLD AND SILVEK. 1005 

6iued with sulpluir, or with arsenic in the arsenical pyrites. The gold is 
found in combination with tlie following metals : 

1. <Si7t'er.— In different proportions. The gold of Gold Hill lode, N. T., 
contains forty-seven to fifty per cent, of silver; that of the Com stock lode, 
thirty to forty-five ; Gila River and Australian gold, three to five per cent. 
According to the amount of silver, the gold appears more or less whitish. 
Sixty per cent, of silver renders the alloy white. 

On charcoal, treated with the oxidation flame, it gives sometimes a 
bluish-wliite coating of antimony. With borax, jjlayed upon with reduction 
flame, a reaction of copper may be observed. 

2. With Tellurmm. — It cohtams gold, 2G ; silver, 14 ; tellurium, 59 ; 
with traces of lead, copper, and antimony ; hardness, 1.5 : gravity, 5.7 to 
5.8 ; lustre, metallic ; color, light gray. 

In an open tube it emits white fumes, and gives a gray sublimate of tel- 
lurium. Directing the flame on the sublimate, it melts into transparent 
drops. The fumes have a peculiar sour odor. On charcoal, it melts to a 
dark-gray globule. Played upon with the oxidation flame, it gives a white 
coating, which disappears with a bluisli-green color, under the oxidation 
flame. Continued blowing yields a yellow, bright gold button. 

3. With Tdhiriwn and Lead. — Gold, 9 ; tellurium, 32 ; lead, 54, with 
traces of copper, sulphur, and antimony ; H. = 1.5 ; Gr. = 7.72 ; color, 
dark lead-graj'. 

In an oj^en tube it fumes, and yields a gray sublimate, the upper part of 
which, formed by antimonious acid, can be driven away by the flame. On 
charcoal it fumes and gives two coatings — a white one, which is volatile, 
consisting of tellurous and antimonious acids and sulphate of lead ; the 
otlier coating is yellow, less volatile, and consists principally of oxide of 
lead. Continued blowing leaves a small metallic button, showing gold color 
when cupelled. 

4. With Mercimf and Silver. — Gold, 36 ; silver, 5 ; mercury, 58. The 
gold is found also alloyed with molybdenum, platinum, and rhodium. 

i^.— SILVER ORES. Sec. 16. Silver is found mostly in combination 
with sulphur, also alloyed with other metals and substances. It aj^pears 
often in metallic condition. 

1. Native Silver is found crystallized, in tlireads or filaments. It often 
contains a small amount of antimony, arsenic, iron, gold, or copper. The 
native silver, one varietv of the Comstock lode, IS". T., contains, silver, 
60-85 ; gold, 1.9 ; lead, "8-30 ; copper, 1-5 ; H. =2.7-3 ; Gr. = 10.6-11.3. 
Heated on charcoal, it becomes covered Avith lead globules, disapi^earing 
again when red hot. It gives a yellow coating of lead, and further off, a 
bluish-white of antimonious acid. It colors the borax glass green with the 
oxide of copper. 

a. Combination with Sulphur. — 2. Silver qlance {Sidphxiret of Silver). 
—Silver, 87 ; sulphur, 12.9; H. =2.5; Gr." = 6.9-7.2 ; lustre, metallic; 
color and streak, blackish lead-gray ; streak, shining. It may be cut like 
lead. On charcoal, it melts into a dark blue globule, generally emitting 
metallic silver on the surface on cooling, especially if a small particle of 
borax glass is added, which dissolves impurities. It yields a silver globule 
when melted with soda. 

3. Stromeyerite (Silver-Copper f/lance). — Silver, 50-53 ; copper, 31 ; sul- 
phur, 15 ; H. = 2.5 ; Gr. = 6.2 ; lustre, metallic ; color, blackish lead-gray. 
In a closed tube, gives sometimes a little sulphur sublimate ; in an oi^eu 
tube, sulphurous acid. On charcoal, it fuses to a steel-blue globule, emit- 
ting sometimes metallic silver on cooling. Melted with soda, it gives a coi> 
I)er button, which yields silver when refined. It occurs in the Heiutzelman 
mine, Arizona. 

a' . A variety of this ore, containing 40-33 per cent, of silver, with a dull 
blackish-blue color ; streak, shining ; can be cut ; occurs in Arizona. 

4. Sternhercjite {Sidphurct of Silver and Iron). — Silver, 30-33 ; iron, 36 ; 



IOC 6 METALLURGY OF GOLD AND SILVER. 

sulphur, 30 ; 11. = 1 ; Gr, = 4.2 ; metallic lustre ; color, piuchbeck-brown ; 
streak, black. In thin lamiure, flexible, resembling graphite. In an open 
tube it gives out sulphurous acid. It melts to a globule on charcoal, emit- 
ting silver, and follows the magnet. 

«' . A variety of this ore is found in the Gold Hill lode, N. T. It consists 
of silver, 33.25 ; iron, 34.05 ; H. =2.8 ; Gr. = 5.2 ; color, dull bluish-gray. 
The fracture has a metallic lustre and dark lead-gray color. The powder is 
blackish-brown. It is found in small fragments of indistinct cubic shape. 
On charcoal, it melts, with a spongy appearance, to a dull gray globule, 
following the magnet. A slight yellow coating indicates a trace of lead. In 
melting, it gives out a great deal of sulphurous acid. Treated with soda, a 
silver globule is easily obtained. 

h. Combinations loith SidjjJuir and Antimony, or Arsenic. — 5. Brittle 
Silver 0?*c.— Silver, 70 ; antimony, 13.9 ; sulphur, 15.7 ; H. = 2.5 ; Gr. =, 
6.2 ; lustre, metallic ; color and streak, iron-black, or blackish lead-gray.' 
In a close tube, it decrepitates, melts to a globule, and gives a blackish sub- 
limate, which turns red-brown when cold, consisting of sulphide of anti- 
mony. In an open tube it melts, evolving sulphurous acid, and fumes. 
On charcoal it fuses, and coats the coal white wuth antimonious acid. By 
continual blast, the coating assumes a pink color, derived from the oxide ol 
silver. It occurs frequently in the Comstock lode. 

6. Polybasite {Eugen Glance). — Silver, 04-72 ; copper, 3-10 ; sulphur, 
17 ; H. =2.5 ; Gr. =6.2. It contains also antimony, arsenic, iron, and 
sometimes zinc. Lustre, metallic ; color, iron-black ; streak, black. In a 
closed tube it yields nothing volatile. In an open tube it gives antimonial 
fumes and sulphurous acid. It occurs also in Gold Hill lode, N. T. 

a'. The polybasite of the Comstock lode contains 64 per cent, of silver. 
It gives, in a closed tube, w^ith the aid of the blow-pipe, a reddish-brown 
sublimate, with a yellow edge. In an open tube, white fumes arise, and 
some white sublimate deposits. On charcoal, with the reduction flame, it 
evolves an odor of garlic. Played upon with the oxydation flame, it gives 
out sulphurous acid and a Avhite coating of antimonious acid. It melts to a 
globule with a metallic lustre. If the hot blast is changed suddenly to a 
cold one, and directed on the globule, holding tlie blow-pipe point close to 
it, metallic silver is emitted. If the cold blast is stopped too soon, the silver 
will disappear again. 

1. Miargyrite. — Silver, 35.8; antimony, 42.8 ; sulphur, 21; H. =2.5; 
Gr. =5.2-5.4; lustre, metallic adamantine ; color, iron-black ; streak, dark 
cherry-red. In a closed tube it decrepitates, melts easily, and gives out a 
sublimate of sulphide of antimony. In an open tube, sulphurous acid and 
antimonial fumes are emitted, depositing a white sublimate of antimonious 
acid. On charcoal it melts quieth^, emitting sulphurous acid and antimonial 
fumes. It covers the coal with a white coating, which becomes pink-colored 
by continual blast. Melted with soda, a silver button is obtained, which, 
treated with borax and tin, reacts on copper. 

8. Dark red Silver Ore {Pyrargyrite, Antimonial Blend). — SUver, 58.9 ; 
antimony, 23.4 ; sulphur, 17.5 ; li. =2.5 ; Gr. = 5.7. Lustre, metallic-like 
admantine ; color, dark-red ; powder, cochineal-red. In a closed tube, by 
the aid of the blow-pipe, it yields a sublimate of sulphide of antimony, black 
while hot, but varying from red to reddish-yellow when cold. In an open 
tube it gives antimonial fumes and sulphurous acid. On charcoal it melts 
easily, and deposits a white coating of antimonious acid. With soda it 
gives a silver globule. It occurs also in the Gold Hill lode, N. T. 

9. Light red Silver Ore (Proiistite, Arsenical Blend). — Silver, 65.4 ; 
arsenic, 15.1 ; sulphur, 19.4; H. = 2.5 ; Gr. = 5.5-5.0 ; color, similar to 
dark red silver ore, but lighter. Behaves like the preceding, except the 
iirseuical fumes. :i 

10. Xanthocone.— Silver, 64 ; arsenic, 13.4 ; sulphur, 21.3 ; H.=2 ; Gr. 
=5-5.2 ; color, dull red to clove brown ; powder, yellow. When heated in 



METALLURGY OF GOLD AND SILVER. J 007 

a closed tube it becomes dark red, melts, and gives some sublimate of sul- 
phide of arsenic. AVhile liot, it is dark, brownish-red, and red to reddish- 
yellow when cold. In an open tube and on charcoal, it behaves like the 
preceding, 

11. Silva' Fahlerz (Argentiferous Gray Copper Ore). — Silver, 17.71- 
31.29 ; antimony, 26.63-24.63 ; sulphur, 23.52-21.17 ; copper, 25.23-14.81 ; 
iron, 3.72-5.98 ; zinc, 3.10-0.99 ; lustre, metallic ; color, light steel-gray. In 
a closed tube it sometimes decrepitates, melts, and gives, by aid of tlic 
blow-pipe, a dark red sublimate of tersulphide of antimony, with antimo- 
nious acid. In an open tube it fuses, gives antiraonial fumes and sulphur- 
ous acid. On charcoal it fuses easily, and gives a bluish-white coating of 
antimonious acid and antimonial fumes. There is also a yellowish coating 
close to the test, which appears white on cooling. This coating is created 
by oxide of zinc. ;;' 

a'. The Reese River ore, from the Comet lode, seems to be a metamor- 
phosed silver fahlerz. The sulphur is represented by carbonic acid, so that 
almost all copper and silver is a carbonate. It contains silver, 22. 35, cop- 
per, 17, antimony, and some lead. It has a dull greenish-black or black 
color ; streak, shining ; powder, greenish-gray. In a closed tube it yields 
nothing volatile. In an open tube some sulphurous acid can be observed. 
On charcoal, fuses slowly, but boils up suddenly in contact with glowing 
coal, leaving a button of silver and copper. This button, when played 
upon with the oxidation flame on another spot of the charcoal, gives first a 
bluish coating of antimonious acid, then a j-ellow one, nearer to the assay 
of the oxide of lead. The silver can be separated from copper by cupella- 
tion with lead. 

6'. The silver fahlerz of Sheba lode (Humboldt) contains, silver, 8.20, 
goid, 0.008, some antimony and lead, but very little copper. It has a light 
gray metallic lustre. It is also called gray silver ore. 

c. Combination with Chlorine, Bromine and Iodine. 

12. Horn Silver (Chloride of Silver).— Silyev, 75.2 ; chlorine, 24.G ; H.= 
1.5 ; Gr.=5.5-5.6 ; lustre, adamantine ; color, gray, greenish or blackish ; 
streak, shining. It looks like horn or wax. It is translucent, and may be 
cut like wax. Occurs frequently in the Comstock and Gold Hill lodes, also 
in California. It fuses in a candle flame. On charcoal it is easilj^ reduced, 
and gives an odor of chlorine. If treated under the reduction flame, with 
an addition of copper, it forms a chloride of copper, and colors the flame 
azure-blue. 

13. Emholite (Chlorohromide of Silver).— Silxer, 66.9 to 75 ; H.=l-1.5 ; 
Gr. =5,3-5,4 ; lustre, resinous ; color, yellowish-green or green. On char- 
coal it fuses easily, evolves vapors of bromine, and gives metallic silver. 
Mixed with oxide of copper, it colors the flame greenish-blue. 

14. Bromyrite (Bromic Silver). — Silver, 57.56 ; bromine, 42,44 ; H.= 
1-1.5 ; Gr.=5.&-5.6. In a closed tube, treated with bisulphate of potassa, 
it emits brown vapors. On charcoal it fuses easily and yields a globule of 
silver. It is yellow or greenish, and may be cut like chloride of silver. 

15. lodijrite (Iodide of Silver).— Silver, 46 ; iodine, 54 ; H.=1.5 ; Gr,= 
5.5 ; lustre, adamantine ; color, yellow, also greenish. It is translucent. 
In scale shape it is always lemon-yellow. When heated in a closed tube it 
becomes fire-red, but assumes its former color when cold. It fuses easily, 
and gives, by the aid of the blow-pipe, a reddish-yellow sublimate, getting 
lemon-3'ellow on cooling. "With bisulphate of potassa, it emits beautiful 
violet vapors. In an open tube it gives an orange sublimate, lemon-yellow 
on cooling. On charcoal it assumes a fire-red color before it fuses, and 
spreads on the coal and yields many minute silver globules. With an addi- 
tion of oxide of copper, it makes an intensely green flame with a bluish 
tinge. 

16. Iodide of Silver and Mercui^j. — Silver, 40-42 ; iodine, quicksilver, 
and sulphur (chlorine ?), color, dull, dark red ; streak, shining ; powder, 



1008 METALLUllGY OF GOLD AND SILVER. 

dark red, but changes soon into lead-gray, if exposed to the light. In a 
closed tube it gives three sublimates, separated in rings. The nearest to 
the assay is black (sulphide of mercury), the second, yellow (subchloride 
of mercury ?), the third is gray (metallic mercury). An addition of bisul- 
phate of potassa causes it to yield violet vapors, whicli come from the 
iodine. In an open tube it gives the same sublimate, but the black is very 
slight ; it gives also yellow fumes. A gold particle in tlie tube becomes 
amalgamated. Litmus paper at the upper end is colored red by the sul- 
phur. Heated on charcoal it turns black, fuses easily, and yields silver 
globules. Melted with soda, it draws partly into the coal. If this crust is 
broken out and laid on a blank piece of silver, with a drop of water, the 
sulphur in it will cause a black spot on the silver. Heated with a small 
piece of pure lead, it gives a beautiful green coating, with a yellow border, 
nearest the assay. This coating (iodine and lead) is far off from the test. 
With copper oxide, like the iodyrite. 

This mineral occurs, to my knowledge, only in the Heintzelmau mine, 
Arizona. 

d. Combinationimth Antimony. — 17. Antimonial Silvei\ — Silver, 77.84; 
antimonj^ 23-16 ; H.=3.5 ; Gr.=9.4-9.8 ; lustre, metallic ; color and 
streak, silver-white. On charcoal it fuses easily to a globule, coating the 
coal white. A continual blast renders the white coating reddish. 

e. Combination icith Seleni^lm. — 18. Xanmannite {Selenid of Silver). — 
Silver, 73 ; selenium, 26 ; H.=2.5 ; Gr.=8 ; lustre, metallic ; color, iron- 
black. It melts easily on charcoal, but with intumescence in the reduction 
flame. It emits the selenium odor of rotten radish. With soda it yields 
metallic silver. 

19. Eucairite (Selenid of Silve7' and Copper). — Silver, 43.1 ; selenium, 
31.6 ; copper, 25.3 ; lustre, metallic ; color, lead-gray. On charcoal it melts 
to a gray metallic globule, fumes, and re-acts on borax with copper. This 
mineral is soft, and can be cut with a knife. 

/. With Tellnrinm.— 20. Hessite ( Tellurid of Silver).— Silxer, 62.42 ; 
tellurium, 36.96 ; iron, 0.24 ; Gr.=8.4-8.6 ; lustre, metallic ; color, lead- 
gray or steel-gray. It is soft, and can be cut like lead. According to Mr. 
Blake, this mineral is found in California also. He describes the re-action 
as follows : 

" In an open tube the mineral fuses quietly, coloring the glass a bright 
yellow under assay. A white or gray sublimate is deposited at a short dis- 
tance, immediately over it, which, on being heated, fuses into transparent 
drops resembling oil. On charcoal it fuses to a leaden-colored globule, 
which, on cooling, becomes covered with dendrites. This globule flattens 
under the hammer. With the addition of soda, a silver globule is ob- 
tained." 

/. With Bismuth. — 21. Bismuth Silver. — Silver, 60 ; bismuth, 10 ; cop- 
per, 7.8, and some arsenic ; lustre, metallic ; color, tin-white or grayish. 
On charcoal it melts easily, covering the coal dark orange. It is yellow 
while hot, and lemon-yellow when cold. The oxide of copper in it colors 
the borax green, when melted on charcoal. 

(•/. With Mercxiry. — 22. Silver Amalgam. — Silver, 34.8-26.2 ; quicksil- 
ver, 65.2-73.7 ; H.=3.5 ; Gr.=13.7-14 ; lustre, metallic ; color, silver-white; 
brittle. In a closed tube the mercury sublimates. 

23. Arquerite. — Silver, 86.49 ; quicksilver, 13.51. It behaves like the 
amalgam 



FIRE ASSAY OF GOLD AND SILVER OKES. 1009 

DRY AND HUMID ASSAY OF MINERALS. 

Assay of Ores by the Dry and Humid Processes.— In the dry, 
or fire assay of gold and silver ores, the apparatus required is, 1, A re- 
liable assay balance, as previously noted. 2. A pair of less delicate 
balances, with the caiiacity of ^veighing 3 ozs., the weights to be troy 
ounces ; each ounce to be divided into iSS- 3. An iron raortar. 4. A lot 
of French clay No. 7 crucibles, glass mattresses, and small crucibles of 
(dry cups) pipe clay. 5. Crucible tongs. 6. A fine wire cloth sieve (50 
liolcs to the inch ; 2500 to a sq. in.), extended on a wooden frame. 7. 
Cupel tongs. 8. Two or 3 muffles, 10 ins. long, 4 ins. wide, and 3 ins. high. 
9. A very small, stiff brush. 10. A fine sieve with about 40 holes to the 
inclj. li. A brass mould, and bone ashes for making cupels. 

The formation of the cupels requires bones to be burned perfectly 
white, then pulverized and sifted through the last-noted sieve. Tliese 
ashes are mixed with water and Avorked with theliands to a putty-like con- 
sistence, then placed in the mould and beaten with the pestle by a wooden 
mallet. The pestle is finally withdrawn by a twisting movement and the 
cupel is forced out of the mould by the ball of the hand. 

In addition to the above noted, the following materials will be required. 
1. Wheat flour ; to use as a substitute for charcoal in reducing a portion of 
the litharge to lead. A compound of 12 parts of wheat flour with 100 parts 
of soda is an excellent flux for lead assays. 2. Litharge ; is of great utility 
in promoting fusion. It should be thoroughly mixed, sifted, and kept from 
damp. With silver ore, in a crucible, 1^ ozs., with 10 grs. of wheat flour, 
will produce a button, which is to be cupeled, and the weight of silver 
product noted. This weight is to be deducted from the assays where this 
amount of litharge is u.sed. 3. Iron; is used to desulphurize the sulphu- 
r3ts. Should be supplied in small pieces of wirelorf'eof an inch thick, 
and from | to h, in. in length. 4. Carbonate of soda ; for use expose the 
crystals to the air until it forms a dry v.'hite powder. Soda-ash or Bicar- 
bonate of soda may be substituted foe it with good results. 5. Common 
table salt ; to use, the water of crystallization must be expelled, by melt- 
ing the salt on a sheet-iron plate until intumescence ceases. The early 
fusion of the salt in the assay mixture prevents the injurious contact of 
air with the latter during the process. 6. Glass; serves as an excellent 
flux ; for use it must be Avell pulverized in the iron mortar, and afterwards 
sifted. 

The sample of ore to be treated being thoroughly pulverized, it is, with 
the fluxes, weighed out in the following proportion : 

a. Ores or Tailings containing but little Sidjyhurets. — Ore, 250 grs. ; glass, 
125 grs. ; flour, 8 grs. ; litharge, 1^ ozs. ; soda, 1 oz. 

b. Ores containing about 50 per cent, of Sulphur ets. — Ore, 250 grs. ; glass, 
125 grs. ; iron, 50 grs. ; litharge, 1^ ozs. ; soda, 1 oz. 

c. Ores being nearly all Sulphurets. — The mixture is like the preceding, 
but double the amount of iron, 100 grs. must be used. The foregoing pro- 
portions are given on the high authority of Mr. Kustel. 

The soda and litharge are first placed in the crucible, over a sheet of 
paper ; then the rest of the mixture ; all are carefully mixed together 
(making sure that no portion islovt or spilled), tap the crucible in order to 
settle tlie mixture ; strew over the whole a layer of salt one-fourth of an 
inch deep, cover, and place the crucible on the muffle in the middle of the 
furnace ; if there are several assays place them in a row touching each 
other, but apart from the walls of the furnace, and pile the fuel (charcoal) 
around them, but not higher than the tops of the crucibles. Ignite the char- 
coal and maintain the fire as it burns down, by means of fresh fuel, so as to 
keep the fire nearly level with the tops of the crucibles. The latter should 



1010 J?1KE ASSAY OF GOLD AND SILVER OKES. 

be large enough to prevent the assay seething over into the fire. As the 
melting proceeds the bone-ash cupels are placed on the muffle and brought 
to a red heat. 

The melting will occupy about one hour ; when accomplished, remove 
first, the crucible covers, and then the crucibles themselves, by grasping 
them with the long crucible tongs provided for that purpose ; remove from 
the furnace, and pour the contents into the iron moulds, which are formed 
with small cavities or depressions, about | in. deep, for receivnig the melted 
assay. The metallic button in the mould, after being cooled, is freed from 
adhering slag bj' being hammered into a square shape, and, by means of 
the cupel tongs above noted, is transferred into the red-hot, bone-ash cupels, 
where it fuses in a short time and the lead in the mixture assumes a bright, 
agitated appearance, fumes, works up to the surface, and draws off to the 
sides of the cupel, where it is absorbed and disappears in the porous mass. 
By a proper application of heat this activitj"- continues until a bright dazzling 
play of rainbow colors announces the final disappearance of all the lead, 
leaving the button of silver behind. 

The silver button is freed from any adherent bone-ash by hammering 
on the edge ; it is then weighed, and the weight noted, then transferred to 
a glass tube containing about ^ oz, of pure nitric acid, and submitted to the 
flame of an alcohol lamp, where it soon boils, emitting reddish-brown 
vapors, and separates from any gold that may be present, leaving the latter 
as a blackish sediment, undissolved in the tube. The silver being dissolved, 
the acid solution is carefully poured off, leaving the gold behind, and the 
tube is then filled with distilled water. When the auriferous sediment has 
settled, the water is poured off carefully, and it is again filled with all the 
water it will contain. The tube is then covered with a dry cup, or pipe-clay 
crucible, and suddenly turned upside down so as to deposit the sediment on 
the bottom of the cup. The tube is very carefully withdrawn from the 
Avater so as to leave every particle of the gold in the fluid, and after the gold 
has completely subsided the water is slowly drained off, and the sediment 
dried in the cup over an alcohol flame until the gold assumes a yellow 
color. This gold is weighed and the weight noted. 

The utility of this manipulation will be manifest from the important re- 
sults obtained, as shown by the following calculations, transcribed from 
Kustel : 

"The gold was found to weigh, for instance, tocjt, and the silver buttoii 
before dissolving t¥uo. If the gold is subtracted from the silver which con- 
tained this gold, we find thus the pure silver — 

^356—35 = 321 silver x 116 = 372'3 ounces per ton. 
and 35 gold x 1*16 = 40 6 " 

To find the value, the ounces of gold must be multiplied with 20.67 and 
those of silver with 1.30. These numbers in their fractions are not perfectly 
correct, but will serve our purpose. Continuing the calculation we find 
Silver = 372-3 ounces x I'SO = ^483.99 
Gold = 40-6 *' X 20-67 = $839.20 

Total value $1,323.19 per ton. 

In case the ore for the assay has been weighed out by half an ounce, equal 
to 240 grains, tlie calculation is made the same way as before, with the ex- 
ception that the number 1.216 must be substituted for 1.16. The procedure 
of the preceding example would be as follows : 

The weight of the button was 321. This multiplied with 1.215 will give 
the amount of ounces per ton of ore of 2000 lbs. 

32 (321) X 1-215 := 390 ounces. The quantity of fluxes used for 250 grains 
of ore will also serve for half ounce assays. 



FIRE ASSAY OF MINERALS. 1011 

111 gold assays, the resulting button being insoluble in nitric acid, it must 
be weighed, melted on charcoal before the blowpipe with three times its 
weight of pure silver, then dissolved and treated as above noted." 

The assay of gold or silver ores may also be effected by fusing in a 
crucible the following mixture : 

Ore. finely pulverized 4 parts. 

Litharge 4 

Black Flux 3 " 

If much oxide of lead be present in the ore use the black flux only. If 
pyrites are abundant in the sample under treatment use saltpetre and nitre. 
If the resultant button be an alloy of gold, silver, copper and lead, add to 
it silver and lead, so that the sample will approximately consist of gold, 1 
part ; silver, 3 parts : and lead, from 12 to IG parts. Place the lead within 
a bone-ash cupel within a muffle, melt, then add the gold and silver wrap- 
ped in paper, maintain the heat until the play of colors comes over the but- 
ton as it brightens and becomes tranquil ; then cool, and weigh it. To 
" part " the gold from the silver, anneal the button, hammer it thin, and 
twist it into a roll (called a " cornet") and submit to heat in dilute nitric 
acid as long as action continues, then in concentrated nitric acid until the 
silver is wholly dissolved. Next, well wash, dry, and ignite the " cornet " ; 
the weight of silver is equivalent to the weight of the button before parting, 
less that of tlie refined cornet. 

iVofe.— Chloride of silver (Horn silver), composed of silver, 75.2 parts ; 
chlorine, 24.6 parts, cannot be decomposed by heat alone. It melts at 500^ 
Fahr. At a temperature of 212° Fahr. , it is decomposed by caustic potassa 
and soda, and may be reduced to the metallic state hj the addition of a 
little cane sugar. It may also be reduced to the metallic state by fusing 1 
part of the chloride with 2 parts carbonate of soda, or 1 part of the chloride 
with 2 parts of chalk and 2 parts of charcoal. 

Assay of Copper Ores, containing S^dphur, hut othericise same as the last. 
— Pulverize well, and melt in an earthen crucible, at a dull red heat, equal 
parts of ore and vitrified borax, remove from the slag the matte (crude 
copper) button. Pulverize it well and slowly, roast in an earthen crucible, 
stirring meanwhile with a steel rod to promote the emission of sulphurous 
acid fumes. When no more vapors are evolved raise and maintain the tem- 
perature at a white heat for several minutes ; then Introduce into the same 
crucible. 

Roasted matte. 1 part. 

Black flux 3 to 4 parts. 

Cover the compound with a layer of vitrified borax and submit it to a 
cherry-red heat for 20 minutes in a wind furnace ; then remove and weigh 
the resultant copper button. 

AssuT/ of Copper Ores containinc/ Arsenicand various other Metals. — Treat 
the pulverized matte as in the jn-evious case, tlieu roast it with pulverized 
charcoal until the emission of arsenical fumes ceases. Melt the resultant 
matte with black flux and borax as above noted, and cupel tlie button in a 
bone-ash cupel with pure lead. After the metallic globule becomes tran- 
quil, and the brightening takes place, cool, extract, and weigh the metallic 
button. 

Assay of Silver Ores by the Jlumid Process. — Digest the pulverized ore in 
nitric acid, then add a solution of common salt or muriatic acid .to 
the silver solution as long as any precipitate is thrown down. Next, 
filter and dry the residuum, then melt the drj- residuum with carbonate 
of soda in an earthen crucible ; when cool, extract and weigh the metallic 
button. Chloride of silver (Horn silver) i.i not adapted for this treatment, 



1012 DRY AND HUMID ASSAY OF ORES. 

being insoluble in nitric acid, but it can be dissolved in ammonia, or in 
boiling solutions of the chloride of potassium, barium, sodium, strontium 
and calcium. Cj^auide of potassium, in solution, will also dissolve chloride 
of silver ; strong sulphuric acid gradually decomposes it ; iron and zinc 
will lilcewise effect its decomposition, especially in presence of free muriatic 
acid. The behavior of Bromide of silver is nearly identical with the chloride. 
Assay of Gold Ores by the Humid Process. — Digest the ore (well pulverized) 
in 1 part of nitric and 4 parts of hydrochloric acid, then dilute, filter and 
evaporate nearly to dryness to expel excess of acid. Next, dilute the dried 
filtrate in pure water, and boil the solution with a solution of sulphate of 
iron, which precipitates the gold as a dark purple powder. Next, filter and 
heat the residuum with hydrochloric acid, then filter, wash, and dry the gold 
powder. Oxalic acid, substituted for the sulphate of iron, i^recipitates the 
gold in large flakes. — Quartz Operator's Hand-Book. 

Assay of Iron. — Melt iu a covered crucible a well-pulverized mixture 
of: 

Powdered and roasted ore _ 4 parts. 

Fluor-spar 2 '^ 

Charcoal 2 " 

Common salt strewed over the whole 8 " 

After fusion remove and weigh the resultant button of cast iron. A 
./variety of fluxes, as clay, lime, &c., may be employed, according as the 
;flature of the ore may require. 

l^. Assay of Galena, or Ores of Lead containinf/ Sulphitr. — Place the foUow- 
Jjig iu an earthen crucible in the order of mention : 

Well pulverized ore 10 parts. 

Iron in strips or plates 1 to 3 " 

Black flux SO " 

Common salt, a thick layer, over all, with a piece of charcoal on top. 
Cover the crucible, melt the assay, gradually increasing the temperature 
from a low heat to a bright red, continuing the latter about 30 minutes. 
Next, tap the crucible to consolidate the contents, cool, and remove the 
metallic button. 

Assay of Oxidized Ores of Lead. — Place the following in an earthen cru- 
cible in the order of mention : 

Well pulverized ore 10 parts. 

Carbonate of soda 30 to 40 " 

Granulated charcoal... 3 " 

Iron, in strips or plates, if sulphur be present. 1 " 
Common salt, a thick layer over all. 
Treat as in preceding manipulation, 

Assay of Copper. Ores where no other Metals are present hut L'on and 
Copper. — Place in a crucible the following : 

Well pulverized ore, 2 parts. 

Blackflux.. 6 " 

Begin with a gradual heat, increasing to a bright red, continuing 15 
minutes, then extract the button from the slag, and note the weight. 

To recover Gold and Silver Besidues in Photographic Wastes. — A large list 
of fluxes for reducing these wastes will be found on page 981. To precipi- 
tate the precious metal from rejected solutions of nitrate of silver, add the 
following as long as it causes a precipitate ; carbonate of soda, 4 ozs. ; 
water, 6 ozs. 

Add water, and then thoroughly wash the precipitate in plenty of icarm 
ivater ; lastly, dry, and put up the precipitate in well-stoppered bottles, if 
not to be reduced' forthwith. Lime water is also a first-class precipitating 
solution for silver. To obtain it place some pieces of lime in a wide-mouthed 



PROCESSES, ETC, IN VARIOUS TRADES. 1013 

bottle or covered vessel ; fill up yflih "vrr.t^r, shake well and allow the mixture 
to subside for several days, then pour off the clear for use. 
I Among other precipitating solutions for photographer's use the following 
may be noted: 1. For Developer Washi7i(js. Common salt, 4 ozs., water, 
10 ozs. 3. For Toning Bath. Sulphate of iron, 4 ozs., water, 16 ozs. 3. For 
Jlyposidphite Fixing BatJis. Sulphide of potash, 4 ozs,, water, 16 ozs. 4. The 
Mtric Acid Plate-SohcUon. Hydrochloric acid, 4 ozs., water, 8 ozs. 5. For 
Nitrate of Silver Solution, old Baths, etc. Hydrochloric acid, 4 ozs., water, 
4 ozs. T[?he above are usei for promoting the separation of valuable ingre- 
dients in a solid state from chemical solutions. The process is assisted by 
previously heating the solution ; then add the reagent gradually, and stir well 
10 effect a thorough intermixture. The solution is then allowed to rest until 
the precipitate subsides. Then add a few drops more of the reagent to the 
liquid, and if no additional precipitation is effected the process is complete. 

'valuable processes, etc., in various 

TRADES. 

The following items, selected from the WatcJimakcr, having been crowded 
'out of the appropriate department, are inserted here, being deemed too valua- 
ble to omit. 

i MAIN SPRINGS. —When a main spring is cleaned, most inexperienced work- 
men will take hold of one end and pull the spring about half its length straight 
out, to save time. This practice will break springs when nothing else will ; 
and springs treated thus generally break after the watch has been delivered to 
the customer only a few days. Breaking into many pieces is owing to the acid 
in the oil which is used. We will suppose the main spring is a fine one, and 
has been evenly tempered and properly cleaned ; if, now, old oil is used, or 
that of an inferior quality if fresh, the acid it contains will eat into the spring, 
and will finally destroy its texture. The coil nearest the centre breaks first, 
and as it recoils it breaks every coil in the barrel, and sometimes each coil is 
broken twice. The spring has become so impregnated with acid that it has 
no life left. 

TO PURIFY OIL— To make the oil pure, take a good sized bullet or 
other piece of lead which has a thick coaling of lead rust, cut it up fine, put it 
into the oil, and let it stand for two weeks. This causes the acid to settle, 
and it then resembles milk at the bottom. Now pour off the top, and your oil 
is pure. Common clock oil can be treated in this manner and made better 
than some watch oil. 

TO RESTORE LUSTRE.— If not too much darkened it may be restored 
by dipping the wheel in pure muriatic acid. Test your acid by dipping a 
piece of polished steel in it ; if it destroys the polish, reduce the acid with 
rain water until it will not. Rinse the wheels well in water. This will also 
restore the polish to steel that has been blued by heat. 

GRINDING GLASSES. — Provide two pieces of cork, one concave and one 
convex (which may be cut to shape after fitting to lathe). Take a copper cent, 
or other suitable article, and soft solder a screw to fit the lathe and then wax 
it to the cork ; then get a twenty-five cent emery wheel, such as is used on 
sewing machines, and you have a complete outfit for cutting your watch 
glasses. Polish the edge on the zinc collar of the emery wheel, or use a piece 
of zinc to do it. The other cork should be waxed to a penny and centred. 
The spectacle lenses may be cut on the same emery wheel, if the wheel is 
attached to the lathe so as to revolve. 

Another method is to take a common piece of window glass (green glass is 
the best) and make a grindstone of that, using the flat surface to grind on. 
Cement it on a large chuck, the glass being from 2 to 2.5 inches in diameter. 

Any one not familiar with this method would be surprised to see how fast 
the glass is cut away, for either spectacles or watches. In grinding watch 
glasses put them flat on the chuck glass — not on the edge. 



1014 PROCESSES, ETC., IN VARIOUS TRADES. 

Some watchmakers are excusable for not keeping a full supply of watch 
glasses on hand all the time, when it is remembered that there are over four 
thousand different sizes. 

COMPOSITION OF BRONZE FOR MACHINERY.— Below will be 
found the composition of alloys approved of and used by prominent French 
mechanics in government and railway work. 

FBENCH 3VI.V.RINE. Copper. Tin. Zinc. 

Tough bronze for rods, valves, cocks, etc 88 12 2 

^'ery tough bronze for eccentric straps, etc 90 10 2 

Bronze for pluminer blocks gg 14 2 

Hard bronze * 84 16 2 

V(^ry hard bronze for steam brass-cocks 82 18 2 

Bell bronze 78 22 

Anti-friction bronze, with 8 parts antimony 4 9(j o 

FRENCH RAILROADS. 

Car pillows S3 IS 2 

Locomotive and tender oil boxes 84 16 2 

slide valves 82 18 2 

Cocks 88 12 2 

The bronze composed of 86 copper, 14 tin, and 2 zinc, is least porous, and 
therefore is most suitable when pressure is to be resisted. 

PARAFFINE AS A LUBRICANT.— According to a correspondent of 
the liailroad Gazette^ the Erie Railway has reduced its oiling expenses from 
^5,000 to $1,000 a year, by using paraffine on passenger car journals, and has 
reduced the number of hot journals from 535 to 332. During the winter 
months it is used without the addition of any other oil, but during the summer 
it is mixed with some other lubricant to give it body, as owing to its limpidity 
it is diflBcult to retain in the axle boxes. A lubricant of notable power for 
cooling hot journal boxes is composed of a mixture of sulphur with oil or 
grease. Used on the hot bearings of steamships, etc., it is unequalled. 

WOODS HEAVIER THAN WATER.— These are French box, Irish 
bog oak, pomegranate, vine lignumvitae, Indian cedar, ebony, mahogany, 
and heart of oak. Lignumvitae is one-third heavier than water, pomegranate 
rather more. Cork and poplar are the lightest woody products. 

A COMSTOCK LODE MINING PUMP.— The new ChoUar Potosi 
mining pump consists of double columns of 15 in. plungers. The rods with 
which these are worked are 14 x 14, each stick being of Oregon pine and 100 ft. in 
length. They are locked together and held by iron plates 10 ins. wide and 1 in. 
thick. The motive power is a compound, condensing, direct acting engine, of 
700 H. P., the initial cylinder being 10 ft. 10 ins. long, by 32 ins. diam. ; the 
expansion cylinder being 8 ft. long and 65 ins. diam. 

THE DEEP MINES OF THE WORLD.— The Yellow Jacket is the 
deepest mine on the Comstock Lode, being now (March, 1879) 2,500 ft. below 
the mouth of the main shaft, and 2,933 ft. below the Gould & Cuiry crop- 
pings, the datum line of the Comstock Mines. The highest heat known in 
these mines is, for air 154°, in a closed drift in the Crown Point Mine, and for 
water 154°, in the Savage, Hale & Norcross Mines. The Adalbert, a lead- 
silver mine, in Austria, is probably the deepest mine in the world, the perpen- 
dicular shaft being 3,280 ft. deep. The next deepest on the Continent of 
Europe is the Viviers coal mine in Belgium, 2,847 ft. deep This mine 
penetrated to a depth of 3,586 ft., but no coal being found, all below the 
2,847 ft. level has been abandoned. In England the Dunkirk Colliery, Lan- 
cashire, has been opened to a depth of 2,824 ft., and the Rosebridge Colliery, 
same locality, to a depth of 2,458 ft., these being the deepest mines in Great 
Britain. 

INSIDE SURFACE COATING TO PREVENT SCALE IN STEAM 
BOILERS — BeuUge7iback''s Process. — Gradually dissolve 5 lbs. of a mix- 
ture of 25 parts of colophonium, 2X parts graphite, and 2}/^ parts of lamp- 
black, in 40 lbs. of boiling gas-tar, adding about 1 lb. of tallow. The solution. 



PROCESSES, ETC., IN VARIOUS TRADES. 1015 

with about 50 per cent, of petroleum, is applied in a warm state. Ifc has a pun- 
gent smell, and should be put on rapidly, taking the precaution of using closed 
lanterns. Its effect is to cause the scale to come off in large flakes when picked. 

PLUMBAGO AS A LUBRICANT FOR STEAM CYLINDERS.— A 
practical engineer, in a communication to the American Machhiist, gives the 
result of his remarkable experience with dry plumbago as a lubricant for 
steam cylinders, which fully establishes its vast superiority over the oil, tal- 
low, etc., generally used for that purpose. The engine upon which the experi- 
ments were carried on was an 11 x '60 horizontal engine, with a piston speed of 
cOj ft. per minute, and was worked to its full capacity. To obtain the best 
results, the common oil-cup was exchanged for a goblet-shaped tallow-cup 
with a lid, aftsr which the piston-follower and springs were taken out and 
cleaned. Before starting the engine, one-third of an ounce of finely pulverized 
plumbago was placed in the cup. When fairly under way the valve of the 
tallow-cup was opened half way, and a little later it was opened to its utmost 
extent. The piston-rod 'became coated with the plumbago soon after starting, 
and by noon the whole had passed from tne tallow-cup into the cylmder. On 
starting up in the afternoon, one-third ounce more was placed in the cup, and 
the engine ran till six o'clock with a like result. There was no noise in the cyl- 
inder, either in the starting, running, or stopping of the engine, and after 
eighteen months' use, with the above-named quantity applied twice a day, no 
noise had been heard in the cylinder, except when the steam was shut off for 
the purpose of stopping the engine, when it would be heard during one or 
two strokes of the piston just before the engine stopped. This occurred not 
more frequently than would have taken place if tallow or oil had been used. 
Soon after beginning to use it, a portion of the plumbago would be found re- 
maining in the cup. To obviate this, about one ounce of water was poured 
into the cup. after the plumbago had been put in, when a decided improve- 
ment was observed, in that it could be fed into the cylinder as readily as oil 
or tallow. After four weeks' use, the cylinder-head was taken off, and the 
working part of the cylinder was found coated with plumbago, which could 
not be easily rubbed off with the fingers. The interior of the piston was found 
as clean as when it left the lathe, so far as dirt of any kind was concerned, and 
such was the condition at the time of writing. 

There was an absolute freedom from all choking in the steam passages. The 
gum joints, six in number, had been renewed a few days before the new lubri- 
cant was applied, and at the latest advices all were in perfect condition, show- 
ing no signs of leakage, whereas, if oils or tallow had been used, they would 
have required two renewals during that time. 

SILVER POLISH STARCH ENAMEL.— Melt 2^ lbs. of the very best 
A 1 paraffinc wax over a slow fire. When liquified, removt from the fire and 
stir in 100 drops oil of citronella. Have a lot of round new pie-tins, clean 
and nice ; place them on a level table and coat them slightly with sweet-oil, 
and pour about G tablespoonfuls of the enamel into each tin. The pan may 
be floated in water to cool the contents sufficiently to permit the mixture to 
be cut or stamped out with a tin cutter into small cakes about the size of a 
peppermint lozenge. Two of these cakes added to each pint of starch will 
cause the smoothing-iron to impart the finest possible finish to muslin or linen, 
besides perfuming the clothes in first-class style. Thousands of dollars have 
been made by manufacturers and dealers out of this one article, for, when well 
made and attractively put up in boxes, etc., the sale is great and the protit.i 
immense. 

SUPERIOR BAKING POWDER.— Take 2 lbs. best tartaric acid in crys- 
tals, 3 lbs. bi-carbonate of soda, and .3 lbs. potato starch. Each article must 
be pulverized separately and slowly dried by a gradual heat, and afterwards 
thoroughly mixed by being passed through a fine sieve. In quality this arti- 
cle has no superior, and, when attractively packed in tins, lead foil, or paper 
glazed on the outside (it must be kept free from damp), it commands a most 
profitable sale. 



1010 PROCESSES, ETC., IN VARIOUS TRADES. 

VIOLET WRITING INK.— For 2 gals., heat 3 gills of alcohol in a water 
bath ; add to the alcohol 2 ozs. of violet aniline, and stir till dissolved, then 
add the mixture to two gals, of boiling water ; mix well, and it is ready for 
use. Smaller quantities in proportion. This is the secret, from the sale of 
which, together with the products of manufacture, so many fortunes are said 
to have been made. Some parties assert that it is worth to an active man 
more than $1,000, on account of the large profits obtainable from possible 
sales. 

MANIFOLD PAPER, sometimes called copying-paper, is produced by 
mixing finely pulverized plumbago or lampblack into a putty -like paste. Pass 
the substance over tissue paper with flannel, and remove the surplus matter 
with a soft rag. In use, these sheets are alternated with black carbon paper, 
and when written on with a hard graphite pencil the product will be several 
copies of a letter with one writing, 

DUNCAN, FLOCKHART & CO.'S BJjUE-BLACK AND COPYING 
INKS. — Blue Aleppo galls (free from, insect perforations), 4}^ ozs. ; bruised 
cloves, 1 dr., cold water, 40 ozs. ,* purified sulphate of iron, 1}4, ozs., pure 
sulphuric acid (by measure), 35 minims, sulphate of indigo (in the form of a 
paste) and which should be neutral, or nearly so, 1 oz. The weights used are 
avoirdupois, and the measures apothecaries' measures. Place the galls, when 
bruised, with the cloves, in a 50 oz. bottle, pour upon them the water, and 
digest, often daily shaking for a fortnight. Then filter through paper in 
another 50 oz. bottle. Get out also the refuse of the galls, and wring out of it 
the remaining liquid through a strong clean linen or cotton cloth, into the 
filter, in order that as little as possible may be lost. Next put in the iron, 
dissolve completely, and filter through paper. Then the acid, and agitate 
briskly. Lastly the indigo, and thoroughly mix by shaking. Pass the whole 
through paper ; just filter out of one bottle into. another until the operation is - 
finished. Note. — No gum or sugar is proper and on no account must the acid 
be omitted. When intended for copying, 5X ozs. of galls is the quantity. On 
the large scale this fine ink is made by percolation. 

GLAZE FOR ROAST COFFEE.— In one patented process the roasted 
coffee is coated with a preparation composed of Irish moss, 3^ oz., gelatin, 3^ 
oz., isinglass, 3^ oz., white sugar, 1 oz., eggs, 24. The first three are boiled in 
water and the moss strained clear. Another recipe is 1 oz. French isinglass 
and 4 ozs. water, the moss mixed and molded to form. — American Grocer. 

VALUE OF FOREIGN COINS.— By a recent official statement of the 
Secretary of the U. S. Treasury, the value of f oreigu coins in U. S, money is 
rated as here shown, and the values of all foreign merchandise made out in any 
of these currencies, imported on or after Jan.'l, 1879, will be estimated on 
the following basis : 



Belgium, franc, gold and silver, 10.5 cents. 
Bolivia, dollar, gold and silver, 96.5 cents. 
Brazil, milreis of 1000 reis, gold, 54.5 cents. 
British Possessions in N. A., dollar, gold, 

Bogota, peso, gold, 96.5 cents. 

Central America, dollar, silver, 96.5 cents. 

Chili, peso, gold, 91.2 cents. 

Denmark, crown, gold, 26.8 cents. 

Ecuador, dollar, silver, 93.5 cents. 

Egypt, pound of 100 piasters, gold, $4,97.4. 

France, franc, gold and silver, 19.3 cents. 

Great Britain, pound sterling, gold, $4 86 

Greece, drachma, gold and silver, 19.3 

cents. 
German Empire, mark, gold, 23.8 cents. 
India, rupee of 16 annas, silver, 44.4 cents. 
Italy, lira, gold and silver, 19.3 cents. 



Japan, yen, gold, 99.7 cents. 
Liberia, dollar, gold, $1. 
Mexico, dollar, silver, $1,015. 
Netherlands, florin, 'gold & silver, 38.5 cents. 
Norway, crown, gold, 26.8 cents. 
Peru, dollar, silver, 93.5 cents. 
Portugal, milreis of 1000 reis, gold, $1.08. 
Russia, ruble of 100 copecks, silver, 74.8 

cents. 
Sandwich Islands, dollar, gold, $1. 
Spain, peseta of 100 centimes, silver, 19.3 

cents. 
Sweden, crown, gold, 26.8 cents. 
Switzerland, franc, gold and eilver, 19.3 

cents. 
Tripoli, mahub of 25 piasters, silvp , 84.4 

cents. 
Turkey, piaster, gold, 4.3 cents, 
U. S. of Columbia, peso, silver, 93.5 cents. 



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